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Qualitative Methods in Educational and Social Research Mohammad J. KunaDepartment of SociologyUsmanu Danfodiyo UniversitySokoto-Nigeria Qualitative Methods in Educational and Social Research Mohammad J. KunaDepartment of SociologyUsmanu Danfodiyo UniversitySokoto-Nigeria Introduction In both teaching and learning, inquiry is not only critical, but it is also indispensable.Inquiry helps establish new or re-establish old truths. In either case, it makes possible the production and reproduction of knowledge. Important though as inquiry is, teachers andstudents alike approach it with some degree of trepidation, fear, and sometimes outrighthostility. Attention may be given to the acquisition of knowledge; but there seems lessattention to how that knowledge is or would be acquired. This is quiet disturbing, particularlyin a university environment where the production of new knowledge is/ought to be a criticalcomponent of its activities. Inquiry in the humanities has a number of procedures, isembedded in certain traditions, and has a number of implications for knowledge and its production. Such inquiry is generally considered under the rubric of research methods. This paper attempts to draw attention to the significance of research methods, though its concern isnot with methods in general. Rather, it is concerned with discussing qualitative research, andthrough this to specify some of the steps that beginning qualitative researchers may take inorder to fruitfully inquire into or of phenomena in the social and human sciences.Methods of social research, of which educational methods are a subset, are techniquesfor inquiring into events or phenomena. Quite often, researchers classify inquiry intoqualitative (“soft”) and quantitative (“hard”) varieties, a distinction which not only has a longhistory, but which has also generated heated debates. In education, as in other fields, thisdistinction has generated controversies over the relevance of each variety. Be that as it may,contemporary developments across disciplines in science, social science, and the humanitieshave created a movement towards more participatory and critical forms of research that seek to either use a combination of both qualitative and quantitative (often called triangulation), or to rely wholly on naturalistic approaches to understand phenomena in context-specificsettings.This chapter discusses qualitative and naturalistic approaches to research, and itsobjectives are three-fold. First, to set out in as clearly and as simply as possible what qualitative research is. That is the task of sections 2 and 3. Second, to help beginningqualitative researchers decide when qualitative techniques may be appropriate. That is thetask of section 4. Finally, and very importantly, to set out broad guidelines on how qualitative research may be designed and conducted. That is the task of section 5. Section 6exemplifies some of these steps in order to establish contexts where qualitative research may be appropriate, and how to design a qualitative study appropriate to these contexts. Section 7concludes the chapter.At this point, let me put in a caveat: all research methods, qualitative methodsinclusive, are affected by the specific nature, goals, and focus of inquiry. Methods, asdifferentiated from methodology, are simply tools that help a researcher investigate into andcollect information about a phenomenon of interest. Human nature is complex, motives andmeanings diverse, environmental cues many. Qualitative techniques seek to understand thiscomplexity, attempt to comprehend the meanings, and interpret the variety of environmental 2 cues by observing all of them, as far as possible, in the natural settings in which they occur.There is thus no one correct recipe; at best there is a broad direction, a number of specificsteps, and plenty of advise to keep one's eyes, ears, and mind open as one embarks onqualitative research. Let us begin the journey. What is Qualitative Research? Qualitative research broadly speaking refers to “any kind of research that producesfindings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification”(Strauss and Corbin quoted in Hoepfl, 1997). More specifically, it is a research technique,method or strategy that seeks to observe , describe , and interpret activities, events, or individuals in their natural settings . As a research strategy, it enables a high degree of participant-researcher interaction, meaning that the researcher does not assume some privileged or superior position viz–a–viz participants or respondents.Qualitative research insists on the interpretation of meanings that participants bringinto a social context, and this highlights its practical nature as well as its flexibility. Its practical dimension is clear in its concern for the meanings respondents create themselves inthe course of interaction, and its flexibility is evident in its attempt not to impose on, or patronize respondents. It has no pre-determined answers, but goes to the field to seek answers, and often, to formulate new questions. While quantitative methods seek to collectdata that help make predictions, probabilistic statements and generalizations, qualitativemethods ‘ yield data on processes, how and why programmes work or fail to work, and onunintended and unanticipated outcomes of programmes’ (Fisher, Laing, Stoeckel andTownsend, 1991). Where quantitative researchers seek causal relationships anddeterminations, qualitative researchers seek instead illumination, understanding, andunderlying patterns in the mass of events that confront them.Qualitative research acknowledges the complexity and dynamism of the social world.Indeed, by its very nature, it is a strategy designed to understand and interpret this complexityand dynamism. It enables researchers to be “empathetic,” i.e., to be able to “take on therole” of the observed/research subject, and then to look for possible trends or patterns fromthese observations. Flexibility, sensitivity to research subjects and contexts, as well as good judgment is crucial in qualitative research. These affect all stages and strategies in itsconduct. Examples of qualitative research methods include unstructured interviews, focusgroup discussions (FGDs), direct observation, and content analysis.Several scholars have pointed to the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative research(Nachmias and Nachmias, 1993; Babbie, 1986). In general, qualitative research is consideredhelpful in situations where it may not be possible to conduct quantitative designs. More pointedly, however, qualitative designs are more appropriate in contexts where in-depthdescription and analysis of events or social phenomena are required, and where events areemergent or unfolding. What then are the major characteristics of qualitative research? Major Characteristics of Qualitative Research These are no hard signposts that identify qualitative research. Many of thesecharacteristics are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Generally however, qualitativeresearch share most of the characteristics listed below (Nachmias and Nachmias, 1993;Patton quoted in Hoepfl, 1997 and Barbie, 1986). 1. Natural contexts : Natural contexts are dominant sources of data. Observation,description, and interpretation of contexts “as they are” are major distinguishingelements of qualitative research. One must grasp respondents’ ‘viewpoints, to“get inside their heads’ until it is possible to ‘see their worlds as they do.’ (McNeilquoted in Adesina, 1992). 3 2. Interpretive character : The meanings events have for the individuals whoexperience them and the interpretations of those meanings are also significantdistinguishing elements of qualitative research. One of the major differences between quantitative and qualitative methods is that in an attempt for precisionand measurement, the former hardly considers the meanings and interpretations of respondents scientifically relevant. Qualitative research on the other handrecognizes that multiple realities exist in natural contexts, and that the meaningsand interpretations of those engaged in interaction are key elements in gettingaccess to these realities. 3. Searching for the unique : While other techniques of inquiry focus on what isseen from the point of view of the research as significant, qualitative researchdraws attention to the significant and the not-so-significant, to the idiosyncratic aswell as the pervasive, to the spectacular as well as the mundane. In doing this, itlooks for what makes each of these cases unique. 4. Human instrument : In qualitative research, the researcher is the ‘humaninstrument’ of data collection. Whether as complete participant or as participant – as – observer (terms explained in section 5 Step D), and whether or not other instruments are used, the researcher is the basic tool in the collection of data. 5. Descriptive research : One central feature of all research is report writing. Onemajor characteristic of qualitative research is its descriptiveness. More than anyother technique, it incorporates the views of respondents, and gives them a“voice.” 6. Emergent character : In qualitative research, the researcher focuses onemerging patterns and trends in the research, and has neither a predetermineddesign, nor outcome. 7. Trust and Entry : Qualitative research requires a certain minimum level of trust between researcher and participant. This level of trust is significant for aresearcher to be ‘acceptable’ to respondents or to gain entry into the researchtheatre. To do this, one must set out before hand how one will establish trustworthiness , and hence gain entry into the research setting. 8. Duration : How long should one spend in the field? This is a question for which there cannot be a final answer. Research focuses and goals differ; thelength of time spent in the field will be determined by how much data is sufficientto reconstruct a total and convincing picture of an event. The longer the time, thegreater the chances at getting to the real processes under observation. However, itshould be kept in mind that sometimes it is only when one is making preparationsto leave the field that one stumbles on really important information: this shouldwarn one that shorter periods may not likely yield the real picture or underlyingstructure of the events with which one is concerned. Staying longer enables theestablishment of trust, rapport, and offers the possibility of gaining good data; butstaying longer in the field also poses its own dangers, and will in any case dependon available time and resources. Quite often how long a researcher spends on thefield is a question of balance. 4 Deciding when Qualitative Research is Appropriate There are no general rules for all situations and contexts when it comes to decidingthe appropriateness of qualitative research. Two major questions to answer however are: (a)what is the focus of the research? (b) What are its goals ? Beyond these, the following may be considered: 1. Is the Study Exploratory? If the research is designed to gain a better understanding of a little known phenomenon or event, qualitative research may bean excellent beginning to gain further information. Example I: Suppose there has been an anti-tax rebellion against the government in village X, and one wants toestablish how widespread and popular that rebellion was and what are the socialand demographic characteristics of the rebels. An exploratory study like this maygain more through qualitative than quantitative methods. Example II: Suppose anew distance learning software has been introduced by the National Teacher'Institute (NTI) designed to give learners greater control over the learningenvironment. This need arose from the recognition that previous software weredifficult to manipulate, contain too many instructions, and require a much higher degree of computer literacy to operate. As a Software Development Officer, onewants to assess users’ evaluations and acceptability of the new software. Anexploratory study may be a good starting point in assessing the acceptability,effectiveness and simplicity of the new software. 2. Is the Study Descriptive? The ability of qualitative data to more fully describe a phenomenon is an important consideration not only from the researcher’s perspective, but from the reader’s perspective as well. In Example II above, onemay wish to get a detailed description of the way the new software is received. Inthis case, one may have to sample the users, and observe them while they use it,noting their reactions, comments, and so on. From these observations, rich anddetailed reports based on the participants’ experiences from using the software can be constructed. If one wants to do a descriptive study, qualitative methods willhelp do that well than any other. Or, in the case of Example I, one may wish toreconstruct how the anti-tax riot broke, which streets the procession followed, andwhat or who were the major objects of attack. If one wants to describe suchevents, the accounts of participants will be indispensable in efforts atreconstruction. 3. Looking for New Perspectives on Old Problems or In-depth Information? Qualitative research can also be used to gain new perspectives on things aboutwhich much is already known, or to gain more in-depth information that may bedifficult to obtain quantitatively. Does one want to identify variables that could beused later in quantitative studies? Or, is one confronted with contexts or eventsthat cannot be adequately accessed by quantitative methods? In the case of Example II, for instance, one may wish to ask: what personal or demographiccharacteristics do distance learners, or long distance truckers have in common?Again, these are general guides and they sometimes overlap in planning a study. Thecrucial issue one must address is the focus and goals of the research. That will provide afirmer grip on what kind of study a research will be. Deciding whether or not qualitativeresearch is appropriate is one thing; having decided that however, one must plan how exactlyto conduct the study. As we shall see, this is a broad question that includes a number of 5
