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TEMA 29: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND ARTICULATION. COHESION AND COHERENCE. ANAPHORA AND CATAPHORA. CONNECTORS. DEIXIS OUTLINE: 1.- INTRODUCTION 2.- THE DISCOURSE 3.- COHESION 3.1.GRAMMATICAL COHESION.Substitution and ellipsis Reference (anaphora, cataphora) 3.2.- LEXICAL COHESION. 3.3.- DEIXIS 3.4.- CONNECTIVES 4.- COHERENCE 5.- CONCLUSION 1.- INTRODUCTION Welcome to the world of discourse analysis, where we're about to go on a journey as exciting as Super Mario's adventures. Imagine words and sentences as the bricks and blocks that Mario encounters on his world. Cohesion and coherence connect sentences and ideas to create logical texts, making them flow smoothly as it was a Mario level. We know about Mario and Luigi, but what about anaphora and cataphora? They help us understand when words refer to something earlier or later in a sentence. It is a puzzle… and we will need connectors to join all the pieces, just like Mario need power-ups to save the princess. And what about deixis? Compare it with your game instructions. It determines the structure and interpretation of utterances in relation to the time, place, speakers and more. So, grab your controller and get ready for the adventure. 2.-DISCOURSE By discourse, we understand any written or oral text. Halliday and Hasan state in "Cohesion in English" (1976) that the word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, that forms a unified whole. A widely accepted definition of text by Beaugrande and Dressler in "Introduction to Text Linguistics" (1981) says that a text is a COMMUNICATIVE OCCURENCE which meets seven standards of TEXTUALITY. If any of these standards is not satisfied, the text will not be communicative, so it will be treated as a "non-text". These seven standards of textuality are: COHESION, COHERENCE, INTENTIONALITY, ACCEPTABILITY, INFORMATIVITY, SITUATIONALITY and INTERTEXTUALITY. They apply to all texts that possess communicative values.   COHESION deals with how clauses hold together. COHERENCE deals with how propositions hold together. *These two will be fully developed in the following sections.   INTENTIONALITY is the goal on the author's mind. It deals with why the speaker/writer produces this. ACCEPTABILITY deals with how the receiver take it. The receiver will consider a text acceptable or not based on the other six standards. *Both INTENTIONALITY and ACCEPTABILITY rely on GRICE'S COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE. --- It consists of 4 maxims we have to follow in order to be cooperative and understood: o MAXIM OF QUALITY: We have to tell the truth. o MAXIM OF QUANTITY: We have to be as informative as required, we should not say more or less. o MAXIM OF RELATION: Our response has to be relevant to the topic of discussion. o MAXIM OF MANNER: We have to avoid ambiguity. We should be direct and straightforward.  INFORMATIVITY: it deals with what the text tells us. It is classified into 3 levels. -The first one refers to predictable information and obvious facts. -The second one refers to probable and frequent information. -The third one refers to the less probable information. Unusual and infrequent, at least from the receiver's point of view.   SITUATIONALITY deals with the factors which make the text relevant to a situation. It depends on the context. For example, the word "full" can refer to a container that cannot hold more, but in a restaurant it means that there aren't available tables. INTERTEXTUALITY: it deals with what other texts resemble to this one, when one text relies on your knowledge of other texts. If the audience has some familiar background, they will have a better understanding. 3.-COHESION It plays a special role in the creation of text. Halliday states that it expresses the continuity that exists between one part of the text and another. This continuity enables the reader to supply all the components of the picture which aren't present in the text, but necessary to its interpretation. We are going to see the resources that give cohesion to a text: 3.1-GRAMMATICAL COHESION -Reference (anaphora, cataphora), Substitution and Ellipsis. REFERENCE It is a concept used to explain the process by which a word of a text can be identified with a referential of meaning. If it is in the text, we refer to anaphora and cataphora. If it is outside the text, we refer to an exophoric reference. The most common words that can express reference are:       Personal pronouns Possessives (determiners and pronouns) Relative pronouns ONE (used as the generalized human) Demonstratives Other words like HERE, THERE, THEN. EXAMPLES: -"Once upon a time there was a monster . He was always hungry." (anaphoric reference to "monster") -"When I feed him, the monster smiled." (Cataphoric reference to the monster) -In a webpage: "Oops! Something went wrong. We are working on it". (Exophoric reference of "We" to the owners of the webpage) SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS Substitution is the replacement of one item by another. Ellipsis is the omission of the item (or substitution by zero). LET'S SEE SOME EXAMPLES: "He fought against two monsters the first day, five the next" Here, there are two ellipses: five (monsters), the next (day). "Mario saves the princess to be with her, Luigi does for money/the reward" We can see how "DOES" substitutes a neutral predicate, it takes the place of "SAVES THE PRINCESS". It functions in place of an idea, not a specific word. According to Halliday, some instances of cohesive forms lie on the borderline between substitution and reference. However, substitution is a relation between linguistic items (words, phrases) and reference is a relation between meanings. That's why the SUBSTITUTION has the same structural function as the original one. For example: "I don't like the red car. This one is better." (Here we have a Nominal substitution-- "ONE" for "CAR"). 3.2-LEXICAL COHESION It embraces two aspects, reiteration and collocation.  Reiteration is the repetition of a lexical item or any synonym in the context of reference. "I saw SUPER MARIO at the game store. THE PLUMBER told me HE had a new power."  Collocation refers to the fact that a word can be in the same linguistic environment as another word. For example- We can say "HIGH BUILDING, TALL BUILDING" We also can say "TALL PERSON" but we cannot say "HIGH PERSON". Another example- "MAKE" collocates with "DINNER", but not with "THE DISHES" (it would be with "DO" -- "DO THE DISHES"). 3.3-DEIXIS DEIXIS determines the structure and interpretation of utterances in relation to: the time and place of their occurrence, the identity of the speaker and receiver and objects and events in the actual situation of utterance. The elements with this deictic value can be grammatical or lexical. FOR EXAMPLE: "Hi, there! Welcome to my channel. Today we are playing Mario Kart online again. You know that this race is very difficul..." "Hi, there!" can only be understood in relation to the place of occurrence and the identity of speaker and receiver. We understand "THERE" by the followers of the channel. The deictic reference of a language item can involve concepts as: person, place, time, discourse and social deixis.  PERSONAL DEIXIS is the one expressed with personal pronouns that help understand the people involved. In our example, "You know" (you: the audience)  PLACE DEIXIS helps understand the circumstances of the communication. The usual words are: HERE, THERE, THIS, THESE, THAT, THOSE... They can have a referential outside or inside the text. There are more words like FRONT, BACK, LEFT, RIGHT, GO.COME. "I went into the castle and the monster was at the front". WENT gives information about the movement from the speaker's point of view. FROM gives information about the position from the point of view of the speaker.  TIME DEIXIS identifies a particular time at the moment of speech, like now, today, this week, last week...  DISCOURSE DEIXIS is fulfilled by language items that refer to pieces of information in the text, such as: below, above, the following...  SOCIAL DEIXIS is applied to items used to distinguish social status. For example: "Miss", "Your honour", etc. 3.4-CONNECTIVES Connectives are items which provide indicators of the relationship between clauses. They display four main features:     logical-semantic They don't belong to sentence elements (subject, direct object) Usually in initial position or other transitional locations. They don't always have a clear propositional meaning. They exhibit multiple roles between units at different levels. Connectives can be from from different grammatical categories: - Conjunctions: but, or, and, since, because... Sentence adverbials: yet, however, consequently... Nominalized prepositions: due to, in spite of, as a result... Expressions: to sum up, from my point of view... Now, we will see the most common connectives: A. LISTING AND ADDING Adverbs like “First, next, last, finally...” or phrases such as “to begin with, to conclude...”. B. REINFORCEMENT To indicate an additional point in an argument in order to reinforce it: For example: “In any case, anyway...”. C. SUMMARY AND GENERALISATION To make a summary of something already said: “in short, to sum up...” D. EXPLANATION A point already made can be explained in three ways: - by clarifying its meaning: “that is...” - by giving more precise description: “namely” - by giving an illustration: “for example” Very often, two sentences are joined by means of a connector, which is conveying a specific meaning to that relationship. This can be done by means of: - conjunctions to coordinate two clauses. - subordinators, when one clause is dependant on the other. - sentence adverbials Let’s see an example to express contrast between two ideas: -“I like the game, but I don’t know how to play” (coordinating conjunction) -“Although I try to play it, I don’t understand the gameplay controls” (subordinating conjunction) -“I could not buy it. However, a friend lent the game to me” (sentence adverbial) There are other relationships of meaning between clauses by means of connectors: TIME-WHEN / RESULT TIME – WHEN -“He finished the game and then, he lent it to me” (coord. conj.) -“After finishing the game, he lent it to me” (subordinating conj.) -“He finished the game. Afterwards, he lent it to me” (sentence adv) RESULT -“He finished the game and therefore lent it to me” (coord. conj.) -“He finished the game so he lent it to me” (sub. Conj.) -“He finished the game. As a result, he lent it to me” (sentence adv) 4.-COHERENCE A text is coherent when all its parts hang together, when the understanding of one takes us to the next. A coherent text is closely related to its context and the process, participants and circumstances of the message. For example, we will see a cohesive text which isn’t coherent: “Hi there and welcome to my channel, which is called Super Mario Kart and will learn how the castle saves the princess.” It is connected, but the text does not have sense. As Halliday says: “At any point after the beginning, what has gone before provides the environment for what is coming next. This internal expectations have to be matched up with the expectations that the reader brings from external sources.” 5.-CONCLUSION We have finished our adventure through the world of discourse analysis. Super Mario has achieved all his power-ups like we have done with the standards of textuality. It is time to put down the controller and take a break to play another game tomorrow.