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Diffusionism in Anthropology Assignment submitted By: V. Srividya (M.Sc. Social Anthropology, Semester-III) Introduction Focusingonthethoughtthatsimilaritiesamongculturesresultedfromculturaltraits spreadingfromoneculturetoanother,diffusionismisoftenseenasareactiontothe paradigmofclassicunilinearevolutionism.Asananthropologicalthoughtitcritiquedthe evolutionisttheoreticalparadigmforbeingethnocentricinitsjudgments,forusingnostrong proofoftheclaimedevolutionarystagesofcultures,forlackingexamplesprovingtheir reconstructionsaccurate,andfortheiroverallgeneralisations.Thecriticsassertedthatthe conceptof“psychicunity”waswrongbecausetheyfoundthattherewasawiderangeof humanresponsestoonesamesituation.Theevolutionistsignoredtheprocessesofdiffusion andmigrationofculturesatlarge.Intheearlypartofthe20thcenturyseveralschoolsof thoughtemergedwhichmaintainedthatsocietalchangeoccurswhensocietiesborrow culturaltraitsfromoneanother.Thisviewwasintroducedwidelyas thetheoryof diffusionism in anthropology. Diffusionism wasanattempttounderstandthenatureofcultureintermsoftheoriginof culturetraitsandtheirspreadfromonesocietytoanother.Itreferstothetransmissionor movementofculturaltraitsorcharacteristicsbetweensocieties.Thisschoolofthought originatedinthemid-19thcenturyasameansofunderstandingthenatureofdistributionof humancultureacrosstheworld.Studyingtheseverydiverseculturescreatedthemajor issue of discerning how humans progressed from primeval conditions to superior states. Amongthemajorquestionsaboutthisissuewaswhetherhumanculturehadevolvedina mannersimilartobiologicalevolutionorwhetherculturespreadfrominnovationcentersby diffusion.Twoschoolsofthoughtemergedinresponsetothesequestions.Themost extremeviewwasthattherewereaverylimitednumberoflocations,possiblyonlyone,from whichthemostimportantculturaltraitsdiffusedtotherestoftheworld.Evolutionism,onthe otherhand,proposedthe psychicunityofmankind ,whicharguedthatallhumanbeings sharepsychologicaltraitsthatmakethemequallylikelytoinnovate.Accordingto evolutionists,innovationinaculture,wasconsideredtobecontinuousoratleasttriggered byvariablesthatarerelativelyexogenous.Thissetthefoundationfortheideathatmany inventionsoccurredindependentlyofeachotherandthatdiffusionhadlittleeffectoncultural development. Thediffusionistscriticizedtheconceptofpsychicunityofevolutionists.Theybelievedthat mostinventionshappenedjustonceandpeoplebeingcapableofimitatingoneanother, theseinventionswerethendiffusedtootherplaces.Accordingtothemallculturesoriginated atonepointandthenspreadthroughouttheworld.Theyopposedthenotionofprogress fromsimpletocomplexforms,thatwasheldbytheevolutionists.Theyalsoheldthat primitiveormodernisalsoarelativematterandhencecomparativemethodisnot applicable.Theylookedspecificallyforvariationsthatgraduallyoccurredwhilediffusiontook place. Important Schools of Diffusionism Threeschoolshavemadediffusionasthebasisoftheirformulationandstudyofcultural dynamics.Theseincludethe Britishdiffusionistschool, the German-Austrian cultural-historical school , and lastly the American school of diffusionism. ❖ TheBritishSchoolofDiffusionism :Themainproponentsofthisschoolwere G.Elliot Smith , WilliamJ.Perry and W.H.R.Rivers .Theyheldtheviewthatallculturesoriginated onlyinonepartoftheworld,thatisinEgypt,andthatitwastheculturecentreoftheworld andthecradleofcivilization(Egypto-centric).Hence,humancultureoriginatedinEgyptand thenspreadthroughouttheworld.TheypointedtothePyramidlikelargestonestructures andsunworshipinseveralpartsoftheworld.TheBritishSchoolinvolvestwotypesof thoughts - the extreme diffusionism, and the moderate diffusionism. ElliotSmith wasanAustraliananatomistandsurgeonofhighreputationwhohadgoneto Egypttopursueanatomicalstudiesonmummies.HewassoimpressedwiththeEgyptian cultureandtechnologythatheconcludedthatEgyptwasliterallythecradleofcivilization whichspreadouttotherestoftheworld.Accordingtohim,civilizationwassospeciala combinationoftraitsthatitcouldnothavebeeninventedmorethanonce.Hecontendedthat thecomplexofirrigationagriculture,sunworship,pyramids,mummification-allofwhich couldbefoundinNewWorldsocietiesintheAndesandMesoamerica-wasproofofthe greatchainofdiffusionfromEgypt.Hisemphasisonsunworshipgavethisschoolafewnew names, like - ‘ Heliocentric diffusionism ’ or ‘ Pan-Egyptian theory ’. Inessence,Smith’sschemeofthoughtrestsonfollowingdogmas(citedherefromLowie 1937:161): 1.Manisuninventive;henceculturearisesonlyinexceptionallyfavourable circumstance, practically never twice independently. 2.SuchcircumstancesexistedonlyinancientEgypt;henceelsewhereculture,except someofitssimplestelements,musthavespreadfromEgyptwiththeriseof navigation. 3.Civilizationisnaturallydilutedasitspreadstooutposts;hencedecadencehasplayed a tremendous role in human history. WilliamPerry wasaschoolheadmaster.Hisworkwaswidelyreadandwidelyfollowedby thepublic.HewasanardentsupporterofSmithandhisthoughts.Perrywasovertly impressedbythesun-templesatCairo,toanextentthathestudiedthebeliefsandpractices associatedwithsun-worshiponwhichhebasedhisbook-‘ ChildrenoftheSun ’(1923).To explaintheviewthatsomeculturesnolongerhadculturaltraitsfromEgypt,heresortedto thethoughtthatsomecultureshadsimplybecomedegraded.Thatis,incontrasttothe civilizedworld,thelesserdevelopedpeopleshadsimplyforgottentheoriginalideas borrowed from Egypt. Thistheorywasalsoknownasthe“ Extreme Diffusionisttheory”.Acomparatively‘ moderate diffusionist theory’ was given by W.H.R Rivers . Riversadoptedthediffusionistperspectivemuchlaterinhiscareer.Inoneofhisbooks,‘ The HistoryofMelanesianSociety ’(1914),Riversemployedthediffusionistperspectiveto accountforsimilaritiesandvariationsinculturalpatternsacrossregions.Heexplainedthat diffusiontookplacethroughaseriesofmigrationsbetweentheMelanesianislands,inthe processofanalysingtheOceanianculture.Heexplaineddisruptioninethnographicevidence supportingpresumedsequenceorpatternofdiffusionintermsofauxiliarymechanisms. StruckbytheabsenceofCanoesonsomeislands,RiverswasconvincedthatCanoesmust havebeenusedbythepeopleinthepast,foritwasnotpossibleforthemtohavedone withouttheminreachingthepresentarea.Later,duetothedyingoutoftheisland’scanoe makingguild,thetraitmusthavebeenlost.Theabsenceofpottery,bowandarrow,sturdy seagoingvesselswereexplainedinsimilarterms.Statedclearly,Riverssoughtthe explanationofcontrastsamongMelanesianandPolynesianculturesintermsoforiginal complexes.Heassertedthattheseoriginalculturecomplexeshadspreadbywayof successive migrations. Moreinterestingly,RiverssuggestedthatthemigrantstonativeAustraliawereonlysmall groupsofmen,technologicallysuperiorthanthatofthenatives.Beingsmallinnumber,they settleddownandmarriedthelocalwomen.Theirracialstraincouldnotfindexpressioninthe largepopulationofthenatives,andconsequently,thechildrenlosttheracialfeaturesoftheir ancestors.Duetoreasonsforcommunicationandotherculturalfactors,themenfolkgot completelyassimilatedintothelostculturetoanextentofabandoningtheirownwayoflife. They,however,didretaintheirownburialritesbecauseofexceptionalemotionalattachment totheirpracticesassociatedwiththem.Butwhythelocalpeoplegaveuptheirownburial practices in favour of alien rituals remained unexplained. Criticism :TheBritishSchoolofdiffusionwasbasedontheassumptionthatpeopleare,by andlarge,uninventiveandthatculturestendtoborrowtraitsfromotherculturesratherthan improvisethemselves.Thepossibilitythatsometraitscouldbeinventedindependentlywas completelydenied.Alsodeniedwasthepossibilityofmultiplediffusionsandsituationsof cultural convergence. Themajorweaknessofextremediffusionistswastoproposethatallinnovationsoriginated onlyonceandatoneplaceoneplace(i.e.,Egypt).MoreimportantlyevenifSmith’sand Perry’sproposalthatthebasisofdevelopmentofEgyptianculturewasagricultureandthe securityoffoodisaccepted,itbecomesdifficulttounderstandwhysimilarsequence(i.e., riseofcultureafteradoptionofagricultureasmeansofsubsistence)couldnothaveoccurred elsewhere.Theothercontentionwastheexcessivedependenceonspecificculturaltraits (ratherthanculturalcomplexes)andtheinsistenceonhistoricalcontactanddiffusionbased onvaguesimilarityintheoutwardform.Thisentailedimmensepossibilitygenerating incorrect conclusions. Herskovits(1955)explainsthatElliotSmithandPerryexemplifymuchoftheirargumenton thebasisofpyramidsinEgypt.ThestoneplatformsinPolynesiawereheldtobevestigial formsofEgyptianpyramids.Similarly,thethighboneofadeadAfricanking,(whichwas preservedbythepeopleforritualproposes)wastreatedasanexampleofdiffusionofthe Egyptianpracticeofmummification.Thisamountstostrippingacultureoftheingenuityto ascribeitsownmeaningandpurposetoitsownpractices.ItisoftensaidthatBritish diffusionistsweregiventofantasiesthatcouldnotgathersupportfromfacts.Lowie (1937:176)mentions,“Thereisnorealproblem,butashamproblemrestingonthedogma ofaboriginalun-inventiveness;anditissolvedbyinterweavingpossiblebutunder demonstrated determinants into a scheme supported not by a simple verifiable fact.” ❖ TheGerman-AustrianSchoolofDiffusionism :TheGermanschoolofdiffusionwas foundedby FriedrichRatzel .Otherproponentsincluded LeoFrobenius , FritzGraebner , and FatherWilhelmSchmidt .MuchlikeBritishdiffusionists,theGermandiffusionistsalso agreedthathumanbeingsarelargelyuninventive,andthatspreadoftraitsandtheir recombinationintonewpatternsandcombinationsledtoculturaldevelopments.The approachwastostudytheanalysisofculturecomplexesidentifiedgeographically,asthey spreadanddevelopedhistorically.Ithasbothtimeandspacedimensions.Thedimensionof spacewasexplainedintermsofculturecircles( kulturkreis )andthedimensionoftimewas explainedintermsoftheculturestrata.TheBritishdiffusionistsproposedthediffusionof traitsintheirsingularcapacity,whiletheGermansproposedthatculturecomplexesdiffused intotalitythroughactualmovementormigrationofpeople.FatherSchmidtexplainedthat duringthesemigrationspeoplesandculturescameintocontactwitheachotherandthis mutuallyinfluencedeachother.Ithasalsobeenthecauseofnewcreationsand modificationsofculture,andwhereverpositivelyestablisheditmakestheassumptionof independentoriginuntenableandsuperfluous.TheGermanperspectivecametobeknown asthe culturalhistoricalschool ,orthe culture-circleschool ,ormorecommonly,the Historical Ethnology . ItistobenotedthattheGermandiffusionistsascribedsimilaritiesbetweencultures, especiallythosewhichwereseparatedfromeachotherbylongdistances,tohistorical contacttillsuchtimeasabsenceofsuchacontactwasconclusivelyproven.Thismeansthat unlessabsenceofhistoricalcontactwasfirmlyestablished,theyassumedthatmigration leadingtodiffusionhadtakenplacebetweenculturesthatexhibitedsimilarities.Theydidnot taketheseparated-nessbetweensuchculturesintoaccountinprovingordisprovingcontact. Thus,evenamongwidelyseparatedcultures,amongwhichitmaybedifficultforanyoneto acceptthatmigrationhadoccurredsometimeinhistory,thatdisplayedsimilarity,diffusion was believed to have occurred. HistoricalContact(conceptgivenbyGermanDiffusionists) : Thechiefconcernof Germandiffusionistswastodetermineconnectionsandrelationshipsamongcultures.That wastheonlywaythroughwhichtheycouldconclusivelyestablishdiffusionbetweenthem. Theyacceptedthatthereweretwokindsofsimilarities:onebasedon functionalreasons (e.g.,spearsmusthavesharppointsfailingwhichtheywouldnotbeusefulforhunting);and secondbasedon historicalcontact(e.g.,presenceoftheelementsofmatrilinealdescentin twocultures).ThetaskthenwastodistinguishbetweenthemtowhichtheGerman diffusionists laid down two specific criteria: 1. Criterion of Form or Criterion of Quality 2. Criterion of Quantity The criterionofform (referredtoas‘criteriaofquality’bySchmidt,andas‘criteriaofform’ byGraebner)wasproposedbyFriedrichRatzel.Heappliedthiscriterionoffromthestudyof culturetraitsinMongoliaandAfrica.Hefocusedonspecificsimilaritiessuchascross-section ofthebow-shaft,mechanismoffasteningofthebow-strings,materialfromwhichtheyare made,andthewayfeathersareattachedtothearrowsusedinWestAfricaandinOceania. Hearguedthatthesefeatureshadnothingtodowiththefunctionofthebowandarrow.This couldbeindisputablyestablishedbecausethebowandarrowcouldbeusedeffectivelyeven intheirabsence.Similarityinthesefeatures,therefore,confirmshistoricalcontactbetween West Africa and Oceania. Similarly,heconcludedthatMongolianshaveadoptedthelotusflowerasasymbolof BuddhismfromIndia.Overaperiodofthetime,thelotusflowerbecameaninseparablepart oftheMongolianculture.Inthesamevein,thebowandarrowinAfricawasborrowedfrom Indonesia.Ratzelsaidthatculturetraitsmaybecomesimplifiedorcomplicatedinthecourse
