Electronics Projects Volume 15.bak

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Electronics Projects Vol. 15 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS VOL. 15 EFY Enterprises Pvt Ltd D-87/1 Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-1 New Delhi 110020 © EFY Enterprises Pvt Ltd. First Published in this Edition, January 2003 Reprinted in November 2000 Reprinted in April 2003, February 2007 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publishers. ISBN 81- 88152 -08 -0 Published by Ramesh Chopra for EFY Enterprises Pvt Ltd, D-87/1, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase I, New Delhi 110020. Typeset at EFY Enterprises Pvt Ltd and Printed at J.K Offset, C-21, DDA Shed, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-1, New Delhi 110020 FOREWORD This volume of Electronics Projects is the thirteenth in the series published by EFY Enterprises Pvt Ltd. It is a compilation of 23 construction projects and 77 circuit ideas published in ‘Electronics For You’ magazine during 1994. In keeping with the past trend, all modifications, corrections and additions sent by the readers, have been included with each project, along with the replies and amendments, if any, proposed/suggested by the authors themseleves. It is a sincere endeavour on our part to make each project as error-free and comprehensive as possible. However, responsibility cannot be taken if readers are unable to make a circuit successfully, for whatever reason. This collection of a large number of tested circuit ideas and construction projects in a handy volume would provide all classes of electronics enthusiasts—be they students, teachers, hobbyists or professionals—with a valuable source of electronic circuits, which can be fabricated using readily-available and reasonably-priced components. These circuits could either be used independently or in combination with other circuits, described in this and other volumes. We are sure that this volume, like its predecessors, will generate tremendous interest among its readers. EFY Books & Publications FOR YOU EFY is a reputed information house, specialising in electronics and information technology magazines. It also publishes directories and books on several topics. Its current publications are: (A) CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS 1. Electronics Projects, Vol. 1: A compilation of selected construction projects and circuit ideas published in Electronics For You magazines during 1979 and 1980. 2. Electronics Projects, Vol. 2 to 19 (English version): Yearly compilations (1981 to 1998) of interesting and useful construction projects and circuit ideas published in Electronics For You. 3. Electronics Projects, Vol. 20, 21 and 22 (with CD): Yearly compilations (1999 to 2001). 4. Electronics Projects, Vol. 16 (fgUnh laLdj.k): Yearly compilations (1995) of interesting and useful construction projects and circuit ideas published in Electronics For You. (B) OTHER BOOKS 1. Learn to Use Microprocessors (with floppy): By K. Padmanabhan and S. Ananthi (fourth enlarged edition). An EFY publication with floppy disk. Extremely useful for the study of 8-bit processors at minimum expense. 2. ABC of Amateur Radio and Citizen Band: Authored by Rajesh Verma, VU2RVM, it deals exhaustively with the subject—giving a lot of practical information, besides theory. 3. Batteries: By D.Venkatasubbiah. Describes the ins and outs of almost all types of batteries used in electronic appliances. (C) DIRECTORIES 1. EFY Annual Guide: Includes Directory of Indian manufacturing and distributing units, Buyers’ Guide and Index of Brand Names, plus lots of other useful information. 2. ‘i.t.’ Directory: First comprehensive directory on IT industry covering hardware, software, telecom, dotcom and training institues. 3. Technical Educational Directory: Includes course-wise and state/city-wise listings of technical educational institutes in India, besides the alphabetical main directory offering all the relevant information about them. Rs 120 Rs 120 (each) Rs 150 (each) Rs 95 Rs 180 Rs 75 Rs 60 Rs 300 (with CD) Rs 250 (with CD) Rs 100 (D) MAGAZINES 1. Electronics For You (EFY): In regular publication since 1969, EFY is the natural choice for the entire Rs 60 (with CD) electronics fraternity, be it the businessmen, industry professionals or hobbyists. From microcontrollers to Rs 35 (without CD) DVD players, from PCB designing software to UPS systems, all are covered every month in EFY. 2. Linux For You (LFY): Asia’s first magazine on Linux. Completely dedicated to the Open Source community. Rs 100 (with CD) Regular columns by Open Source evangelists. With columns focused for newbies, power users and developers, LFY is religiously read by IT implementers and CXOs every month. 3. ‘i.t.’ (Information Technology): A monthly magazine for ‘Techies’ and those who want to be. Its readers have Rs 30 two things in common—a background related to IT and the thirst to know more. Topics covered boast technical depth and aim to assist in better usage of IT in organisations. 4. Facts For You: A monthly magazine on business and economic affairs. It aims to update the top decision makers Rs 50 on key industry trends through its regular assortment of Market Surveys and other important information. 5. ePower: Published every alternate month for the electronic-power industry, primarily consists of all electronic Rs 50 power-supply equipment, and their related components and services. A must read for those in this industry and those catering to it. 6. BenefIT: A technology magazine for businessmen explaining how they can benefit from IT. 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For retail orders: Magazines (Monthly) 1 Year Rs 2 Years Rs 3 Years Rs 5 Years Rs Electronics For You (with CD) Electronics For You (without CD) 500 335 920 630 1,290 880 1,800 1,260 Information Technology 300 575 810 1,255 Linux For You (with CD) 725 1,395 1,950 3,000 ePower (bi-monthly) 180 360 540 900 Facts For You 400 700 1,000 1,600 BenefIT 190 360 — — For magazine subscriptions: For bulk orders: Kits‘n’Spares EFY Enterprises Pvt Ltd Paramount Book Agency D-88/5, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-1, New Delhi 110020 Phone: 26371661, 26371662 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.kitsnspares.com D-87/1 Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-1 New Delhi 110020 Phone: 26810601-03 Fax: (011) 26817563 E-mail: [email protected] Arch No. 30 (West Approach) Mahalaxmi, Mumbai 400034 Phone: (022) 24925651, 24927383 Fax: 24950392 E-mail: [email protected] CONTENTS Section A: Construction Projects 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. A Versatile Receiver for DXers ................................................................................. 3 Gongs and Alarm for CMOS LED Dial Clock .......................................................... 8 Hi-Fi Stereo Cassette Deck ........................................................................................ 12 Digital Chess Clock ................................................................................................... 20 Cordless Security System .......................................................................................... 24 Microprocessor-Based Capacitance and Resistance Measurement Meter ................ 27 BFO for Receiving SSB Signals ................................................................................ 30 Safety Indicators and Aids ......................................................................................... 33 Portable SMD Soldering Station ............................................................................... 37 Digital Controller for Outdoor Lights ....................................................................... 40 VOX for Ham Rigs .................................................................................................... 43 Steady Hand Game ..................................................................................................... 46 Teleconversation Limiter ........................................................................................... 49 Programmable Number Lock ..................................................................................... 52 Humidity Controller ................................................................................................... 57 Doorbell-Cum-Security Alarm .................................................................................. 59 Improved Three-Phase Power Supply Card .............................................................. 65 Solidstate Advertisement Display .............................................................................. 67 Auto-Changing In/Out Indicator With Door-Bell ..................................................... 70 Telex-Computer Changeover Switch ......................................................................... 73 60W Active Amplifier System ................................................................................... 76 Impedance Meter ........................................................................................................ 80 Interruption Counter cum Burglar Alarm .................................................................. 86 Section B: Circuit Ideas: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Digital Even and Odd Parity Checker/Generator ...................................................... 94 SW Booster For DXers .............................................................................................. 95 Intercom for Your Home ............................................................................................ 95 Slave Switch ............................................................................................................... 96 Morse Interpulse Time Period Counter ..................................................................... 97 Amplifier Taciturner .................................................................................................. 98 Remote Audio Level Indicator ................................................................................... 99 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. Simple Karaoke Circuit ............................................................................................. 99 Transistorised ‘Walkman’ Radio Player .................................................................... 100 Safety Circuit for Instant Water Heater ..................................................................... 101 Long Duration Sequential Timer With IC MM5387 ................................................. 102 Telephone Silencer ..................................................................................................... 104 Control Circuit For In/Out Counter ........................................................................... 105 Low-Cost Pulse Generator ......................................................................................... 106 Top-Secret Code Lock ............................................................................................... 107 Accurate Frequency-to-Voltage Converter ................................................................ 108 Rolling Electronic Dice ............................................................................................. 109 Gradually Turning-Off Courtesy Light ...................................................................... 110 Digital On-Off Timer ................................................................................................. 111 Rain-Operated Wiper ................................................................................................. 113 Programmable 100-Day Timer .................................................................................. 113 Phase Sequence Detector cum Single-Phase Protector ............................................. 114 Multichannel Touch Switch ....................................................................................... 115 Two-In-One Switch Circuit ....................................................................................... 116 Stereo Audio Level Indicator ..................................................................................... 117 Keyboard With Strobe Signal .................................................................................... 118 Hybrid Audio Output Amplifier ................................................................................ 119 Sawtooth Wave Generator ......................................................................................... 119 Multichannnel Water Level Monitor-cum-Controller ............................................... 120 Programmable 100-hour Timer .................................................................................. 121 -30 to +30V Regulated Power Supply ....................................................................... 123 SCR/Triac Tester cum Distinguisher ......................................................................... 124 Thermometer Add-on to Multimeter ......................................................................... 125 Listening Bug ............................................................................................................. 126 Telephone Tapping/Misuse Indicator ......................................................................... 126 Electronic Calling System ......................................................................................... 127 Hen Sound Emulator .................................................................................................. 129 Phone Line Monitor ................................................................................................... 129 Improved Pest Repeller .............................................................................................. 130 Logic Level Detector cum Continuity Tester ............................................................ 131 Flora Caretaker ........................................................................................................... 131 Electronic Candle ....................................................................................................... 132 Motor Protector And Water Level Indicator .............................................................. 133 360W Hi-Fi Stereo Power Amplifier ......................................................................... 133 Regulated Power supply With Short-Circuit Protection ........................................... 134 Musical Greeting Cards ............................................................................................. 135 Temperature Controlled Fan ...................................................................................... 136 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. Line Synchronised Oscillator .................................................................................... 138 Electronic Fuse ........................................................................................................... 138 Polarity Tester ............................................................................................................ 139 Low-Cost 4- to 16-line Decoder ................................................................................ 140 Automatic Volume Control ........................................................................................ 141 Musical Continuity Tester .......................................................................................... 141 Hi-Q Stereo Mixer ..................................................................................................... 142 1Hz Master Oscillator ................................................................................................ 143 Super Simple Timer ................................................................................................... 143 Stereo Disconnector With Timer ............................................................................... 144 Frequency Filter for Playing Old Records................................................................. 145 Static Starter ............................................................................................................... 146 Headphone Adaptor for Hi-Fi Stereo ......................................................................... 146 Linear Bulb Light Controller ..................................................................................... 147 Electronic Automobile Horn ...................................................................................... 148 Call Bell For The Impatient ....................................................................................... 149 0-10V Amplifier ......................................................................................................... 149 A Sensitive Touch Switch .......................................................................................... 150 Remote TV Tester ...................................................................................................... 151 pH Meter .................................................................................................................... 152 Cordless Intercom ...................................................................................................... 152 A Simple Battery Charger .......................................................................................... 154 Temperature Sensor for Power Amplifiers ................................................................ 155 Telephone Monitor ..................................................................................................... 156 A Binary Frequency Meter ........................................................................................ 157 Caretaker For Home Appliances ................................................................................ 158 40W +40W Auto-Reverse Stereo Cassette Player ..................................................... 160 Remote TV Headphones ............................................................................................ 161 Infrared Remote Control Tester ................................................................................. 162 Soft Radio/Cassette Selector ...................................................................................... 163 SECTION A: CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS A VERSATILE RECEIVER FOR DXERS KANG K.P.S. D espite the increasing Ham fraternity in India, commercial Ham equipment is still a dream for an average amateur radio enthusiast. And truly, it seems beyond the reach of an average zealot to purchase such sophisticated commercial equipment, specially the high-grade receivers. This is why several enthusiasts give up the hobby soon after getting their licences. Here is a simple and versatile, lowcost receiver design for such readers. It can be built in a few spare evenings with the minimum of effort and expenditure. The receiver can be modified easily for other bands (right through top band to 2-metre). It can be used with your existing transmitter or as a stand alone receiver for your shack. The receiver, despite being low-cost, is very dynamic and certainly beats the commercial black-boxes, costing more than ten times. A DC (direct-conversion) design has been selected for its low cost and dynamic operation, with easy assembling and requirement of minimum alignment. Low-cost and easily-available components have been selected. Philips NE602 has been selected for its balanced operation for good AM suppression, excellent IMD and very low noise. Further, the chip in its 8-pin DIL package has an on-chip oscillator/buffer— another plus point over the other chips, such as 3039, 3028 and 1496. The operation of the receiver is very simple, as shown in the block diagram.The input signal is first amplified in RF preselector stage and is ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 fed to a mixer, where it is mixed with source configuration, providing a gain the local oscillator frequency of almost of approximately 12 dB. 2N3823 has the same frequency. The resultant out- been selected for its low noise and high put, which is AF, is amplified for the transductance. But BFW10 can be subdesired power to drive a loudspeaker stituted in case of its nonavailability, or a headphone set. An AF narrow- compromising a little on the overall band filter can be introduced between performance. Common-source configuration has the mixer and the AF amplifier, since such designs lack selectivity. Other- been used for little loading of the input wise, the output would span over al- tank circuit and excellent gain. Bipolar most the entire AF spectrum, which stages have been tested in the protocan be detrimental, specially when one type, but these tend to be rather unthreads a weak CW out from a crowded stable and nonlinear. FET in this stage also helps better IMD, an important band. The design is also popularly known factor for any serious DXer. Both input and output are tuned for as a ‘homodyne’, since it is a heterodyne, with the same injection frequency good front-end selectivity and spurious rejection. A 50-ohm antenna termiand zero IF. As the overall sensitivity depends nation has been provided, using a link upon AF gain, it is quite easy to achieve tapping on coil L1 for proper impeda good sensitivity and a low noise fig- ance matching. Good results can be obtained with ure with a dexterous design. But adding too much gain will be troublesome properly tuned preselector stage on and a microphonic effect will result. 160M, 80M, 40M and 20M bands. But This is because tiny currents will be above these frequencies, a preselector produced during vibrations and these stage often creates a problem. So, current changes will be amplified by above these frequencies, it could be high-gain AF amplifier, producing a left out—using a tuned circuit directly at the input of IC1, with an impedance howling sound. The aimed performance has been derived from the circuit, which comprises three integrated circuits and two field effect transistors (FETs). The preselector is designed around Tl, an FET. It operates in common Fig.1: Block diagram of the receiver. 3 18 turns + 4 turns Fig.2: Circuit diagram of the receiver. 4 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 3: Actual-size PCB layout of the receiver. transformation ratio of about 1: 3.5 for connecting a dipole antenna. The 8-pin chip (IC1) has an onchip oscillator, two cross-wired differentials as double balanced mixer, and a buffer for oscillator. The chip works with a 6.2V supply, which is obtained using zener diode Dl at its pin 8. The input is given at pins 1 and 2 with a suitable impedance transformation by coil L2. Capacitors C6 to C11, together with coil LX form the tank circuit for the oscillator, which operates in the Collpitt configuration. Plug-in band-changing has been employed in the prototype for its ease in assembly and operation. Coil LX is actually a plug-in inductor which can be changed for 20- and 40-metre bands. It works very well with the given component values. The receiver can be used for other bands (almost any band from 60- metre to 2-metre), simply by modifying the oscillator tank circuit, comprising capacitors C6 to Cll and coil LX. The on-chip oscillator is tolerably stable, provided a sturdy wiring is used in the oscillator tank circuit. The output (AF) is taken from pins 4 and 5 of the IC through a transistor-type driver transformer, commonly available in the local market. Suitable value for capacitor Cl2 can be found by experimenting. It shorts out any trace of RF components at the output and also peaking X1’s primary for certain frequency around 700 Hz, aiding in CW DXing. Any value between 0.001 and 0.47μF will do. A low-noise preamplifier stage follows the mixer, designed around tran- Fig.4: Component layout of the PCB shown in Fig. 3. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 5 Fig. 5: Power supply arrangement for the receiver. PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 IC2 (a,b) IC3 T1 T2 D1 –– –– –– –– –– –– NE602 buffer/oscillator TL072 LM386N 2N3823/BFW10 BFW10 6.2V zener Resistors (all 1/4watt, +5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1 –– 220-ohm R2 –– 470-ohm R3 –– 180-ohm R4 –– 1.2-kilohm R5 –– 22-ohm R6 –– 15-kilohm R7 –– 18-kilohm R8 –– 27-kilohm R9, R13 –– 680-kilohm R10, R14 –– 24-kilohm R11, R15 –– 33-kilohm R12, R16 –– 1.8-megohm R17 –– 100-ohm R18 –– 100-kilohm R19 –– 2.2-ohm R20 –– 4.7-ohm VR1 –– 100-kilohm (log) Capacitors: C1 (A,B) C2 C3,C5 C4 C6,C7,C10 C8 –– –– –– –– –– –– 2J gang (variable) 0.02μF ceramic disc 0.047μF ceramic disc 22μF, 12V electrolytic 100pF polyester 0.01μF polyester C9 C11 C12 –– –– –– C13,C20,C23 C14,C16,C18 C15 C19 C21 C22 C24 C25 C26,C27 –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– Miscellaneous: X1 –– L1 –– L2 –– LX S1 –– –– –– –– –– 10-100pF air trimmer 50pF air variable (0.001μ to 0.47μF) ceramic disc 0.47μF ceramic disc 0.001μF, polyester 47μF, 16V electrolytic 100μF, 16V electrolytic 470μF, 16V electrolytic 220nF ceramic disc 1000pF ceramic disc 220nF, 16V electrolytic 10μF, 16V electrolytic Driver transformer with 1.5k: 1.5k impedance ratio 2J type SW antenna coil with 24 SWG, 4 turns link for antenna winding 22 turns of 24 SWG tapped 4 turns from lower end primary and 8 turns secondary on PVC 1.27 cms air core tube (see text) SPST toggle switch 4.8cms x 8-ohm loudspeaker Ribbon cable Suitable cabinet sistor T2, with about another 15 dB elevation to AF signals. Resistors R5 to R8 set the biasing of FET for linear ‘Q’ point and capacitor C27 bypasses the source for optimum gain. Since the bandwidth of the receiver at this stage is quite wide and spans almost the full AF range, the signal is Readers’ Comments: Thank you very much for publishing such a good article on ‘A Versatile Receiver For DXers’. Kindly clarify the following: 1. The author has used IC NE602, a double balanced mixer. In its place can IC NE612 be used? The pin configurations for both the ICs are same, but the latter contains an inter- nal amplifier. 2. The Value of RFC is not clear. At 12 volts how much current should be provided? 3. The data of L2 is not given clearly. Secondly, 50pF tuning capacitor is not available. 4. Can varactor diodes not be used for tuning? 5. Can T2 be dispensed with, as 6 made to rove through a 2-pole, narrow-band AF filter, wired around lownoise op-amp TL072. Switch Sl provides a choice of selecting a single pole or two, depending on the type of work—AM/ SSB or CW, respectively. The overall circuit provides good filter characteristics at reasonable cost and helps to reduce the detrimental QRM during CW DXing on crowded bands. LM386N is the useful amplifier with just about 30 dB of gain at good signalto-noise ratio—an elegant addition to the circuit, which provides sufficient gain to drive a speaker. Capacitor C22 and resistor R19 form a high-pass filter for supersonics to avoid instability. Coil LX may be wound on a commonly available 11mm Alladin former. The winding will have 13 turns of 28 SWG for 40-metre band, while 20metre band can be worked with 7 turns of 28 SWG. The cores of coils can be adjusted for proper band limits and sealed with Bee-wax. A plug-in arrangement of band changing has been used for ease and reduced complexity. The coil, with its base, is positioned near the right of the back. Both the coils provide sufficient overlappings near both band-ends. The receiver is designed for 12-volt battery operation, but it can be used with almost any well-regulated power supply. Two RFCs of about 40 MHz or more need be placed in both supply lines, as shown in Fig.3. Otherwise, a poignant hum will result. An indoor or long-wire outdoor antenna will give good results, but a dipole will certainly enhance the performance of the receiver. Although the unit is quite simple in design, extremely good results can be obtained, if it is used skilfully. The prototype was able to receive 1-microvolt input signal from Marconi PM 2952 radiotelephone test set (G-land made).  FETs are costly, costing at least Rs40 to 50 per piece? 6. Output from IC1 can be taken either from pin 4 or 5 and not both. I.S. Rathod Junagadh  In the article the author says that the given preselector cannot be used above twenty metre range. I think the problem is due to the use of FET BFW10. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 In international data books, the frequency range of BFW10 is given as below 20 MHz. Therefore, for VHF operation, BFW10 in the preselector must be replaced by MPF 102 or a similar VHF FET. Use of BFW10 at 2 metre range is wrong. Also, at 2 metres, frequency modulation (FM) is used and not AM.  Is IC NE612 equivalent to IC NE602? IC NE602 contains voltage regulator stage internally. What is the need, therefore, of connecting an external 6V zener diode in the circuit? I think a current limiting resistor should be sufficient. Wherefrom can the IC NE612 be obtained? Pradeep G. Kerala  With reference to the circuit ‘A Versatile Receiver For DXers’, I would like to know how it can be converted into a transreceiver? The author is also requested to clarify whether the circuit idea ‘SW Booster for DXers’ by Mr Pradeep G., published on page 102 in this book, can be incor- ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 porated in the circuit. Ginish K. Varghese Kerala The author, Mr K.P.S. Kang, replies: I, first of all, thank all the readers for their valuable feedback and am pleased to note their interest in the article. The given circuit is a simple direct conversion receiver. IC NE612 is a good alternative and can be substituted for NE602. While using IC NE612, connect a 27k resistor from pin 7 to ground. The value of RFCs is in millihenry and the circuit draws about 350mA at 12V. All the formers’ diameter are given. The 50pF capacitors are easily available in Delhi. However in case of nonavailability, there are two alternatives: (1) Pick a standard variable capacitor and count its vanes (moving plates). Divide the total capacitance value by the number of plates, so as to get capacity per plate. By this method, you can remove any number of plates to get the desired capacitance. (2) Use a 47pF capacitor in series with the standard variable capacitor. I never recommend the use of varactors in HF circuits. FETs are available at fairly cheap prices. Also, FETs are specially selected for their low noise and very high input impedances. IC NE602 in this arrangement is used in balanced configuration, so both tails of mixer are used for output. This provides maximum AM rejection. A preselector often causes trouble at 20 metres and neighbouring bands with a lot of QRN. So, it is better not to use a preselector stage in these bands. SW booster circuit need not be used with the project, as it is provided on board itself (constituted around T1). The sensitivity of the receiver is sufficient for serious DX experimentation. The project can be converted into a full-fledged transreceiver by inclusion of a transmitter with the receiver. 7 GONGS AND ALARM FOR CMOS LED DIAL CLOCK AMRIT BIR TIWANA An hourly gong, a regular alarm, a calendar, a day indicator and an AMPM indicator—these are just a few of the facilities, described here, that can be added to EFY’s basic CMOS LED dial clock. T his article describes the functional and constructional details of several features, such as an hourly pendulum gong, a regular alarm, a digital calendar, a day indicator, and an AM-PM indicator, which can be added to the basic CMOS dial clock, published in EFY, May 1990 issue. These will enhance the clock’s utility to the maximum. All the circuits are built around easily available CMOS chips. This helps to keep the current consumption low, maintain a wide supply voltage limit, economise the design and simultaneously obtain the maximum reliability. A complete power supply, along with a battery backup facility, has also been included to adapt the clock for mains operation. The circuits can, in fact, be interfaced with any of the dial clock projects, published in EFY after slight alterations. The block diagram of the composite clock is shown in Fig. 1. The hourly gong The feature of the hourly gong, which was until now found only in the old mechanical clocks, can be added Fig. 1. Block schematic of the composite dial clock. 8 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 When the alarm sounds, it may either be disabled manually through S3 or it will automatically reset itself after five minutes. Calendar The circuit for an add-on alarm is given in Fig. 3. The alarm time can be set, using the miniature 12-way switches—Sl for hours and S2 for minutes (minimum 5). S3 is used to enable or disable the alarm. The calendar comprises a day and a date display. The display circuit is shown in Fig. 4 and the date display circuit in Fig. 5. The day display uses the CMOS octal counter CD4022BE, which is wired to count up to seven. The IC directly drives the LEDs that display the day. The 1-ppd input is fed to clock input of the IC, which counts up to seven pulses and resets on the eighth. Switch Sl is used to set the days and the NAND gate is used to prevent debouncing. The date display uses two CMOS CD4033BE counters, which are used to both count and drive the displays. The carry output of the first counter is fed to the clock input of the next. The circuit uses a CMOS timer 7555 in astable mode, which is enabled when pin 4 is at logic 1. Gate Nl is used to multiplex the signals from the ‘time set’ switches. The reset terminal of IC 7555 goes high when the time displayed on the dial is the same as that preset. The alarm time may also be hard-wired. The total number of pulses that can be counted are 99. The circuit needs to be reset after the end of each month, using switch S5. The initial setting is done through switch S6. The reset function can be made automatic by the implementation of multi-input NAND gates, such as 4011,4023 or 4068. Fig.2: The hourly gong for the dial clock quite easily to the dial clock as well. The circuit given in Fig. 2 produces the sound of a huge hammer hitting a brass gong, which is made highly realistic by the effective utilisation of the ADSR envelope effect. The circuit is based on a CMOS LSI chip. The 1-pph (pulse per hour) Alarm Fig.3: The alarm circuit. output is fed to the enable input of the IC through the level dropper, comprising the 10k resistor and the 4.7μF capacitor. The output signal is amplified by Tl, which drives the loudspeaker. The number of times the ‘gong’ strikes corresponds to the time—for example, ten gongs at 10 o’clock and eleven at 11 o’clock. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 9 AM-PM indicator The AM-PM indicator, which is given in Fig. 6, is based on the CMOS CD4017BE counter that is wired as a simple flip-flop. The circuit provides AM-PM indication and simultaneously provides the 1-ppd output. The indication is provided through two LEDs. IC CD4017 can easily be substituted with dual flip-flop ICs, such as CD4013 or CD4027. Seconds flasher Fig. 4: The day indicator circuit. The seconds flasher, or the PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 — IC2 (N1-N4), IC7 (N5,N6) — IC3 — IC4 — IC5,IC6 — IC8 IC9 (N7, N8) IC10 Tl Dl D2-D5 D6 blinking/activity indicator, as it is commonly known, can also be added to the clock. As a IHz pulse source is not available in the clock, an external oscillator is used. The circuit is built around the unused gate of CD4093 IC. VR1 should be adjusted to make the LED flash at a frequency of 1 Hz. Fig 6: The AM-PM indicator cum 1-ppd oscillator. Fig.7: The seconds flasher circuit. 10 Power supply Although CMOS chips can work off supply voltages between 3 and 15 volts, a stable and regulated power supply (9V) should be used to maintain timing stability and display brightness. A suitable circuit is given in Fig. 8. The circuit is provided with an in-built battery back-up in CD4093 NAND 7555 timer CD4022 counter/divider CD4033, 7-segment display driver CD4017 decade counter CD40106 μA7809 regulator BC157 pnp transistor 3.1V, 250mW zener 1N4001 rectifier diode 1N4002 rectifier diode Resistors (all 1/4watt, +5% carbon, unless stated otherwise) : R1,R5,R24 — 10-kilohm R2 — 220-ohm R3,R6,RR23,R25 — 1-kilohm R4 — 100-kilohm R7 — 150-kilohm R8 — 12-kilohm R26 — 68-kilohm R27 — 680-ohm VR1 — 22-kilohm (preset) Capacitors: Cl C2 C3,C5 C4 C6,C8 C7 C9 C10 Fig.5: Circuit diagram for the date display. — — — — — — — CD45273 — — — — — — — — 4.7μF, 16V electrolytic 47pF ceramic disc 220μF, 16V electrolytic 0.01μF ceramic disc l0μF, 16V electrolytic lμF, 16V electrolytic 1000μF,250V electrolytic 0.1μF ceramic disc Miscellaneous: X1 — 230VAC primary to 0-12V, 250 mA secondary transformer S1,S2 — 1-pole, 10-way rotary switch S3 — On-off switch S4- S6 — Push-to-on reset switch Dis.1, Dis.2 — FND543 common cathode display — 9V battery — 8-ohm, 0.5W loudspeaker — Green and red LEDs — General-purpose PCB order to maintain the counter status, even in the event of power failure. The circuit, which basically comprises a full-wave rectifier, followed by singlechip regulator μA7809, is fully selfexplanatory. Construction The circuits may be made on a general-purpose PCB of suitable size. Extreme care should be taken while soldering the ICs, as most of these are of the CMOS type. The use of sockets is recommended. A 10-watt iron with 60/40 type solder may be ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig 8: Power supply for the circuits. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 used for soldering. The assembled circuits can be fixed behind the main board, using 6mm spacers. The LED indicators can be accommodated on the main panel board itself. The circuits given here are actually independent, and only the ones required need to be constructed, except for Fig. 6, which is required wherever the 1ppd pulses are required. The NAND gates can easily be interchanged to facilitate easy interwiring.  11 HI-FI STEREO CASSETTE DECK T.S. SHANKAR A hi-fi system is a complete audio system, with a combination of hi-fi stereo cassette deck, hi-fi stereo integrated amplifier, hi-fi speaker systems, stereo tuner, stereo-turntable and compact disc-player. My earlier article on stereo integrated amplifier forms the heart of a hi-fi system. To make a complete hi-fi system, stereo tuner and a cassette deck are also required—the remaining two, namely, stereo turntable and compact disc player are beyond the scope of this construction project. In this article, I present a complete stereo cassette deck, to be used in conjunction with the hi-fi stereo integrated amplifier, for making a complete audio system. Features Special features of this project are: hi-fi recording and playback on nor- mal as well as chromium dioxide (CrO2) and metal tapes; recording level control and automatic level control; mic. and aux. inputs with mic. mixing control; remote muting and standby controls. The circuit uses AC bias at 100 kHz for recording and erasing. It provides requisite networks for properly biasing normal chromium (dioxide) and metal tapes in recording as well as playback modes, with correct amplitude and frequency emphasis. A visual indication of the record-level is provided with ten segment resolutions, per channel. The circuit Fig.l shows the block diagram of the circuit. The heart of the circuit is the equalisation amplifier, which has equalisation networks corresponding to the type of tape used, in its feedback loop. The equalisation amplifier gets its input from low-level preamplifier, intended to amplify low-level signals from magnetic head, mic. or aux. inputs. The output of the equalisation amplifier is made to drive the peak level indicator, ALC (automatic level control) circuitry and recording circuitry simultaneously. The same output is taken as line output through the muting circuit. For recording purposes, the record bias is generated by bias oscillator circuit, which can bias normal, chromium or metal tapes. 12-volt regulated supply is provided to various blocks of the circuit. Characteristics of tapes The frequency characteristics of the three types of tapes are different and so are their bias levels. The normal (Fe2O3) tapes are characterised as type I tapes Fig. 1: Block diagram for the HI-FI stereo deck 12 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the HI-FI stereo deck ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 13 Fig. 3: PCB layout for the HI-FI stereo deck. 14 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 4: Component layout for the HI-FI stereo deck. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 15 and have an equalisation time of 120 μs. These tapes can handle frequencies up to 15 kHz. The chrome (CrO2) tapes are called type II tapes and have an equalisation time of 70 μs. These tapes can handle frequencies up to 16 kHz. The metal tapes or metal alloy tapes are called type III tapes and have an equalisation time of 70 μs, these being capable of handling frequencies up to 17 kHz. Circuit diagram The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 2. Low-noise op-amps LA3161 are used for low-level preamplifier and equalisation amplifier. ICs LM3914 are used to display recording level in tenstep resolution in both playback and recording modes. IC 7812 is meant for regulated supply of 12-volts at 300mA current capability. The bias oscillator is a push-pull Hartley oscillator wired around lownoise transistors BC149C. The ALC circuit uses low-noise BC149C transistors to attenuate the signal proportional to the average input voltage. Low-level preamplifier The dual op-amp LA3161 amplifies low-level signals of the order of 1.2 to 1.5 mV from the tape during playback and from mic. or aux. or both during recording. The amplifier is a non-inverting type, with a voltage gain of 48. The output of this amplifier is now sufficiently high (around 75 mV) and can easily be used with attenuating circuit like ALC loops. As the amplifier has no equalisation, it has highfrequency linearity. The output is fed to the equalisation amplifier. to the inverting input through various equalisation networks, meant for normal, chrome and metal tapes in playback or recording modes. The network comprises 150-kilohm, 390-ohm, 2.2-kilohm and 1.8-kilohm resistors and 33nF, 2.2nF and 22nF capacitors for normal tape-playback and 47-kilohm and 750-ohm resistors and l0μF capacitors for normal tape recording. The network has 150-kilohm, 680ohm and 1-kilohm resistors, and 22nF, 1.8nF and 68nF capacitors for chrome and metal playback equalisation. It has 47-kilohm and 1.8-kilohm resistors and 8.2nF capacitor for chrome-recording equalisation and 47-kilohm and 2.2kilohm resistors and 6.8nF capacitor for metal-recording equalisation. These values are in accordance with standard NAB equalisation values, and hence should not be altered. The output of equalisation amplifier is used for three purposes. The output is taken as line output, and the same output is used for peak level indicator and recording circuit. Peak level indicator LM3914 is an LED bar-graph display IC, specifically designed for peak level indicator. It has eleven op-amps in it, ten of which are wired as comparators and the eleventh as voltage amplifier. The resistors at pins 6,7 and ground fix the LED current to 10 mA. There are two modes of display— the dot mode and the bar mode. The former is used for recording and the latter for playback. This is only for convenience, and can be changed to suit one’s choice. Pin 5 is the input, which requires 1.25 volts for full-scale deflection. The display module gets the input from the equalisation amplifier. The signal is clamped by a 1N4148 diode, rectified and filtered by a 10μF capacitor. The capacitor, along with 27-kilohm preset resistor, forms an RC network to smoothen the display level excursions. The 27-kilohm preset is meant for playback level presetting. It comes under system alignment, which is discussed later. Recording Recording can be done in two ways— the ALC mode and the manual mode. Both the modes have their own advantages and disadvantages. In ALC mode, the ALC circuit automatically adjusts the output level to a relative level of 0 dB during normal recording and to + 3 dB level during chrome and metal recording. An AGC or ALC delay of 1000 seconds is provided by two l00μF capacitors and two 10-megohm resistors. This is a large delay and can be reduced to as much as 10 seconds, depending upon one’s requirement. The recording can be done in the manual mode where the ALC function Equalisation amplifier LA3161 pre-amps are used as equalisation amplifiers. The pre-amps are wired as large signal amplifiers, with the output swinging to almost half the supply voltage. As the IC handles large signals, its quiescent input, and hence its quiescent output, is fixed to half the supply voltage by a resistor divider, using 270-kilohm resistors at the non-inverting inputs. The gain of the amplifier is fixed by a feedback resistor of 8.2 kilohms and an input resistor of 330-ohms. Feedback is provided from the output 16 Fig. 5: Wiring diagram for HI-Fi stereo deck. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 is disabled and the signal is attenuated manually. The advantage of the ALC function is that no attention is required during recording, especially when the recording is done through microphone. In the ALC mode, the circuit can handle fairly large signal ranges. But in no signal condition, the gain of the equalisation amplifier increases very much and as a result noise appears at the output. Hence, ALC recording is not suitable for dubbing. ALC circuit The output of the equalisation amplifier is clamped by a 1N4148 diode, rectified by another 1N4148 diode and filtered by a pair of l00μF capacitors. The time delay is fixed with two 10-megohm resistors in parallel. The capacitors hold voltage proportional to the average of the output of the equalisation amplifier. This voltage decides the signal level attenuation. The voltage across the 100μF capacitors is mixed for keeping the relative record level unaltered, and fed to the attenuating transistors BC149C, wired as voltage-to-current converters. The collector current is now proportional to the average signal voltage. This current varies the static resistance, i.e. the slope of the diode characteristic curve of diode 1N4148. This static resistance, along with series resistance of 22 kilohms from the output of low-level amplifier, forms a variable voltage divider network to attenuate the signal entering the equalisation amplifier. Bias oscillator Bias oscillator circuit provides a sinusoidal voltage output at 100 kHz at different levels, suitable for different types of tapes. The circuit is push-pull Hartley oscillator, with tuned secondary. The push-pull configuration is utilised here for its superior characteristics over conventional type. L6 is a bias oscillator coil of type Philips 38161.The prototype used such a coil, but it may be substituted by any other suitable coil. The circuit oscillates at a frequency, decided by the secondary inductance and shunt capacitance, which in this case is 100 kHz. The power is supplied to this circuit by voltage regulating transistor ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 BEL 187. The supply voltage is made high for metal tapes, medium for CrO2 tapes and low for normal tapes, as these tapes have different bias levels. The output of the oscillator is fed to AC type Erase head and also to the rec./play (R/P) heads. The 100kHz bias component and the signal from equalisation amplifier are mixed via 100-kilohm presets and 6.8-kilohm resistors, respectively before feeding to the R/P heads. A parallel resonant circuit (for 100 kHz) of l00pF capacitor and 23mH inductor blocks the bias oscillator output from entering the equalisation amplifier circuitry. Rec. muting While recording from microphones, a howling sound is produced from the speakers due to acoustic feedback from the speakers to microphones. The volume of the power amplifier should be lowered every time the record button is depressed. Hence, a rec. mute circuit is introduced, which automatically mutes the output while recording. The circuit uses two BC149C transistors in deep saturation for the purpose. Rec. mute can be disabled by switch S4 during dubbing or aux. recording. Power supply Voltage is step-down from 230V AC to 18-volt and 12-volt AC by transformer X1. It has two secondary windings, one for 18-volt supply and the other for 12-volt supply. Instead of one transformer, one may use two separate transformers for 18 volts and 12 volts. The 18-volt AC is rectified by a bridge rectifier, filtered by a 2200μF, 40-volt capacitor and the resultant voltage of around 24 volts is applied to the input pin of regulator IC 7812. The 12volt output of IC5 is supplied to various modules of the circuit. The 12-volt AC is rectified by a half-wave rectifier and filtered by a l000μF capacitor. The resultant 14-volt DC is given to motor through a leafswitch and a ‘remote’ socket. The socket should be of normally-closed type. Remote facility comes handy while recording through microphones. Construction A suitable PCB for the circuit is shown in Fig. 3. The PCB accommo- dates all the components of the circuit. The rec./ play switch is 18-pole, 2-way type. Two such switches are employed here, one for each channel. However, it is represented as single switch Sl in the circuit diagram. S2 is an 8-pole, 3-way switch, usually used in 3-band radio sets. Four-core flat ribbon cable may be used to wire this switch to the PCB. The wire length should not be more than 15 cms. S3 is a 6-pole, 2-way switch used to select ALC or manual adjustment of rec. level control. S4 is a rec.-mute SPDT type switch. Use ribbon cables for S3 and S4 too, with lengths not exceeding 15 cms. Use two coreshielded wires for stereo-head, mic, aux. inputs, fine output, rec. level pots, mic. mixing pots etc as LM3914 ICs are assembled on the motherboard itself, a 24-way ribbon wire may be used to connect the LEDs. The wire length should be less than 40 cms. Although the circuit recommends AC erase head, a provision for DC erase head has also been made. Short these terminals, if the AC type erase head is used. Grounding of all unconnected metal work should be done including the cabinet. Alignment The circuit requires a bit of alignment before it is put to use. The different adjustments are: playback level, bias level and ALC. For adjusting the playback level, VR5 and VR6 are used. For adjusting these presets, record a tone of 1 kHz on a good quality blank cassette in a good quality cassette deck at ‘0’ dB. Verify in the same deck for record level of ‘0’ dB in the playback mode. Now, play the cassette in this deck and adjust the presets VR5 and VR6 such that the first six LEDs are lit. Now the sixth LED corresponds to the ‘0’ dB level. For adjusting VR7 and VR8, connect a 1kHz source to ‘aux.’ terminals and turn VR1 and VR2 completely to ‘aux.’ side. Now, record this tone by pressing the record key in a blank cassette like Sony HF60. Now play the recorded tone and see whether the display shows ‘0’ dB or not. If not, repeat the procedure once again after adjusting VR7 and VR8 a little. Repeat until the recorded level shows ‘0’ dB, when recorded at ‘0’ dB. During recording, put ALC switch to manual position and adjust record level control to ‘0’ 17 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1, IC2 — LA3161 preamplifier IC3,IC4 — LM3914 dot/bar display generator IC5 — LM7812 regulator T1-T4,T6,T7 — BC149C npn transistor T5 — BEL187 pnp transistor D1-D5, D16-D20 — 1N4148 silicon switching diode D6-D15, D21-D30,D33 — Green LED D31 — Red LED D32 — Orange LED D34 — Yellow LED D35-D40 — 1N4007 rectifier diode Resistors (all 1/4watt, ±5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1,R8,R27,R29, R31,R39,R45, R62,R65,R66 — 47-kilohm R2, R3, R40,R41 — 68-kilohm R4,R42 — 10-kilohm R5,R43,R76 — 10-ohm R6,R38 — 6.8-kilohm R7,R25,R26,R44 R60,R61, R75,R80-83 — 1-kilohm R9,R30,R64 — 750-ohm R10,R47 — 10-megohm R11,R17,R46,R52 — 330-ohm R12,R21,R28, R48,R56,R63 — 2.2-kilohm R13,R49 — 22-kilohm R14,R19,R54 — 390-ohm R15,R16,R50,R51 — 270-kilohm R18,R53 — 8.2-kilohm R20,R24,R55,R59 — 150-kilohm R22,R32, R57,R67 — 1.8-kilohm R23,R58 — 680-ohm R33,R34,R68,R69 — 560-ohm R35,R70 — 1.2-kilohm R36,R71 — 12-kilohm R37,R72,R77 — 4.7-kilohm R73 — 270-ohm R74 — 910-ohm VR1, VR2 — 22-kilohm linear dual pots VR3, VR4 — 100-kilohm linear dual pots VR5,VR6 — 22-kilohm trimpots VR7, VR8 — 100-kilohm trimpots dB. After adjusting VR7 and VR8, the bias levels for chrome and metal tapes get adjusted automatically. ALC adjustment is not needed, as the circuit is so designed as to get self-adjusted. However, if at all the circuit does not record the signal at ‘0’ dB, try different values of R13 (and R49) from 10kilohm to 47-kilohm. At some value in between these two, the circuit should record the 1kHz signal up to ‘0’ dB 18 Capacitors: C1,C4,C23,C24, C27,C29,C46, C47,C54 — C2,C26,C28 — C3 — C5,C11 — C6,C30 — C7,C10,C25,C32, C34,C48 — C8,C12,C31,C35, C53, C59 — C9,C33 — C13,C36,C58 — C14.C37 — C15,C38,C52,C71 — C16,C19,C39,C41 — C18,C42 — C20,C43 — C21,C44,C57,C60, C65-C68 — C22,C45 — C29,C46,C47, — C54 C49,C50 — 10μF, 25V electrolytic 1nF ceramic disc l00pF polysterene 470μF, 25V electrolytic 47μlF, 25V electrolytic Even though a trifle expensive, this circuit is cost-effective and would cost only about one third of its equivalant commercially available decks, manufactured by reputed companies.  lμf, 25V electrolytic 100μF, 25V electrolytic 22pF ceramic disc 4.7μF, 25V electrolytic 33nF polyester 2.2nF polyester 22nF polyester 68nF polyester 6.8nF polyester l00nF polyester 8.2nF polyester C51 C55,C56 C61,C63 lOμf, 25V electrolytic 470p styroflex/ polysterene — 2.7nF polyester — 3.3nF polyester — l00nF ceramic disc Miscellaneous: L1,L4 L2,L3 L5 L6 L7 XI — — — — — — S1 — S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 SK1,SK2 SK5.SK6 SK3,SK4 SK7 — — — — — Record/play head 23mH coils AC erase head Philips 38161 coil DC erase head 230V AC, primary to 0-18V, 500mA secondary transformer 18-pin record/play switch (2 nos) 8-pole 3-way switch 6-pole 2-way switch SPDT switch 250V, 2A SPST switch Leaf switch — RCA sockets — Microphone Jacks — Front load cassette deck mechanism — Suitable cabinet — Connecting wires, shield wires, mains cord, screws, nuts and suggested PCB. mark. In this circuit, I have not compromised upon quality and sophistication. As such, the circuit uses somewhat expensive components like LM3914 for peak-level display and dual-stage preamplifier for the preamplifier section. The circuit also uses complex equalisation networks and push-pull bias oscillator, which can otherwise be substituted by simpler versions. Readers’ Comments: The circuit of Hi-Fi Stereo Cassette Deck suffers from mistakes in the components layout as well as the PCB layout. After going through the circuit and comparing it with the components layout, I found that the circuit diagram and components layout do not match at many places. Mismatch occurs near switch S2g and at IC2 pins 1 to 4 and the associated circuitry. Diode D39 is missing in components layout near the supply of motor. What type of mechanism was used by the author? What is the output of the circuit? And what is the number of the 23mH coil used in the recording circuitry? Vishwesh Karwar  Could the author please clarify my doubts? There are no places for feedback resistor (8.2k) and input resistor of 330 ohms in equaliser amplifier section. In equaliser amplifier IC LA3161 receives supply voltage at pin 2 in the PCB layout, which is not correct. The 270k bias-divider resistor at non-inverting input has no connection on the other side, i.e. positive. There is no place for 100μF, 25V electrolytic capacitors in the PCB. Rajesh Kumar Verma Varanasi (UP)  The circuit contains no details about 23mH coils (L2 and L3). Can we use any other IC, instead of LM3914? Benoy George Wadakanchery  The circuit of Hi-Fi stereo cassette deck is really superb. The only disadvantage is its cost, as LM3914 ICs have been used in display section. If LB1405, etc are used the cost of the project gets reduced. What is the cost of the PCB and of the circuit? Can we use the amplifier, using ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 STK459 with the positive rail connected to regulator (IC 7812) input, thereby eliminating the need for a separate transformer, with common grounding? G.Chandra Mouli Anantapur  On the upper right hand side in Fig.4 a 390-ohm resistor ends nowhere, which cannot be possible. Binoy K. Shah The author, T.S. Shankar, comments: I am very glad to see the interest taken by the readers in my article on Hi-Fi stereo cassette deck. Instead of LM3914 circuit, any display circuit can be used with sensitivity of around 1V for full scale display. But expensive LM3914 is worth the cost. For R/P switch, use a tension string, such as radio dial cord with a suitable arrangement for operation. I am sorry to say that a number of ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 mistakes were noticed in PCB layout. Please, verify the circuit diagram and correct the PCB layout with black ink before making the PCB. For 23 mH coil, wind approximately 500 turns of 45SWG copper wire on 6mm ferrite bead. Adjust bias oscillator coil for resonance. This cassette deck can be used with the integrated amplifier of Feb. '93 issue. It is advisable to always use a separate power supply to reduce interference, humming and motorboating, etc. Please, make some pads and tracks for the components R17, R18, R52, R53, C12 and C35 in the vacant space remaining near IC2 with a black pen. there is no mistake with S2g switch. Tracks near IC2 pins 1 to 4, are wrong and must be corrected. Diode D39 may be fixed on motor terminals. I used imported soft-touch deck mechanism. Playback head of 250-ohm impedance is suitable. There is no type number for 23mH coil. It must be available in the market as 25mH coil. Otherwise, it can be constructed by winding 350 turns of 48SWG copper wire on core, taken out from the coil of a 36cm B&W TV. after removing the original coil and magnet placed on the linearity coil. Since input impedance of the preamplifier is very high, any head is suitable for the circuit. LM3914 cannot be substituted by any other IC. Indeed, no tracks have been provided for feedback circuit of LA3161. I deeply regret the mistake. Fortunately, enough place exists in the area around LA3161. Similar correction can be made for supply pin of LA3161 after following the circuit diagram. For the 270k resistors, please short circuit the joint of 270k resistors to the adjacent pin 4 track of LA3161 with a solder bridge. The project cost me around Rs 2000, including cabinet, deck mechanism etc. 19 DIGITAL CHESS CLOCK S.BATRA R ecently, one of my colleagues, who is an ace player of chess, mentioned the fate of the chess clock of their recreation club. The old mechanical clock is taken out of the cupboard once in a year, at the time of the annual tournament. With the humid climate of Bombay, the clock is rusted and is no more reliable. He urged for a Digital Chess Clock, a novel idea and a new design for India. Before I agreed to his proposal, he gave me the following specifications: 1. There should be two independent clocks for both the players. 2. The umpire should be capable of resetting the clocks to a reference time. 3. After thinking and playing the move, the player should operate a lever to stop his own clock and at the same time start the opponent’s clock. 4. There should be a facility to watch the movement of the clock also. 5. If either of the player takes more than 150 minutes to complete all the moves, there should be a time-out indication. 6. The clock should be an accurate and reliable one. 150 minutes by either of the player. The dot in the running clock will be blinking as the second’s indicator. This way, it may meet all the above-mentioned specifications. Circuit diagram The complete circuit diagram of the chess clock is shown in Fig. 2. The commonly available 40-pin ICs, LM8361 or its equivalents, are used for identical Black and White clocks. The IC MM5369 along with the quartz crystal is used as the Master Oscillator, which supplies 60Hz drive to the clocks. The operation of switch S8 will cut off the drive from one clock and extend to the other clock. As the clock is generally required for two hours and 30 minutes, three-digit display is adequate. Alarm outputs are ORed through two diodes and directly extended to the trigger terminal of a piezo buzzer. Reset switch Sl extends the Vcc to SLOW SET, FAST SET and SEC. DISPLAY (i.e. pins 33,34 and 32). This will reset the clock having drive. Hence, both the clocks can be reset to 000, one by one by operating switches Sl and S8. Please, note that pins 38 of IC2 and IC3 are connected to Vcc, which makes the clocks run in the 24-hour mode. If pin 38 is kept open, the clock will run in a 12-hour mode and, while resetting, the clock will reset to 12:00 hour. Using diodes D5 and D 12, it utilises the same switches S3 and S2 for ALARM DISPLAY/ALARM OFF functions of Black and White clocks, respectively. The power is provided through a conventional 12-0-12 volts transformer and full-wave rectifier. The 9-volt battery provides the backup during power interruptions, if any. Hence, there are two buses of supplies. Vcc (A) has battery backup whereas Vcc (B) does not have battery backup. Total current drain is about 300 mA at 12 volts. Assembly The complete circuit shown in Fig.2 Principle With the above specifications in mind, a block diagram was drawn, as shown in Fig. 1. To have an accurate and reliable time, a quartz-controlled master oscillator is utilised to provide the drive for the clocks. It will supply the drive to either a Black Clock or the White Clock. The reset switch will bring the clocks to 000. With the help of switch S2, an alarm at 2:30 hours has to be set before the start of the match in each clock. A common piezo buzzer will sound after the lapse of 20 Fig. 1: Block diagram for the digital chess clock. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the digital chess clock. Fig. 3: PCB layout for the chess clock. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 21 Fig. 4: PCB layout for the display. Fig. 5: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 6: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 4. 22 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 — MM5369 oscillator/divider IC2,IC3 — LM8361 clock chip D1-D4 — 1N4001 rectifier diode D5-D14 — 1N4148 switching diode Resistors (all 1/4watt, +5% carbon unless staled otherwise): R1-R42 — 1-kilohm R43 — 10-megohm R44 — 100-kilohm R45 — 330-kilohm Capacitors: Cl — 470μF, 25V electrolytic C2 — 15pF ceramic disc C3 — 0-22pF variable trimmer Fig. 7: Suggested cabinet for the digital chess clock. can be easily wired on two PCBs measuring about 12 cms x 10 cms and 12 cms x 3 cms. The actual-size layout of both the PCBs is shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. The PCBs are designed in such a way that the segment outputs from clock PCB are in exact alignment with the segment of display PCB, which can be mounted above the clock PCB at right angle. Extra room in the clock PCB will make the assembly more comprehensive and even the transformer, piezo buzzer, etc can be mounted on the clock PCB itself. First of all, check all the components with the help of a multimeter. To start with, assemble the display PCB with the six display chips. With the help of 9-12 volts test bench power supply through a 1 -kilohm series resistor, check whether all the segments are glowing properly. Now assemble the clock PCB. Solder all the resistors and check them subsequently. Then solder all the diodes and finally all the three ICs. Connect display PCB and clock PCB with 43 fine wires at right angle and solder them. Connect the flexible wires of about 15cm length to the clock PCB for various switches. Testing ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Extend the power and test the complete circuit. As soon as the power is switched on, the clock receiving the drive may start blinking. Press the reset switch and the clock will reset to 000. Turn switch S8 to another position and reset the second clock as well. With the help of SLOW SET and FAST SET switches, check the working of both the clocks. Check that the seconds ‘dot’ blinks for the clock which is ‘on’ and does not blink for the clock which is ‘off’. Now, set the alarm and see that it sounds at the desired time for both the clocks. The complete assembly can be housed in an acrylic cabinet. All the switches should be mounted on the top side of the cabinet for the sake of convenience. Further, care may be taken that SLOW SET , FAST SET and RESET switches of both the clocks are not projected outside the cabinet, and they are accessible only through a pen/pencil. This will prevent their accidental pressing by anyone, and hence the time will not be disturbed. Instructions for umpire 1. Energise the clock with mains supply and insert a 9-volt battery in the battery terminals. 2. One of the clocks, depending on Miscellaneous: X1 — 12-0-12 volts 500mA, sec. transformer S1-S7 — Push-to-on switches S8 — 1-pole, 2-way ‘Anchor’ make switch — 3.579MHz crystal XTL — 12-volt trigger type piezo buzzer — 9-volt battery. the position of switch S8, may start blinking. Press the corresponding SLOW SET or FAST SET switch to stop the blinking. Bring switch S8 to the other position and similarly stop the other blinking display. 3. By pressing switches S2, S3 and RESET together, obtain 000 display for alarm. Now, keeping switches S2, S3 pressed, adjust the display to 2:30 with the help of SLOW SET/FAST SET switches. One by one set both the alarms to 2:30. 4. Bring switch S8 towards the White player and press RESET to get the time as 000. Keeping switch Sl pressed, bring switch S8 towards the Black player. This clock will also reset to 000. The moment the RESET switch is released, the time for White starts. 5. After playing his move, the White player should shift switch S8 towards himself. This will stop his clock and the clock of Black player will start. 6. If anyone of the players takes more than 150 minutes, the alarm will sound and indicate the end of the game. The analogue chess clock available in the market has the problem of inherent delay due to inertia after operating the lever. This delay, which can be up to 2.5 seconds in a typical case, is eliminated with this digital clock. 23 CORDLESS SECURITY SYSTEM PRADIP KUMAR BOSE S ecurity is one of the major problems encountered nowadays in big cities. Security systems available in the market are costly and cord-based. When such gadgets work, they produce unwanted noise through the speakers or buzzers. These devices are generally light-operated or infrared light-controlled, and are more suited for use in homes. But think of a situation when you are out shopping, while your car is lying unguarded in the parking lot. Once inside the shop, you have no control over your vehicle and may fall an easy prey to car-lifting. In such situations, cordless security systems come to your rescue. While away from your valuable gadgets, of course within a limited range of distance, the cordless security systems send out signals to you if your goods are interfered with. This article enables you to fabricate such a type of cordless security system. Working principle The basic circuit is a combination of a signal generator, an amplifier and a radio transmitter. The signal generator produces an alarm sound if a switch is left open. The amplifier magnifies this signal and feeds it to the transmitter. The radio transmitter transmits this signal in the MW band. A pocket radio receiver can be used as a detector. The range of the transmitter varies from 30 to 50 metres, making the system convenient for use for cars parked within the transmitter’s range, and also for door/window security. The elimination of use of wires/cords makes the system cost-effective too. Circuit description The circuit comprises a transistorised astable multivibrator, an IC am24 Fig. 1: Block diagram of the cordless security system. plifier and an RF transmitter. (a) Multivibrator: Transistors Tl and T3 work as an astable multivibrator, whose frequency is about 1kHz. This signal is then amplified by transistor T4 to get a higher output. Transistor T2 works as an electronic switch for the multivibrator. When switch Sl is kept closed, due to the reverse bias on its base, transistor T2 will be off. When switch S1 is released, transistor T2 supplies negative voltage to the multivibrator. (b) IC Amplifier: BEL1895 is an eight-pin audio amplifier IC, generally used in radio circuits. In this circuit, it is used for amplification of the 1kHz signal available from the multivibrator. The signal available from the collector of transistor T4 is fed to the noninverting input of BEL1895. This IC is wired in its noninverting amplifier configuration. The output is available from pin 2 of BEL1895. (c) RF Transmitter: The mixercum-local oscillator circuit comprises transistor T5 and its associated feedback network. The tank circuit consists of coil L1 and capacitor C16. By suitably varying capacitor C16, the frequency can be adjusted on the MW band. The feedback network comprises resistor R13 and capacitor C13. PARTS LIST Semiconductors: T1-T4 — T5 — D1 — IC1 — BC548 npn transistor BF194B npn transistor 1N4001 rectifier diode BEL 1895 audio amplifier Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1,R4 — 10-kilohm R2,R3,R5 — 220-kilohm R6 — 5.6-kilohm R7 — 1-megohm R8,R14 — 1-kilohm R9 — 4.7-kilohm R10 — 10-ohm R11 — 100-kilohm R12 — 470-ohm R13 — 47-kilohm R15 — 2.2-kilohm VR1 — 10-kilohm preset Capacitors: C1,C2 C3 C4,C5,C8 C6,C13 C7 C9,C12 C10 C11 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 — — — — — — — — — — — — — 0.4μF ceramic disc 0.2μF ceramic disc 0.1μF ceramic disc 0.01μF ceramic disc 200μF, 12V electrolytic 470μF, 12V electrolytic 0.001μF ceramic disc 10μF, 12V electrolytic 0.01μF ceramic disc 100μF,, 12V electrolytic 33PF ceramic disc 100pF trimmer 47pF ceramic disc Miscellaneous: S1 — Push-to-on switch L1 — MW antenna coil (2J) Ferrite rod Suggested PCB Clamps Telescopic antenna (90cm) ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 The audio signal, when applied to the emitter of transistor T5, modulates the carrier wave, to generate the radio signal. The amplitude modulated output is available at the collector of transistor T5. This signal is then transmitted through a 90cm telescopic antenna. An ordinary AM receiver is suitable for receiving the signal. It would, however, be better to use a Philips make portable radio rather than any low-cost receiver. Easy fabrication The PCB and component layout are shown in Figs 3 and 4, respectively. The PCB can be made either by the ion-etching process or with the help of PCB making kits available in the market. For perfect soldering, use of good solder and soldering iron are essential. Use coloured wires for switch Sl, battery, antenna coil, etc to avoid confusion. The coil can be fixed on the PCB. Actual operation Fig. 2: Circuit diagram of the cordless security system. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 After complete fabrication, release switch Sl and power the circuit. Adjust VR1 to mid-position and connect the speaker between the negative terminal of capacitor C14 and the positive rail of supply. A continuous beeping sound must be heard. Now, disconnect the speaker and connect a telescopic antenna, as shown in Fig. 2. Place a MW radio about three metres away and tune it to a null position. Now, adjust capacitor C16 and the ferrite rod of the antenna coil to get a loud beeping sound from the radio. In order to get perfect sound from the radio, adjust capacitor C16 and the ferrite rod and MW receiver gang. After getting a clear sound, adjust VR1 to make it louder, but remember that the quality of sound must be the same as before. On pressing switch Sl, the sound should cease. Only a small hissing sound may be heard in this state. The release of switch Sl should produce the sound again. The whole system can be housed in a small cabinet. Use rectangular nickel cadmium cells, if you wish to use it for a long time. The MW receiver should be kept with the user and turned ‘on’. The use of switch S1 depends upon the user, and it can be employed to protect one’s valuables in several ways, thus 25 Fig. 3: PCB layout of the cordless security system. Fig. 4: Component layout of the cordless security system. providing flexibility of use.  Readers’ Comments: I want the author to clear the following doubts: 1. What modifications are needed to extend the range of the system up to 1 kilometre? 2. How to modify the transmitter 26 circuit? The author, Pradip Kumar Bose, replies: Regarding the letter of Mr Ramanan, I would like to make the following comments: 1. The range of the transmitter can be increased by using a high power RF amplifier unit. But this is not desired as high power transmitters need licence. 2. The transmitter itself can be used as voice transmitter by simple modifications. The frequency of the circuit can also be changed by the tuning circuit. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 MICROPROCESSOR-BASED CAPACITANCE AND RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT METER VIVEKANANDA K.S. AND ZAMEERUDDIN T here are various analogue circuits available for the measure ment of capacitance and resistance. Here is a microprocessor-based circuit which, instead, displays the results digitally. This circuit has an added advantage over the conventional analogue circuits in that both resistance and capacitance can be measured without making any changes in the circuit configuration. It is this simplicity of dual operation made possible by the use of a DPDT switch that makes this project very appealing and qualifies it as a technical improvement over the other analogue measurement methods. by the DPDT switch. The displayed value of resistance is in ohms. Instead of wiring the fixed values of resistors RA and RB and capacitor C, variable resistors and capacitors can be used to obtain accurate values. In this circuit, a standard-value capacitor C of value 54.17μF and resistors of standard values R A = 53 kilohms and RB = 54.17 kilohms are used. Working principle DPDT switch Sl shown in the circuit diagram, when moved to position1, connects the standard resistor RB in the circuit. In this condition, if we now connect a capacitor of any value, the Circuit details The circuit makes use of a timer IC 555, wired as an astable multivibrator. The output of the timer is fed to the microprocessor. A DPDT switch is provided for connecting standard values of resistors and capacitors to the circuit. When the capacitance is to be measured, the standard value of resistor RB gets connected to the circuit through the DPDT switch. Now, the capacitance value is directly proportional to the time period. This time period is measured and the capacitor value is calculated by the microprocessor, which .displays the reading. Here, the design is such that the displayed capacitor value is in nanofarads. Similarly, when the resistance is to be measured, the standard value of the capacitor gets connected to the circuit ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 1: Flow chart. 27 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 — NE555 timer D1 — 1N4001 rectifier diode Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1 — 560-ohm R2 — 100-ohm RA*, RB* — (See text) Capacitors: C1 C* — 0.01μ ceramic disc — (See text) Miscellaneous: S1 — DPDT switch LEDs μP 8085 kit time period is proportional to the value of that capacitor (Note that the standard value of RA has already been connected.) From the time period, the value of the capacitor can be obtained. If the switch is now moved to the other position, the standard capacitor gets connected to the circuit and the standard resistor RB gets disconnected. By placing the resistor whose resistance is to be measured, we can obtain the value of the resistor as, in this case, the time period is proportional to the resistance connected. We measure resistance or capacitance during the negative half cycle of the timer output. If we are getting positive half cycle by the time the microprocessor connects, we wait till we obtain the negative half cycle. On the other hand, if we get a negative half cycle by the time the microprocessor is connected, we wait for the positive half cycle to pass off and continue waiting till the beginning of the next negative half cycle, as shown in Fig. 2. At the beginning of the negative half cycle, the register pair HL resets to 0000. In the software, the counter loop starts from the instruction MOV A,L and ends at the instruction JZ AAAA, which amounts to a total of 67 T-states. After completion of the loop once again, the microprocessor checks the status of the pulse, i.e. after (67 x 1/ 1.785 x 106 = 37.54μsecs), 1.785 x 106, being the microprocessor frequency. At ‘An’ (Refer Fig. 3), the counter is incremented to n and the total time period of the negative cycle is n x 37.54 μsecs. For the astable multivibrator, the time period of the negative cycle is 28 Fig. 2: Circuit diagram. Fig. 3: Detection of negative-going edge by the microprocessor. 0.693 RBC, which gives: n x 37.54 x 10-6 C= ––––––––––––– 0.693RB Substituting RB = 54.17 kilohms n x 37.54 x 10-6 C= –––––––––––––––––––– 0.673 x 54.17 x 103 So, C = n x l0-9 The value of capacitor in nanofarads is therefore given by the relationship C = n. Thus, the contents of the HL pair directly give the capacitor value in nanofarads. Similarly, for measurement of resistance, n x 37.54 x 10-6 R= –––––––––––––––––– 0.693 x 54.17 μF So, R = n The counter-number, thus, directly gives the value of the unknown resistance in ohms. This project, thus, eliminates the need for multiplication or division by any constant terms in the software. Software The software described here is stored in the EPROM, existing in the microprocessor kit. The count is stored in the HL pair and register C. The first part of the software synchronises the beginning of the ‘off’ cycle of timer output to the counter program. The counter increments for a period of the ‘off’ cycle. The design is such that the count directly gives the value of resistance in ohms and capacitance in nanofarads. The ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 ADDRESS INSTRUCTION Synchronising program 6000 MVI A,82 6002 OUT CWR XXXX 6004 XRA A 6005 IN PORT B 6007 ANI 01 6009 CPI 00 600B JZ XXXX 600E LXI H,0000 6011 MVI C,00 YYYY 6013 XRA A 6014 IN PORT B 6016 ANI 01 6018 CPI 00 601A JNZ YYYY Counter Program AAAA 601D MOV A,L 601E ADI 01 6020 DAA 6021 MOV L,A 6022 JNZ ZZZZ 6025 MOV A,H 6026 ADI 01 6028 DAA 6029 MOV H,A 602A JNZ ZZZZ 602D MOV A,C 602E ADI 01 6030 DAA 6031 MOV C,A ZZZZ 6032 XRA A 6033 IN PORT B 6035 ANI 01 6037 CPI 00 6039 JZ AAAA Display program 603C Push H 603D Push B 603E MOV A,C 603F CALL DISA DT 6042 LXI D FFFF 6045 CALL DELAY 6048 CALL DELAY 603B POP B 604C POP H 604D JMP 6000 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 OP-CODE COMMENTS 3E,82 D3,OB AF DB,09 E6,01 FE,00 CA,04,60 21,00,00 OE,00 AF DB,09 E6,01 FE,00 C2,13,60 Load accumulator with control word 82 Output it to Control Word Register Set accumulator to zero Read data from port B Mask bits except D0 Compare with zero Jump if getting negative pulse to XXXX Initialise the counter to zero Initialise the counter to zero Clear accumulator Read data from port B Mask bits except D0 Compare with zero Jump if not getting negative-going edge to YYYY 7D C6,01 27 6F C2,32,60 7C C6,01 27 67 C2,32,60 79 C6,01 27 4F AF DB,09 E6M01 FE,00 CA,1D,60 Transfer contents of L to accumulator Increment the contents Convert to decimal Store back in L Jump if less than 99 to ZZZZ Transfer contents of H to accumulator Increment the contents Convert to decimal Store back in H Jump if less than 9999 to ZZZZ. Transfer the contehts of C to accumulator Increment the content Convert to decimal Store back in C Clear accumulator Read data from port B Mask bits except D0 Compare with 00 If not over, continue the process E5 C5 79 CD,E8,02 11,FF,FF CD,C7,06 CD,C7,06 C1 E1 C3,00,60 Store the contents of H Store the contents of B Transfer the contents of C in A Call display routine Fill the DE pair with counter Call delay routine Call delay routine Restore BC pair Restore HL pair Jump to start for next measurements values are directly displayed. The circuit is designed to measure capacitance, ranging from one nF to 999μF and resistance, ranging from ten ohms to one megohm. The port addresses in the software are according to the ‘Anshuman 8085’ microprocessor kit. EFY Notes: 1. For accurate results, styroflex standard capacitor and resistor with least tolerance should be used. 2. The project was tested on an 8085 microprocessor training kit, which operates at a frequency of 3.07 MHz. Hence, a standard resistor of value, RB=31.62 kilohms and capacitor of value, C = 31.62 μF were used. The port addresses were changed in the software accordingly.  29 BFO FOR RECEIVING SSB SIGNALS P. R. VAIDYANATHAN M ost amateur radio stations are now using single sideband (SSB) equipment for the very simple reason that it is much more effective vis-a-vis AM. Almost all the commercially available equipment are also basically SSB type. Different receiver capabilities An ordinary radio receiver intended for broadcast reception is inadequate to receive SSB or CW, and this poses a really major problem to the SWLs (shortwave listeners) in copying amateur stations. If supplemented by a BFO (beat frequency oscillator), an ordinary BC (broadcast) receiver can be effectively used to receive CW and SSB signals within the bandwidth limitations of such receivers. Let us have a brief review of a communication receiver, compared to an ordinary BC receiver (see Table). From the Comparison Table, we can notice that, apart from adding a BFO/ product detector, if we make an effort to have a stable VFO-type local oscillator and employ a slow tuning rate, the performance of a BC receiver can be greatly enhanced. Limiting the IF bandwidths to around 6 kHz can also be achieved by using cascaded IFTs in both the stages of IF amplification. This article, however, describes only the construction of a BFO, to be used with a BC receiver. The BFO PCB can either be fitted inside the receiver or it can be made an outboard unit. Equipment required The circuit is self-explanatory. Tran30 Fig. 1: Circuit diagram for the BFO. sistor Tl works as a Colpitts crystal oscillator and T2 as a buffer amplifier (for those who wish to drive a product detector). As such, there is no product detector in the circuit. The 455kHz RF energy radiated from the BFO gets mixed at the IF/detector stage and both the SSB and CW signals get effectively resolved. It is better to use a 455kHz quartz crystal, if available. A cheaper, but effective, substitute will be one of those ceramic crystals (resonators) available in the market for less than ten rupees. Ceramic IF filters could also be substituted in place of the crystal. If quartz crystals or ceramic resonators are not available, one can safely substitute an ordinary IFT (primary only) as well. The circuit will oscillate perfectly. A problem with using an IFT is that the stability of frequency is much less, PARTS LIST Semiconductors: T1 — T2 — BC147 npn transistor BC148 npn transistor Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1 — 47-kilohm R2 — 27-kilohm R3 — 100-ohm R4,R7 — 1-kilohm R5 — 22-kilohm R6 — 18-kilohm R8 — 560-ohm Capacitors: C1 C2 C3 C4,C7 C5 C6 — — — — — — 180pF styroflex 2000pF styroflex 820pF styroflex 0.01μF ceramic disc 150pF ceramic disc 0.05μF ceramic disc Miscellaneous: XTL S1 — — 455kHz crystal On/Off switch ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 tions where the different stations are tuned in. When a station is correctly tuned, it should be possible to take an exact zero beat. (Zero beat is a term familiar to most hams.) The unit is now ready for use. Testing the unit Fig. 2: Actual-size PCB layout for the BFO compared to the crystal/resonator oscillator. The example of 455kHz IF has been chosen because most BC receivers work at that frequency. But variants are also available, e.g. 462 kHz, 467 kHz, etc. So, before attempting to build a BFO, make sure of the intermediate frequency of the receiver and only then buy the appropriate crystal/resonator. If it is intended as an outboard unit, a small plastic eliminator box can accommodate the PCB. Power supply to the BFO could be from a set of four pen-torch batteries, or it can be availed from the receiver’s main power supply. The current consumption of the BFO is less than 5 mA. The outboard unit can be provided with a short piece of stiff wire (or a short telescopic antenna) to radiate the IF energy, and the whole unit can be located at a convenient distance from the receiver. Process of fabrication One important point to be considered in assembly is that if a ceramic resonator is used in the circuit, the legs of the resonator may be protected by a long-nosed plier, while soldering. Even a slight amount of heating of the legs may damage the resonator. The use of a suitable socket may be ideal. After assembly, check for any omissions or mistakes and switch on the DC power. If you have a DC mA meter, check for a current consumption of around 4 mA. The circuit should be oscillating. If your receiver IF frequency is matched with the BFO frequency, you will hear a hzzz... sound in the receiver. When an AM broadcast station is tuned in, there will be pronounced howling (beat note) heard in the receiver. The howling will be heard all along the dial on all bands at all locaELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Now, keep the BFO switch in Off position and tune in an amateur SSB station. When you hear the characteristic SSB ‘monkey talk’, switch on the BFO and adjust the main tuning of the receiver carefully till you hear the natural voice of the person operating the station. Try this with strong SSB stations If supplemented by a BFO (beat frequency oscillator), an ordinary broadcast receiver can be effectively used to receive CW and SSB signals within the bandwidth limitations of such receivers. also. If you experience a little difficulty in resolving the signal, keep the outboard unit slightly closer. A few hours of practice will be enough for you to use the gadget effectively. The unit built by the author (installed inside a home-constructed receiver) poses If your receiver IF frequency is matched with the BFO frequency, you will hear a hzzz... sound in the receiver. When an AM broadcast station is tuned in, there will be pronounced howling (beat note) heard in the receiver. When a station is correctly tuned, it should be possible to take an exact zero beat. The unit is now ready for use no problem in receiving both weak and strong SSB stations. Insufficient injection of BFO energy indicates itself as a weak howling and excess of injection apparently pulls down the received station due to strong AGC action. If an outboard unit is constructed, keep the unit at a convenient position away from the receiver to get the right amount of BFO injection. For units installed inside the re- Fig. 3: Actual-size compoment layout for the BFO ceiver, the extent of injection can be controlled by selecting a proper position for the PCB inside the receiver. If an enhancement of the BFO signal is required, a piece of wire could be soldered to the output terminal of the BFO board and kept near the receiver IFT area. The whole project can be completed in a few hours, provided you have all the components ready. Last, but not the least, it must be mentioned that the prerequisite for using the BFO is the stability of the local oscillator in your receiver. Should the LO be not sufficiently stable, a slight retuning may be needed from time to time when listening to long QSOs. Mechanism of SSB reception Single-side band, as the name indicates, contains only one side band of the modulated carrier. When the carrier is modulated with an audio signal, the resultant output is a complex waveform which can be resolved into three components, viz, the upper side band, lower side band and the carrier itself. Of these, the frequencies of the upper and lower side bands vary with the frequency of the modulating audio signal. Thus, if ‘F’ is the carrier frequency and ‘f’ is the audio modulating frequency, the upper and lower side bands will have frequencies ‘F+f’ and ‘F-f’ respectively. In a side-band transmitter, only one selected side band is transmitted—either the upper or the lower side band. The opposite side band and carrier are suppressed. At the receiving end, the side-band signal by itself gives no information on the audio modulating frequency, because of the absence of the refer31 No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Communication Receiver NarrowIF bandwidth (typically 2.3kHz) Employs RF amplifier front end and hence, highly sensitive Local oscillator(s) are carefully made VFOs and hence, drift-free Employs product detectors for reception of SSB and CW signals Effective AGC circuits are employed Frequency coverage per band is very much limited and tuning rate is slow ence carrier ‘F’. When detected in a conventional AM diode detector, an SSB signal results in characteristic ‘monkey talk’. To make this gibberish intelligible, the SSB signal has to be detected in a product detector where the missing reference carrier (F) is mixed with the SSB signals to retrieve the audio modulating frequency ‘f’. The purpose of the BFO is to generate this reference carrier locally. It is found in practice that a mixertype product detector is not really a must. Receivers with AM detectors also resolve SSB signals through stray cou- 32 BC Receiver Relatively large IF bandwidth (typically 10kHz) No RF amplifier in majority of cases. Sensitivity is adequate for BC reception only Separate local oscillators are absent in most cases (oscillating converters are used in the front end) and hence, frequency stability is poor Uses only AM envelope detector Simple AVC circuits are used Frequency coverage per band is relatively very large and turning rate is high pling to BFO signals at different IF stages and detector stage. The reference carrier can also be reintroduced at the input stage at the received frequency, instead of at the IF 1evel in a superhet receiver. Reintroducing the reference carrier at the operating frequency itself will call for a change of frequency of the reference carrier for each station received. IF being a fixed frequency, it is only necessary to generate the reference carrier at one single frequency (equal to intermediate frequency), irrespective of the frequency of station received. Advantages of SSB transmission It is calculated that for 100 per cent modulation of the carrier, 50 per cent power goes on the upper and lower side bands together, and the balance 50 per cent on the carrier itself. Hence, while transmitting 100W of RF power, 50W goes on carrier (F) and 25 W on each side band. As the audio (information) is carried in the side bands, the useful part of the signal is the side bands only. Any single side band will suffice to retrieve the audio. The carrier frequency (F) in which 50 per cent power is dumped is used only for reference at the receiving end, which is considered to be wasteful of energy. Hence, if the carrier and one of the sidebands are suppressed and only one side band is transmitted, the entire transmitter power can go on a single side band. For a 100W transmitter, the full 100W are available for one side band in the SSB transmitter, whereas only 25W were available in an AM transmitter. Hence, the SSB transmitter is considered to be as effective as an equivalent AM transmitter with 400W power.  ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 SAFETY INDICATORS AND AIDS A.B. TIWANA W hile dealing with electrical equipment, be it for industrial or domestic purposes, safety against fire and shock hazards is of utmost importance. For detection of and protection against both shock and fire hazards, numerous addon circuits, which can easily be incorporated in the equipment, are described here. These are designed to protect both the operators and the equipment. Detection and protection The most common causes of shocks are in the event of the cabinet becom- Fig. 1(a): Safety indicator using neon. Fig 1(b): Safety indicator using LED. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 ing ‘live’, interchanging of the live and neutral wires, earth disconnection, mains leakage, or at times even due to the ‘blowing’ of an improperly connected fuse. Hence, protection can be ensured by detection of the above faults and then either manually or automatically disconnecting the supply line. Inmost cases, audio or visual indicators serve the purpose and automatic disconnectors need to be used only in certain cases. Shock warning indicators Shock warning indicators can be used to indicate that the operator may recieve an electric shock if the cabinet is touched. Circuits for shock warning indicators, using neons, LEDs, flashing neons, are given in Figs 1(a), 1(b) and 1(c). The resistor values are for 220V mains, and may be appropriately reduced for 117V operation (in some countries). Blown-fuse indicators Blown-fuse indicators are used to indicate a blown fuse. The circuits shown in Figs 2(a) and 2(b) give visual and audio indications of a blown fuse. Fig. 1(c): Safety indicator using flashing neon. Fig. 2(a): Visual indicator of a blown fuse. 33 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1,IC2 IC3 IC4 IC5 Tl T2, T4, T6 T3,T7 T5 D1-D3, D5-D11 D4 Fig. 2(b): Audio indicator of a blown fuse. Fig. 3: Earth disconnection alarm with visual indicator. Fig. 4(a): Polarity reversal cutout with alarm. — — — — — — — — — — NE555N timer LM709/μA741 LM748 op-amp 7912 regulator chip BEL187 pnp transistor BC147B npn transistor BC158 pnp transistor SL100B npn transistor 1N4001 rectifier diode 5.1 V zener diode Resistors(all 1/4 watt, ±5% carbon unless stated otherwise): Rl, R4, R10 — 820-kilohm R2 — 22-kilohm,2W R3 — 1.8 megohm R5, R13, R28 — 100-kilohm R6,R16,R21,R36 — 1-kilohm R7, R27 — 1-megohm R8,R12,R19, R20, R32, R33 — 10-kilohm R9 — 47-kilohm,5W Rll — 22-kilohm R14 — 150-ohm VR15 — 680-ohm R17,R18,R22 — 10-kilohm (thermistor) R23 — 10-megohm R24 — 220-ohm R25 — 12-kilohm R26 — 180-kilohm R27 — 1-ohm, 10W R30 — 8.2-kilohm R31 — 820-ohm R34 — 1.2-kilohm R35 — 4.7-kilohm VR 1 ,VR3-VRS — 10-kilohm presets VR2.VR6 — 100-kilohm presets Capacitors: C1, C2 C3 C4, C7 C5 C6, C14 C8 C9 C10 C12 C13 C14 Miscellaneous: RL1 RL2 RL3 RL4 — — — — — — — — — — — 22μF, 25V electrolytic 1μF, 250V tantalum 0.1μF ceramic disc 47-μF, 25V electrolytic 220μF, 16V electrolytic 100μF, 10V electrolytic 1000μF, 25V eictrolytic 220μF, 10V electrolytic 2.2μF, 10V electrolytic 470μF, 16V electrolytic 200μF, 10V electrolytic — — — — — — — — — — — — 230V, 10mA relay 9V or 6V, 300mA relay 9V, 300 mA relay 12V, 300-ohm relay VK27CT piezo buzzer Piezo buzzer (1PB27B) 230V AC piezo buzzer 230V AC bell 8-ohm loudspeaker Neon lamps Fuse wire etc LEDs Fig. 4(b): Audio-visual polarity reversal alarm. 34 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Earth disconnection indicator Fig. 5(a): Visual overheating alarm. The safety system of a device becomes ineffective if the earth line of the device is disconnected. The circuit shown in Fig. 3 indicates disconnection of the earth wire, by lighting up a neon lamp. The neon lamp can easily be replaced by a nixie tube. Polarity reversal indicators The interchanging of the neutral and the live wires can pose a major threat, as it brings the cabinet close to the ‘live line’ potential. The circuit given in Fig. 4(a) is designed to give an alarm and disconnect the mains, should such a situation occur. The circuit given in Fig. 4(b) gives both an audible and visual alarm without taking any action. Overheating/ fire-hazard alarms Fig. 5(b): Audible overheating alarm. The circuits shown in Fig. 5 are designed to forewarn of any chances of fire in sensitive equipment. The circuits, which can be clipped onto the power component which tends to heat the most, say a power transistor or an IC, gives an alarm when the component heats up to a preset level. The circuits given in Figs 5(a), 5(b) and 5(c) give visual and audio indications respectively and disconnect the supply. Mains Leakage Mains leakage is the cause of electrocution in a majority of cases. Two circuits are given to detect and Fig. 5(c): Overheating cutout circuit. Fig. 6: Mains leakage alarm circuit. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 35 Fig. 7: Mains leakage cutout circuit. Fig. 8: Electronic variable 'blowing speed' fuse. provide protection against the same. The circuit given in Fig. 6, provides an alarm upon sensing the leakage, whereas the circuit given in Fig. 7 cuts off the supply in that case. Electronic fuses In most cases, conventional fuses can provide protection against various hazards. But in certain instances, where the load consumes more current during ‘switch-on’ but lesser afterwards, the fuse blows up when the device is turned on. In such cases, the electronic fuse with an adjustable ‘blowing speed’ may be used. The fuse, as shown in Fig. 8, 36 is based on an LM748 comparator. VR5 is used to adjust the current level and VR6 to vary the speed of blowing in the seconds range. Essential precautions 1. Use only the right hand while handling high voltages, so that even during momentary accidental contact, the chances of cardiac muscular contraction are reduced. 2. Keep the hands dry while handling voltages even above 50V. 3. It is advisable to wear rubber gloves while handling high voltages. 4. Try to avoid direct contact with ground, if possible. It is recommended that one stands on a rubber or wooden block while handling high voltages. At least, the left leg should be kept well insulated. 5. Keep a neon pen tester handy. 6. Never try repairing gadgets with the mains plug connected. Persons with weak hearts or heart problems are advised not to risk handling high voltages, as they are the most susceptible to cardiac arrest. Keeping these precautions in mind, even a beginner should be able to construct the useful safety gadgets, described above.  ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 PORTABLE SMD SOLDERING STATION PRADIP KUMAR BOSE S urface mount technology (SMT) was introduced in the beginning of the 1980s to make circuits compact and small. It was SMD (surface mounted device) which created different layer PCBs to with- stand the fast, advanced and small components in micro electronics. Today, almost all components in the computer industry are surface mounted. Hence, modern electronic equipment is very compact and small. Surface mounted devices have revolutionised the electronics industry. An SMD is a very small electronic component. It may be an IC, a resistor a capacitor or a diode. Generally, ICs are labelled as SMDs when they Fig. 1: Circuit diagram for the portable SMD soldering station. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 37 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 — Tl — T2,T3 — T4 — D1-D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 Fig. 2: Actual-size PCB layout for the portable SMD soldering station. — — — — — LM3914N bargraph display BC148 npn transistor SL100 npn transistor 2N3055 npn transistor (on 3mm thick heatsink) 1N5402 rectifier diode 8.6V, l00mW zener 1N4001 rectifier diode 6.1V, 400mW zener 1N4148 silicon switching diode Resistors (all 1/4 watt, ±5% carbon unless stated otherwise): Rl — 560-ohm R2 — 100-ohm R3,R7,R8 — 8.2-kilohm R4,R6 — 2.2-kilohm R5 — 1.5-kilohm R9 — 3.9-kilohm R10,R11 — 1-kilohm VR1 — 22-kilohm pot VR2 — 2.2-kilohm pot VR3 — 4.7-kilohm linear pot Capacitors: Cl — C2 — C3 — Miscellaneous: RL1 — Sl — X1 — Fl — — — 1000μF, 25V electrolytic 10μF, 12V electrolytic 220μF, 25V electrolytic 12V, 300-ohm SPDT relay ON/OFF switch 0-12V, 2A step-down transformer 1.5A fuse 12V, 10W/15W SMD iron LEDs such cost-effective equipment. The circuit Fig. 3: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 2. are very small and have several terminals. Nowadays, single-chip m i c r o c o n t r o llers in keyboards, FDC, XT/AT I/O, display cards and other add-on cards are almost all SMDs. Modern electronic wave soldering assembly is used to solder these devices on PCBs. But for servicing purpose an SMD soldering station is necessary. A commercially available station costs around Rs 700 while the station described here costs around Rs 400 and it can do all the work, the one available in the market can do. The soldering station is nothing but a temperature controlled soldering iron. A low voltage (12V) and low wattage 38 (10/15W) soldering iron is necessary for SMDs. As it would be very complicated to use a temperature sensor, a variable voltage source is used to control temperature of iron tip. Since thermal load is very small for SMDs, this method is suitable. Besides, an overvoltage sensor is there to monitor the mains voltage. If voltage increases largely, this section disconnects the iron from the supply to avoid damage to the element. A virtual indication of temperature by several LEDs is used here. The LEDs glow like a bargraph in audio amplifier according to the rise in voltage, i.e. the rise in temperature. Though this is a virtual method, it is quite suitable for Transformer X1 steps down AC supply voltage. After filtering and rectification, the voltage is applied across an over voltage cutout (OVC) circuit, built around transistors Tl and T2. After a predetermined voltage set by VR1, zener D5 fires and transistor Tl conducts. As a result, its emitter voltage increases, T2 becomes ‘on’ and energises relay RL1. At the same time, LED2 indicates over voltage. Relay RL1 breaks the supply to the regulator. The voltage regulation is achieved by a series regulator. Transistors T3 and T4 are connected in Darlington arrangement. The base voltage of transistor T3 is controlled by VR3. Zener D7 makes voltage across VR3 constant. The variable voltage source is capable of giving 9 to 12V DC at 1A. IC LM3914N is used here for virtual temperature indication. The voltELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 age divider, made by resistors R8, VR2 and R9, gives sensor voltage to LM 3914. This sensor voltage is applied at the input terminal of ICl (pin 5). Ten outputs are taken from IC1 and ten LEDs are connected to them, forming a bargraph array. The voltage variation across the soldering iron increases or decreases the number of corresponding LEDs that glow. SMD iron used here is a 12V, 10W or 15W soldering iron. These irons are small and have a pin-type tip. Besides, a thin solder wire should be used. These irons are now available in the market for around Rs 140. Construction, testing and alignment The PCB layout and component layout of this project are shown in Figs 2 and 3, respectively. Use IC socket for IC 3914. After completing construction, disconnect re- Readers’ Comments: Please, correct some mistakes in the article: Resistors R1 (560-ohm) and R5 (1.5k) have been connected in parallel to each other across rectified voltage filtering capacitor C1. With 12V DC, the flow of around 30mA current disspates about 360mW across R1, which exceeds the 1/4W specifi- ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 lay switch from any one end of coil L1. Now, switch on Sl, observe and ensure that LED1 is glowing. Apply about 250V to the primary of X1. Now, adjust VR1 in such a way that relay RL1 just energises. In this state, LED1 should ‘go off’ and LED2 must glow. Check voltage across Fig. 4: Suggested cabinet for the SMD soldering station. capacitor Cl. It must be higher than 16V in this state. to maximum position. All LEDs should Decrease primary voltage to 220V. glow. The soldering station is ready for Relay RL1 should de-energise now. use now. A suggested cabinet is shown Connect coil L1 in its place and adjust in Fig. 4. VR3 to get minimum output voltage. To begin with, place VR3 to 3/4th Check this voltage with a meter. If it is of its total rotation and then after heatbelow 9V, replace resistor R7 by trial ing place it near 1/2 position. This and error method. will increase the life of iron as well In this condition, adjust VR2 such as the bit.  that LED3 just glows. Now, rotate VR3 cation of the resistor. Please, clarify the wattage of resistor. Why are we using such low-value resistor? Is it a bleeder resistor? Ramesh Hirpara Gandhinagar The author, Pradip Kumar Bose, replies: Please, note that the two resistors are in parallel, but current through them is unequal. Resistor R1 dissipates around 0.25W (IR1) = 0.021A approx.) and R5 dissipates 0.096W. However, R1’s rating may be changed to 0.5watt, if required. Yes, R1 and R2 are bleeder resistors. 39 DIGITAL CONTROLLER FOR OUTDOOR LIGHTS UNNIKRISHNAN P.R. T here is a variety of outdoor light controllers available. Some switch lights on at the fall of dusk and off at the break of dawn. Others switch lights on at the end of dusk and off after a few hours. But for domestic use, where we require light in the early mornings also, these do not serve the purpose. The circuit described here solves this problem. It offers the following features: 1. It switches on lights at about 6.00 pm and switches off at about 10.30 pm. Again, it switches on lights at 4.30 am and switches off at about 6.00 am. 2. If power supply is interrupted, it automatically switches off the whole system. In this way, erratic switching of the bulbs is avoided. 3. There are separate on and off switches for easy operation of the system. 4. It uses LED indicators to detect different conditions of the circuit. 5. Preset control to set the trigger time. The circuit comprises six sections. 1. Autopower off The autopower off system is based on IC1, an NE555. A fixed voltage, lower than 2/3 Vcc, is fed to pin 6 (threshold) of IC1. If triggered, its output stays in the on state as long as its reset pin 4 does not get a negative pulse or the power supply is interrupted. The output goes low when the supply is switched on again. The output of IC1 provides power supply for the second section. By pressing Sl, a negative pulse is fed to pin 2, and thus it can be used to switch on the other sections. S2 is used to switch off other sections by resetting IC1. When power supply is interrupted, output of IC1 goes low and switches off the other sections. When power supply is resumed, S1 must be pressed to switch on the circuit. By observing LED1, we can know whether the circuit is on or off. 2. Triggering This section is used to trigger the circuit at the fall of dusk. It is configured around IC2, which is working in the monostable mode. A variable voltage is fed to trigger pin 2 of IC2 via LDR1 and VR1. In the monostable mode of operation, the output of IC2 stays high as long as its trigger input stays below 1/3 Vcc. At night, the resistance of LDR1 is high, so the voltage at pin 2 is at a low level and hence the output of IC2 goes high at night. The output condition of IC2 can be detected from LED2. The output of IC2 gives power supply to the next three stages. 3. Resetting The next section is used to reset the two 4017 decade counter ICs used in the counter section. This is also based on a 555 timer (IC3). Its trigger pin 2 is connected to capacitor C4 and resistor R7. In the absence of a supply, there is no voltage across the capacitor. When supply is on, IC3 is triggered because voltage across capacitor is below 1/3 Vcc and its output goes to a high state. The voltage across capacitor C4 increases, so that the voltage at pin 2 crosses 1/3 Vcc. The time period for which the output stays in the high state depends upon resistor R8 and capacitor C5, and is given by the relationship 1.1 x R8 x C5. The output of IC3 is given to the reset pin 15 of decade counters IC5 Fig. 1: Block diagram for the digital controller. 40 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig.2: Circuit diagram for the digital controller. and IC6. These ICs are reset when IC3 is triggered, and as long as the output of IC3 is in the high state, the counters stay in the reset position. 4. Oscillator This section is used to produce a square wave output. It is based on IC4, an NE555. Its output frequency depends upon resistors R9, R10 and capacitor C7, and is calculated by the equation 1.443 –––––––––––––––– (R9 + 2 R10) C7 The output frequency is fed to the counter section. 5. Counting The counter section is used to count the output frequency from the oscillating section. It uses two CMOS CD4017BS ICs. The frequency from oscillating section, IC4, is fed to the input pin of IC5. IC5 works as a frequency divider and its output is fed to the input pin of IC6. The four outputs of IC6 are combined by using diodes D1 through D4. This combined output is given to the last section. If any of the outputs is high, then the load is in ‘on’ state. The condition of this combined output is detected by LED3. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 6. Output The output section is used to switch the relay on and off. It is based on BEL187 transistor Tl. The relay is connected at the collector of transistor Tl. Diode D5 is connected to protect transistor T1. The output from the counting section is fed to the base of T1 through resistor Rl1. If the output from counting section is high, it biases the transistor and thus the relay is acti- vated. Working By pressing S1, the triggering section gets the power supply. At the fall of dusk, the resistance of LDR1 increases, so a large voltage is dropped across it, resulting in a decrease in the voltage at pin 2. When the voltage at pin 2 drops PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 - IC4 IC5, IC6 — — T1 — D1 - D5 — NE555 timer CD4017B decade counter BEL187 npn transistor 1N4001 rectifier dicode Resistors (all 1/4 watt, ±5% carbon unless stated otherwise): Rl, R13 — 10-kilohm R2 — 56-kilohm R3 — 27-kilohm R4, R6, R12, R14 — 680-ohm R5 — 100-kilohm R7 — 2.2-megohm R8 — 470-kilohm R9 — 120-kilohm RI0 — 330-kilohm R11 — 15-kilohm VR1 — 470-kilohm, variable LDR1 — Light dependent resistor Capacitors: Cl,C3,C6, C8 — C2 — C4 C5 — — C7 — C9 — Cl0 — Miscellaneous: RL1 — S1,S2 — 0.0lμF ceramic disc 100μ, 16V electrolytic 47nF ceramic 470μF, 16V electrolytic l000μF,16V electrolytic l00μF,25V electrolytic 10μF,16V electrolytic 9V, 200-ohm, SPST relay Pushbutton type switch 41 Fig. 3: Actual-size PCB layout for the digital controller. Fig. 5: Front panel layout. on. After one and a half hour, the output is changed to Q8 (pin 9). Since pin 9 of IC6 has no connection, it again switches off the relay. At the break of dawn, the resistance of LDR1 decreases, and the trigger pin of IC2 gets a positive voltage greater than 1/3 Vcc, so that its output goes low which, in turn, cuts off power supply to the next three stages. Assembly Fig. 4: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. below 1/3 Vcc, IC2 is triggered and stays in the high state till morning. Since the output of IC2 is high, the next three stages get power supply. When C4 is fully charged, IC3 is triggered and so the reset pins of IC5 and IC6 both get a positive pulse. Therefore, the first outputs of both ICs are high. This condition changes when the voltage across capacitor C5 crosses 2/3 Vcc, because then the output of IC3 goes to a low state and the reset pins of IC5 and IC6 get a negative pulse each. In this condition, IC5 gets ready to accept pulses from the oscillating section and its outputs are changed. For each set of ten pulses from IC4, the outputs of IC6 are changed one by one. The output time period of oscillating section is about 540.5 seconds, i.e. 42 about nine minutes. Since IC5 divides the output frequency from IC4, IC6 gets a pulse of time period 9 x 10 = 90 minutes, i.e. one and a half hours. So, the outputs of IC6 are changed every one and a half hours duration. When the controller is switched on, the output Q0 at pin 3 of IC6 is high and it turns on the load for first one and a half hour. Then, the next output Q1 at pin 2 is high, which switches on the load for the second one and a half hour. Next, output Q2 at pin 4 goes high, which switches on the load for the same period again. When the output Q3 at pin 7 is high, it switches off the relay as pin 7 has no connection. Then, the output of IC6 changes to Q4, Q5, Q6 for each one and a half hour, and when it reaches Q7 (i.e. pin 6) the load is again switched The circuit may be assembled on a general-purpose PCB or the PCB whose pattern is shown in Fig. 3. Front panel can be made according to one’s choice. A model is shown in Fig. 5. A 9V power supply can be assembled, using a step-down transformer and a rectifier, and connected to the circuit as shown in Fig. 2. Relay connections are also shown in Fig. 2. The front panel bears various controls and indication LEDs. In the presence of power, LED1 glows. On pressing S1, LED4 will glow. At day time, adjust VR1 to set the trigger LED2 to off position by trial and error method. Under normal conditions, only LED1 and LED4 will glow. After dusk, trigger LED2 and load LED3 will also glow. After four and a half hours, the load and load LED3 are off. The load LED3 is again activated after six hours, to be turned off after another one and a half hours. To turn the system off, press S2.  ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 VOX FOR HAM RIGS KANG K.P.S V OX or voice operated transreceive control is very convenient in operating a transmitter, especially in SSB mode. Commercially available units are expensive. Most of the available circuits in Ham journals use complex circuitry, which either is highly expensive or most of the components are not easily available in the Indian market. The unit described here is based on compact and straightforward design, using easily available discrete devices, and is quite inexpensive. The unit is ideal to use with almost any commercial or homebrewed VHF or HF trans-receiver that does not have the facility of VOX operation. Further, the performance of this Fig. 1: Block diagram for the VOX. unit is an improvement over the previously available designs. Block diagram The block diagram is given in Fig.1. A part of microphone input is capacitively coupled to a preamplifier. The preamplifier is provided with a sensitivity control, which is used to adjust the sensitivity of VOX. The output of the preamplifier is rectified and a DC signal proportional to the available microphone input is applied to VOX/ antivox sensitivity control. Antivox signal is derived from re- Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the VOX. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 43 Fig. 3: Actual-size PCB layout for the VOX. Fig. 4: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. ceiver speaker output and is applied to the unit. This signal is also rectified to achieve a similar DC signal, but with opposite polarity to that of VOX signal and applied to the second arm of VOX/ antivox sensitivity control. In presence of VOX signal from microphone input, a proportional DC signal is developed at the centre of VOX/ antivox sensitivity control, which is amplified, using a DC amplifier and it operates the relay driver to key the transmitter. The delay circuit provides the required delay to trans-receive change-over. In presence of antivox signal from the receiver’s speaker, a signal of equal but opposite magnitude is developed across the second arm of VOX/antivox sensitivity control, which cancels out the trace of VOX signal to DC amplifier and de-operates the transmitter. Thus, in presence of signals in receiver, false operations of transmitter are PARTS LIST Semiconductors: Tl — T2,T3 — T4 — T5 — T6 — D1-D4 — D5 — BFW10 (FET) transistor BC149C npn transistor BC148B npn transistor BC157A pnp transistor BC147B/SL100 npn transistor 1N34/OA79 detector diode 1N4001 rectifier diode Resistors (all 1/4 watt +5% carbon, unless stated otherwise): Rl — 1-Megohm R2.R6, R10,R13 — 10-Kilohm R3,R14 — 1-Kilohm R4,R8,R12 — 100-Kilohm R5 — 270-Kilohm R7 — 820-ohm R9 — 150-Kilohm Rll — 4.7-Kilohm VR1 — 1-Kilohm VR2 — 220-Kilohm 44 VR3 VR4 Capacitors: Cl C2 C3 C4 C5 C6,C8,C9 C7 C10,C12, C14 C11,C13 — — 10-Kilohm pot. 22-Kilohm pot. — — — — — — — 0.005μF ceramic disc 220pF ceramic disc 270pF ceramic disc 0.lμF ceramic disc 2200μF, 16V electrolytic 4.7μF, 16V electrolytic 3.3μF 16V electrolytic — — 10μF, 16V electrolytic lμF nonpolar electrolytic Miscellaneous: Sl — S2 — RL1 — — SPST toggle switch Push-to-on switch 12V, 600-ohm SPST relay PCB, connecting wires, suggested enclosure and jacks etc ceased. Circuit The input stage to the preamplifier is designed with an FET to achieve high input impedance (around 1-megohm) and low current drain. Capacitor C2 shunts traces of any RF pickup at the input of this stage since the unit is designed to operate near transmitter/ receiver unit. Resistors Rl, R2 and R3 bias the FET. The frequency response of the stage is determined with emitter decoupling capacitor C6. In case false operation due to hum pickup from surrounding mains wiring is observed, it can be eliminated by reducing the values of capacitors C6 and C9. Transistors T2 and T3 constitute the next two stages of the preamplifier. BC149C transistors are used at low Q points to achieve the required performance from the circuitry. The emitter resistance VR1 of transistor T3 determines the overall gain of the preamplifier and so the microphone sensitivity can be controlled with it. Diodes Dl through D4 constitute rectifier/detector sections for both VOX and antivox signals. Diode 1N34 is used, but OA79 or similar germanium units will render better service in such stages, and can be substituted for betELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 ter performance, if available. The rectified outputs are filtered with capacitors C11 and C13 capacitors and applied to the two arms of VR2, which is used as VOX/antivox balance. The reverse polarities of diodes D3 and D4 in antivox section of rectifier are meant to generate negative magnitude with respect to VOX rectifier. A positive potential is applied to the VOX arm of VOX/antivox balance through switch S2 and resistor R12 to effectuate manual operation when needed. The generated emf is applied to a DC amplifier, built around transistors T4 and T5. Capacitor C12, resistor Rll and potentiometer VR4 form the delay circuit, which provides the required time delay between trans-receive operations. Transistor T6 is a relay driver. BC147B is used, but BC187 can also be used. Another good substitute is SL100 or BD135. An SPST relay at its collector is used to key the transmitter. Diode D5 protects transistor T6 from ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 transients during relay operations. Construction A PCB layout of the VOX unit is given in Fig.3. The PCB is sufficiently large and simple for easy assembling, even by beginners. The PCB accommodates almost all components, except VR3, C13, C14, D3 and D4 which are mounted near the antivox input jack on the rear panel. The complete unit may be housed in a metallic cabinet used for TV signal boosters, but can be included in the existing transmitter circuit itself. The PCB layout shows that about one third of the space is unused and so a smaller version is obviously possible to fit into the commercial rigs with crowded inners and a PCB to suit individual needs can be designed accordingly. Though a metallic enclosure is used to avoid stray RF pickup by preampli- fier stages, additional safety measures, such as use of high quality shielded wires (especially as small in length as possible) should be taken too. It is advisable to use ferrite beads on all input and supply leads. No provision of mounting the relay on the PCB itself is made and thus the relay needs to be fitted wherever possible. A fast relay is needed to avoid clipping of the first syllable spoken. A small unit is often better than a large one. The adjustment is simple. Keep VR2 approximately at its centre. Adjust VR1, so that the relay is keyed with each syllable spoken at a considerable and convenient distance from the microphone. VR4 should be adjusted to an individual’s speech habits, but it is a must to give sufficient delay, so that the relay should drop out only at long pauses in speech. The antivox control VR3 should be adjusted to give required antivox action at listening level of the receiver of one’s choice.  45 STEADY HAND GAME HARINDER SINGH T his is a game which demands a lot of concentration and patience. The mechanical version of the game consists of a cylindrical container with a transparent flat top and a smooth inner surface with a lightweight ball in it. The objective of the game is to manoeuvre the ball into a shallow pit at the bottom of the container. As the container ’s surface is smooth, it is very difficult to achieve this objective. And even if the ball lands up in the pit, it is very likely that the ball would jump out soon, as the pit is Fig. 1: Circuit diagram for the steady hand game. 46 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: ICl (a-d) IC2 IC3-IC4 IC5(N1-N4) T1,T2 D1.D2 — — — — — — LM324 op-amp CD4040 counter NE555 timer CD4011 NAND BC548 npn transistor 1N4148 silicon switching diode time, and it is necessary that the balls remain in the pit for quite some time (approx. 15 seconds) before the player is declared a winner. Circuit description The circuit can be divided mainly into two sections, the display section Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon, unless and the timer section. The display secstated otherwise): tion consists of ball LEDs, LED1 R1,R2,R11,R12 — 47-kilohm through LED4, the ball in the pit, LED5 R3,R6,R7,R10 (bicolour) and the joystick potentiomR13,R21 — 10-kilohm R4,R5,R8,R9, eters VR1 and VR5. IC1 LM324 is an R14,R15,R22 — 1-kilohm op-amp. Op-amps IC1 (a) and ICl (b) R16 — 680-kilohm are wired as window comparators. R17 — 330-kilohm In a comparator if the non-invertR18 — 180-kilohm R19 — 100-kilohm ing pin voltage is higher than the inR20 — 4.7-kilohm verting pin voltage, the output is posiVR1,VR5 — 100-kilohm pot. tive; if the voltages at both the invertVR2,VR4 — 220-ohm pot. ing and non-inverting pins of the comVR3 (a,b) — 1-kilohm dual pot. parator are same, the output is zero; Capacitors : else the output from the comparator is C1,C2,C4 — 0.1μF ceramic disc negative. Window voltage for comparaC3,C6 — 100μF, 16V tor IC1(a) and ICl(b) can be increased electrolytic or decreased with the help of potentiC5 — 0.01μF ceramic disc ometer VR3(a). Miscellaneous : When the voltage at the centre pin LED1-LED4, of potentiometer VR1 is within the winLED5 — Bicolour LED dow voltage limits, both LED1 and (common-anode) LED2 are extinguished, else if voltage LED6 — Red LED Sl — Bell pushbutton at centre pin of VR1 is higher than switch voltage at inverting pin of IC1(a), LED1 lights up and LED2 is extinguished. very shallow. Another version of the On the other hand, if voltage at the game has more than one ball, all of centre pin of VR1 is lower than the which have to be manoeuvered into the voltage at non-inverting pin of IC1(b) pit at the same time. then LED2 lights up and LED1 is exThe electronic version of the game, tinguished. Decreasing the window taken up here, imitates the mechanical voltage by decreasing resistance of VR3 version having two balls. The rolling makes it difficult to achieve the objecballs are represented by red LEDs and tive of the game as the position of VR1 the ball in the pit is represented by a at which both LED1 and LED2 are green LED. The balls have to be ma- extinguished becomes more precise. noeuvred into the pit, using a joystick. VR1 is used to manoeuvre the ball, To increase the excitement, timers have i.e. LED1 and LED2 in two opposite been included. The balls have to be directions, east and west. A similar cirmanouvred into the pit within a preset cuit is built around comparators IC1(c) and ICl(d), and VR5 manoeuvres the ball, i.e. LED3 and LED4, in north-south direction. When any of the four ball LEDs is lit, transistor Tl conducts, so that transistor T2 is cut off and the green colour part of bicolour LED5 does not light, FOLD HERE TO MAKE 90 indicating that the ball is not in ANGLE BETWEEN THE TWO SIDES the pit. As soon as all the ball LEDs are extinguished, Tl stops conducting. Hence, T2 conducts Fig. 2: Arrangement of joystick elevation. via resistor R13, resulting in O ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 3: Construction of joystick plate. lighting up of green portion of LED5. The timer section consists of two NE555 timer ICs. When the green portion of LED5 is extinguished, the reset pin 11 of binary counter IC2 CD4040 is held high and hence IC2 is reset. When the green portion of LED5 lights up, pin 11 of IC2 is grounded, so that it starts counting the clock pulses provided to it from IC3. IC3, is wired as astable multivibrator and provides pulses of length 0.117 seconds. IC2 counts these pulses upto 128, i.e. after about 15 seconds pin 13 of IC2 will go high for a period of 0.117 seconds, provided IC2 is not reset, i.e. the ball does not jump out of the pit for full 15 seconds. If the ball does jump out, IC2 is reset and the next count starts from zero till the time the ball remains in the pit. IC4 is wired as a timer whose time is set by potentiometer VR6 and varies from 20 to 130 seconds. Switch Sl is used to start the timer. As soon as S1 is pressed, pin 3 of IC4 goes high and LED7 is extinguished. If during this time, when pin 3 of IC3 is high, the ball remains in the pit for 15 seconds, i.e. pin 13 of IC2 is high, the output of NAND gate N3 goes low, thus turning on the red portion of LED5. A latch is formed around NAND gates Nl and N2. The latch is activated as soon as the output of gate N3 goes low, so that the red portion of LED5 lights on. Now, if the ball jumps out of the pit, green portion of LED5 will get extinguished, but red portion remains lit, indicating victory. 47 If the player is unable to achieve the objective of the game within the given time, LED7 is lit, indicating timeout. The red portion of LED5 will not light up even by placing the ball in the pit for 15 seconds if LED7 is lit, as the condition for low output from gate N3 will not be fulfilled in that case. Construction As the circuit is simple, it can easily be constructed on a general-purpose PCB. All the LEDs, potentiometers VR3 and VR6 and the joystick are mounted on the front panel. To keep the cost of the game low, it is advisable to construct your own joystick. Detailed diagrams, showing the construction of a simple joystick, are given in Figs. 2 and 3. This joystick will have two degrees of motion along two axes. VR1 is connected to the plate by using the spindle holder of a damaged potentiometer, having same spindle dia as VR1. This spindle holder 48 is screwed to the plate after removing its original spindle. The spindle of VR1 is then placed in place of its original spindle and glued to it, so that the spindle of VR1 moves, on moving the plate. The second potentiometer VR5 is screwed to the other hole in the plate and its spindle is glued to a handle formed by the back portion of an old ball pen. Now, the handle can be moved in two directions perpendicular to each other, thus changing the resistance of potentiometers VR1 and VR5, depending on the direction of motion. Before placing the joystick in the casing, make sure that wipers of both the potentiometers VR1 and VR5 are midway, when the handle is almost perpendicular to the panel. This arrangement is screwed to the panel, so that only the handle of the joystick is outside the casing. The hole meant for the joystick handle should be somewhat larger in dia than the dia of the handle, so that the handle can be moved easily. Using a commercial ball type joystick will make the game slightly more difficult, since the motion of joystick handle in slightly slanting direction results in movement of spindles of both VR1 and VR5. Alignment and operation The only adjustments that have to be made are in the presets VR2 and VR4. Keep the resistance of potentiometer VR3 minimum and adjust the joystick, so that all the red LEDs are extinguished. If two opposite direction LEDs (1 and 2 or 3 and 4) are lit simultaneously, increase the resistance of VR2 (for LED1 and LED2) or VR4 (for LED3 and LED4) until only one of the two opposite-direction LEDs is lit, as the ball can only be in one of the two opposite directions at an instant. Potentiometer VR6 may be adjusted to give the required delay time to achieve the objective of the game.  ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 TELECONVERSATION LIMITER S.BATRA G ossiping over the telephone, especially among youngsters, has become a very common trait nowadays. The verbal instruction to “be brief on phone”, hardly has any effect. The electronic gadget discussed here may force the telephone user to be brief, or else disconnect the line after 9 or 10 minutes. Working principle The principle of the gadget can be very well understood from the block diagram shown in Fig. 1. The gadget consists of a watchdog circuit, sensor and switch circuit, one-minute pulse generator, decade counter/divider and relay circuit. Watchdog circuit/sensor circuit will detect whether the telephone is in use. If so, it extends the information to the switch circuit which in turn supplies Vcc to one-minute pulse generator/decade counter. Conversation period is counted and displayed by LEDs (LED1—LED10). After nine minutes the relay circuit is enabled to disconnect the telephone instrument from the line. Circuit description The complete circuit diagram of the gadget is given in Fig. 2. Under the idle condition, i.e. when the telephone is on-hook, the potential difference across the telephone line is about 48V. The diodes D1 through D4 in the bridge configuration, 15V zener diode D5 and 100k resistor R18 form the watchdog circuit. The circuit will detect whether the telephone is on-hook or off-hook. Under on-hook condition, the line voltage, i.e. 48V, enables zener to break down. Hence, a voltage of 15V develops across the zener and about 33V drops across R18, which is applied to opto-LED pins 1 and 2 of the optocoupler IC1(4N35) through 33k limiting resistor R17 and the opto-LED lights up. Under off-hook condition, a loop is extended through the telephone instrument, reducing the line potential to PARTS LIST Semiconductors IC1 — IC2 — IC3 — T1,T2 — D1-D4 — D5 — : 4N35 or MCT2E optocoupler 7555 CMOS timer 4017 CMOS decade counter BC109 silicon npn transistor 1N4004 rectifier diode 15V, 250mW zener Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon, unless stated otherwise): R1-R10, R14,R15, R19 — 1-kilohm R11,R12 — 10-kilohm R13 — 1-megohm R16,R18 — 100-kilohm R17 — 33-kilohm VR1 — 47-kilohm preset VR2 — 470-ohm preset Capacitors: C1,C4 — C2 — C3 — C5 — C6 — 2.2 μF, 16V electrolytic 47μF, 16V electrolytic 0.0 lμF ceramic disc 220μF, 16V electrolytic l00μF, 16V electrolytic Miscellaneous: X1 — 230V AC primary to 0-5V, 100 mA secondary transformer RL1 — 5 or 6V mini relay LED1LED5 — 3 mm green LED LED6LED8 — 3 mm amber LED LED9, LED10 — 3 mm red LED Suitable acrylic cabinet Fig. 1: Block diagram for the teleconversation limiter. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 49 about 9V. This voltage fails to operate the 15V zener, and hence no potential is developed across resistor R18 and no light is emitted by the opto-LED. Light energy, if emitted, is sensed by the photo-transistor pins 4 and 5 of optocoupler IC1 and in turn drives transistor Tl to saturation. The potential at the collector of transistor Tl will therefore be almost zero. In case the light is not sensed, the transistor will be cut off and the supply potential, about 5V, will be available at the collector of Tl. The collector of transistor Tl extends the reset voltage to pin 4 of one-minute generator IC2 (7555) and Vcc to decade counter/divider IC3 (4017). Obviously, when the telephone is on-hook, transistor Tl supplies zero potential to both the ICs and they are inactive. The moment the telephone is offhook, supply voltage of about 5V is extended to IC2 and IC3. Every minute is counted by the counter and displayed by the respective LEDs. The first five minutes are indicated by five green LEDs, one by one. Subsequent three minutes are indicated by three amber LEDs. The ninth minute is indicated by a red LED. In case, the call is not concluded till the end of the ninth minute, start of the tenth minute will operate LED 10 and the mini relay circuit, disconnecting the telephone instrument through N/C contact of the relay. The watchdog circuit continues getting potential lower than 15V. The capacitor C4 and resistor R12 help in resetting IC3 as soon as the telephone is off-hook. Capacitor C6 provides a delay of two to three seconds as a protection against any irregularity due to tapping of the hook-switch by someone. As soon as the telephone is onhook, transistor Tl saturates and IC2 and IC3 become inactive. In case, the time-limit has to be set to other than nine minutes, vary the time-period of IC2 by varying the values of preset VRl, resistor R13 and capacitor C2. Assembly and testing This project can be assembled on a PCB of about 80 mm x 65mm size. The PCB and component layouts are given in Figs 3 and 4, respectively. After the assembly is completed, before connecting it to the telephone line, the 50 Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the teleconversation limiter. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 3: Actual-size PCB layout for the circuit shown in Fig. 2. circuit could be tested as follows : 1. Before switching on the main supply, check for any short circuit between Vcc and ground. When switched on, the supply voltage should be between 6 and 7 volts. 2. With the telephone line not connected, there will be no potential at the base of transistor Tl and about 5V should be available at the collector of Tl. LED1 will light up. 3. After about a minute, LED2 should light, if the one-minute pulse generator is working properly. If not, check output pin 3 of IC2 for 50 percent duty cycle. Otherwise, check the components connected to IC2. 4. If the counter is working properly, it should light up all the LEDs one by one. 5. When the last LED lights up, the relay will operate. Keep preset VR2 at the minimum value. Increase VR2 till the relay remains in the operating condition. Try to adjust before the tenth LED goes off. This will economise the cur- ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 4: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. rent of the relay. Now, the gadget is ready for connection to the telephone line. 6. When connected to the telephone line, no LED should light up, except the power indicator LED 11. In case under on-hook condition LED1 lights Fig. 5: Suggested acrylic cabinet. up, check either the optocoupler or transistor Tl. 7. As soon as the instrument is offhook, the first green LED should light up. Subsequently, all LEDs should light up one by one. 8. After about nine or ten minutes, when the relay operates, the line will be disconnected from the instrument for about a minute. The telephone call will also get disconnected during this one-minute interval. After the circuit has been satisfactorily tested, the complete gadget can be housed in a suitable white acrylic cabinet and installed near the telephone instrument. A suggested front panel layout of the cabinet is shown in Fig. 5. Incoming ringing current will have no effect on the gadget, as IC2 and IC3 are not active at that time. Any other disturbance on the line will not affect the working of the gadget, as it is completely isolated from the telephone line. In case of any fault (such as failure of optocoupler or power supply) in the gadget, the normal operation of the telephone will not be affected as the telephone instrument continues to be connected to the line through the normallyclosed (N/C) contact of the relay.  51 PROGRAMMABLE NUMBER LOCK S. HARI KUMAR A programmable versatile electronic number lock circuit is discussed here. It offers facilities to set a nine-digit code number for the lock. The code can be changed very easily by the legitimate user. A number is entered and the lock is set. The lock opens only if the same number is en- tered again. The memory is protected against power failures, and is not lost even during battery replacement. The circuit is built entirely around CMOS ICs, and hence consumes very little power under steady state conditions. With slight modification, a 4digit number can be used to set the lock, if one finds the 9-digit number a bit too long. Operation of the lock A keyboard is provided to enter the numbers. To set a number in the lock, first put switch S3 on, to activate the Fig. 1: Circuit diagram for the main programmable number 52 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the keyboard of programable number lock. displays. Display 1 shows the number entered, and display 2 the position of that number. Press the reset or retry switch S2 to initialise the counter and flip-flop. Now, display 2 reads zero. Display 1 also reads zero, as no number is entered. Close switch Sl to enable ‘Write’ operation. Now, enter a 9-digit number through the keyboard, taking care to note the value and the position of each digit from the displays. For example, if the number entered is 748326781, when the digit 2 is entered display 1 will show 2 and display 2 will read 5. After the number is set, open switch S1. The display can be put off by opening switch S3. Press switch S2 to reset the lock. To open the lock, push switch S2 and enter the number. If the number PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 — 7806 6V, 500mA regulator IC2 — MM74C14 hex inverter schmitt trigger IC3 — MM74C04 hex inverter IC4 — MM74C89 64-bit tristate random access read/write memory IC5, IC8 — CD4511 BCD to 7 segment latch decoder/driver IC6 — MM74C90 4-bit decade counter IC7 — MM74C86 quad 2-input EX-OR gate IC9 — MM74C32 quad 2-input OR gate IC10 — MM74C08 quad 2-input AND gate IC11 — MM74C74 dual D-type flipflop T1 — BC147 npn transistor T2 — SL100 npn transistor D1, D2 D32-D36 — 1N4001 silicon rectifier diode D3-D31 — 1N4148 silicon switching diode Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1-R14 — 370-ohm ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 R15,R17, R18, R20, R21,R26 R38 R16 R19,R36 R22, R23, R25 R24, R31-R34 R35 R37 — — — 10-kilohm 22-kilohm 1-kilohm — 100-kilohm — — — 2.2-kilohm 4.7-kilohm 1.2-kilohm Capacitors: C1 — C2-C8 — C9 — Miscellaneous: S1 — S2 — S3 — S4-S13 — RL1 — X1 — DIS1, DIS2 — B1, B2 — — 1000μF, 25V electrolytic 0.1μF ceramic disc 0.01μF ceramic disc SPST switch Push-to-on switch SPST switch Keyboard with 10 keys 6V, 300-ohm relay 230V AC primary to 12V, 500mA secondary transformer FND500 or LT543 common cathode display 6V battery (two 3V lithium cells) PCB, chassis etc. entered is correct, the relay operates to open the lock. If it is not, the relay is not activated. Working The number entered at the keyboard is converted to BCD form, using the standard diode encoder matrix shown in Fig. 2. The output of keyboard unit is fed to the lock control unit. IC2 MM74C14 is a hex inverter schmitt trigger. The resistors and capacitors along with IC2 serve a dual purpose. They provide the time delays required to adjust the pulse timings for IC4 and IC6, and also serve as key debouncer. The output of IC2 goes low when the input voltage reaches the positive going threshold VT+ of the IC, and remains so until the input voltage falls below its negative going threshold VT-. IC6 is a decade counter, which counts on the negative going edge of clock pulse. When any key is pressed, IC6 is given a clock pulse and it increments its count. The BCD output from the keyboard is inverted by IC2, and is again inverted by IC3, a 7404 hex inverter, to give the original BCD form to IC4 (MM74C89). IC4 is a 64-bit tristate random access memory. Data is stored in words of 4-bit length and so a maximum of sixteen 4-bit data can be stored. To store a 4-bit data in the memory, the data is given to data inputs and the address is fed to address inputs. Then CS (chip 53 Fig. 3: Actual size PCB layout for the circuit shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 4: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. 54 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 5: Upper track side layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. select) and WE (write enable) pins 2 and 3 are brought low. In the read operation, WE is kept high and address is given to address input. When CS is brought low, the data stored at the address location is available at the output. The address to IC4 is provided by the counter (IC6). The address is in binary form. By keeping WE low, a number is stored in the memory chip. Now WE is kept high. During ‘Read’ operation, when each number is fed through keyboard the corresponding number is read out from the memory and compared with the given number using IC7, a quad EX-OR gate. If the numbers do not match in any one of the four bits, one of the outputs of EX-OR gates goes high. All the four outputs are ORed to get output at pin 8 of IC9, which is a quad OR gate. A mismatch in numbers results in a logic 1 at pin 8 of IC9, which is given to the D flip-flop, IC11. Resistor R19 and capacitor C9 are used for pulse stretching. The databit at the input is latched Fig. 6: PCB layout for the circuit shown in Fig. 2. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 55 Fig. 7: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 8: Upper track side layout for the PCB shown in Fig. to the output at the positive transition of clock pulse. Clock pulse is given from CS pin of IC4. If pin 8 of IC9 is high during clock pulse, the output Q of IC11 goes high and Q goes low. When Q goes high, clock input is kept high and no more input data is accepted by the flip-flop. IC10 (MM74C08) is a quad AND gate. When counter output is 1001 (9), pin 3 of IC10 goes high. Q output of IC 11 and output at pin 3 of IC10 are again ANDed to give trigger to the relay. So, when the count is 9 and Q is 56 low the relay does not operate. Then press S2 and try again. The 9-digit number can be reduced to a 4-digit number by making some minor changes in the connections of IC6, by making it operate as a ‘divide by five’ counter. IC5 and IC8 are BCD to 7-segment latch decoder/drivers. The display is latched till the next clock pulse arrives. Switch S1 is placed such that it is accessible only after opening the lock. The lock can be used as a hardware lock for electronic equipment. Battery E2 shown in the circuit comprises two lithium cells of 3V each, which safeguard the memory during power failure. A 6V regulated power supply circuit is shown in Fig. 2. As all the ICs used are of CMOS type, power supply can range from 3 to 15V. A 6V power supply is chosen for convenience and the 7-segment LED displays are biased according to that. Both the PCBs are double sided with plated through holes. The displays can be located at a convenient place and are not attached to the main PCBs.  ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 HUMIDITY CONTROLLER DINESH KUMAR RAHEJA S ummer in India is very hard to bear. Everyone wants a breeze of cool air, whether at office, workshop or at home. It is also a well known fact that everybody cannot afford an airconditioner. In cities, people mostly use desert coolers that provide some relief from the scorching heat. In many houses, rooms are quite small and ventilation is also inadequate, and if coolers are used continuously for a long time, excessive humidity results. This can cause serious diseases related to lungs and skin. In many coolers fan speed controllers are provided, but there is no provision for humidity control. Here is a low-cost and easy-to-build humidity controller, which can easily be installed in any desert cooler, and the user can get the desired level of humidity. Fig. 1: Circuit diagram for the humidity controller. PARTS LIST Semiconductors : IC1 — NE555 timer T1 — AC187/SL100 npn transistor with heatsink D1,D2 — 1N4148 silicon switching diode D3-D5 — 1N4007 silicon rectifier diode Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1 — 1-kilohm R2 — 10-kilohm R3 — 8.2-kilohm ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 VR1, VR2 Capacitors: C1, C2 C3 C4 — 100-kilohm linear, dual pot. (tandem type) — 470μF, 16V electrolytic — 0.01μF ceramic disc — 1000μF, 16V electrolytic Miscellaneous: RL1 — 6V, 100-ohm SPST relay X1 — 230V AC primary to 6V 0-6V, 250mA step-down transformer Circuit description This controller is designed to switch on/off the motor of the water pump automatically. A commonly available 555 timer IC is used as the basic building block of the controller. The timer is configured in astable multivibrator mode, and generates a train of square wave pulses at its output. A dual potentiometer (tandem type) is used to control the duty cycle (on time/cycle time ratio) of the square 57 Fig. 2: PCB layout for the humidity controller. wave generated by the timer. An npn transistor (AC187/SL100) is used to interface the relay to the timer IC, to avoid overloading of the output stage. Working The on time and the off time depend on the values of resistor Rl and capacitor C1, used in the charging and discharging paths, respectively. Here, two silicon diodes Dl and D2 (1N4148) are used to split the charging and discharging currents through dual potentiometer VR1 and VR2, respectively, so that capacitors Cl and C2 charge through +Vcc, resistor Rl, potentiometer VR1, diode Dl and resistor R2 up to two-third times the value of 58 Fig. 3: Component layout for the humidity controller. +Vcc during the time Ton, and then discharge through resistor R2, diode D2, potentiometer VR2 and discharge pin 7 of timer IC1 up to one-third times the value of +Vcc, during the time Toff, given by the equations: Ton = 0.69 x (Rl + VR1 + R2) x Cl seconds and Toff = 0.69 x (R2 + VR2) x Cl seconds Also, the cycle time of the square wave is given by: Tc = Ton + Toff = 0.69 x (Rl + VRl + VR2 + 2 x R2) x (C1 + C2) seconds. In this circuit, the cycle time is set one minute approx. The dual potentiometer (tandem type) is wired in such a way that if VR1 is increased, VR2 is decreased by the same amount, and vice-versa. This increases the on time by an amount (say +t sec.), and simultaneously decreases the off time by the same amount (-t sec.), keeping the cycle time constant. In other words, the pulse width of the square wave is controlled by the position of the dual pot. The relay switches the 230V AC supply to the motor of the pump, which supplies water only during the on time, when the timer output (at pin 3) is high. For the rest of the cycle time, the pump motor remains off. This action is repeated automatically every minute. In this way, the excessive humidity is controlled. The humidity control action can be set anywhere between 10 to 90 per cent of the maximum humidity obtained without a controller. Installation Considering the lack of space in the front panel and excess of water vapour inside the cooler, it is recommended to install this controller in a small box outside the cooler. However, the potentiometer can be fixed within the front panel.  ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 DOORBELL-CUM-SECURITY ALARM A.U. AHMED M ost security systems suffer from the drawback that either they require a number of keyboard switches to be mounted outside or they need a hidden switch (prone to be detected), which defeats the very purpose of authorised entry. The security system described here requires only one doorbell push-button switch to be mounted outside. And it also serves as a musical doorbell. The doorbell-cum-security alarm system so designed is specially meant for use in domestic flats and apartments, etc. The salient features of the system are: 1. It can be used as a musical doorbell and security alarm system simultaneously. 2. Multizone operation. Open/close loop conditions of a number of entryexit points or zones can be sensed and monitored. LEDs on the front panel of the main control unit indicate the conditions of corresponding zones. 3. Multimode Operation. It operates in two modes: (a) maximum security mode, and (b) minimum security mode. In maximum security mode, fault conditions cause a wailing alarm which is loud enough to attract the neighbours and/or deter the burglars psychologically. In minimum mode, the irritation or chaos often caused by carelessness to defeat the alarm by authorised persons can be avoided. However, entry and exit are announced with soft musical tunes of short duration. 4. Use of strong metallic enclosure and key switches as mode changeover switches and reset enable switch make the control unit virtually invulnerable. Once activated, the control unit cannot be deactivated without reset enable key, as it is provided with a battery in its metallic enclosure. 5. Absence of vulnerable keyboard switches mounted outside or detectionprone ‘hidden switch’ realise the purpose of alarm for authorised entry. Only a single doorbell switch serves the purpose. 6. Changeable code. The singledigit code number to defeat the alarm can be changed periodically. 7. Self-resetting audible alarm along with manual resetting facility which also resets the zone indication Fig. 1: Block diagram for the door-bell-cum-security alarm ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 59 Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the doorbell-cum-security alarm. 60 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Note: Resistor R29 through R33 and capacitors C11 through C15 are not shown in the component layout (Fig. 4). However the same components should be mounted on the sensors (A1-A5) and grounded. LED. PARTS LIST Circuit The block diagram of the circuit is shown in Fig. 1. The circuit has five sensors. Each sensor may be a push switch, limit switch, micro switch or a closed-loop wire connection which opens with the opening of a door or a window. Open condition of the sensor remains stored in the bistable memory till it is reset. The positive going edge of the bistable output causes a sharp pulse after the blocking capacitor and triggers the alarm monostable. In maximum security mode the monostable produces a long duration output which enables the wailer circuit. In minimum security mode it gives a short-duration high output which enables the musical alarm. Each time the musical alarm is activated by doorbell push switch, a pulse reaches the counter IC and its decimal count output is incremented. At a desired count, selected by 10-way switch S7, reset monostable is triggered. Its output provides the necessary reset pulse to alarm monostable and bistable memories. Reset monostable can be triggered by reset pushbutton also, only after being enabled by switch S2. Sensors Sensors Al to A5 may be any contacts that open up with the opening or tampering of the corresponding doors or windows they guard. These may be push switches, limit switches or micro switches mounted on the door and window frames in such an ingenious way that a little opening of the door/window causes the switch contacts to open. With the prototype, spring-loaded bayonet contacts salvaged from electric bulbholder, partly embedded within the hole drilled in the wooden doorframe and a small brass strip fixed on the door were used as a substitute for limit switch. The sensor may even be a closed loop of wire, criss-crossed across weak portions of wooden door or glass panes, fixed with the help of small nails or pasted with suitable glue or narrowwidth cellotape. Thus, it can guard weak ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Semiconductors: IC1-IC9 IC10 IC11 IC12 — — — — T1,T12 T2-T11 T13 D1,D2,D7-D14 — — — — D3,D6 — D4, D5 — 555 timer chip CD4017 decade counter UM3482A musical chip 7812 three-terminal voltage regulator SL100 npn transistor BC148 npn transistor SK100 pnp transistor 1N4007 silicon rectifier diode 1N4148 silicon switching diode 4.7V, 300mW zener diode Resistors: (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1,R29-R33 R48, R50 — 4.7-kilohm R2 — 5.6-kilohm R3, R42 — 47-kilohm R4, R8 — 1.5-kilohm R5 — 33-kilohm R9 — 6.8-kilohm R7, R34, R38, R43, R44.R49, — 100-kilohm R10-R12,R24-R28, R36,R40 — 1-kilohm R13,R45,R54 — 470-kilohm R14 — 2.2-megohm R15, R37 — 10-kilohm R16 — 3.9-kilohm R17,R41,R47 — 220-kilohm R18 — 120-ohm R19-R23 — 1.2-kilohm R35, R6 — 220-ohm R39 — 680-kilohm R46, R52 — 8.2-kilohm R51 — 82-kilohm R53 — 2.2-kilohm R55 — 150-kilohm VR1 — 220-kilohm miniature preset and vulnerable sections of a door or window. For better utilisation of the circuit, a sensor which may be a combination of closed-loop wire, or a number of push/limit switches connected in series to give adequate protection to all the doors and windows in a ‘zone’, may be used. In the prototype, though only four zones had been used, each ‘zone’ covered several doors and windows. More ingeniously, the circuit can be interfaced with some other type of sensors, such as modulated infrared light beam, proximity sensors, and movement detectors. In these cases the N/C contacts of the output relays or open-collector output transistors (normally conducting) of the said devices should replace the sensors. The circuits of such devices are beyond the scope of this article. How- VR2 VR3 VR4 Capacitors: C1,C6-C10 C2 C3-C5, C24.C26 C11-C15, C18,C22 C16 C17 C19 C20 C21 C23 C25 Miscellaneous: S1,S2 S3 S4, S5 S6 S7 LS LED1-LED2 LED3-LED6, LED7,LED11 — 47-kilohm miniature preset — 100-kilohm miniature preset — 22-kilohm miniature preset — 0.1μF ceramic disc — 0.0047μF ceramic disc — 100μF, 25V electrolytic — — — — — — — — 1μF, 25V electrolytic 10μF, 25V electrolytic 33μF, 25V electrolytic 47μF, 25V electrolytic 3.3μF, 25V electrolytic 0.001μF, ceramic disc 33pF, ceramic disc 2200 μF, 30V electrolytic — Key switches: 2-pole, 2way (See text) — Push-to-off switch — Push-to-on switch — On-off switch — 1-pole, 10-way switch — Speaker 8-ohm — 5-way sockets or terminal strip — micro/limit/push switches for sensor (see text) — Suitable metal enclosure — Heatsinks — Knob for switch S7 — Connection wires, solder, PCB, nuts, bolts etc — Green LED — Red LED ever, old issues of EFY can provide one with numerous such circuits. A sensor (say Al) can be replaced easily with an LDR or a photo-diode to construct an unmodulated light beam (ordinary or infrared) arrangement. In that case, resistors R29 to R33 should be replaced with presets in the range of 100-kilohm. However, the actual value of these resistors depends on factors, such as the intensity of light beam used, ambient light and focusing arrangement of the beam. Memory If a door/window is closed after a brief opening, it becomes necessary to have the fault condition stored in a memory, till reset, for identification of the faulty zone. IC4 through IC9 are wired as bistable multivibrators. An 61 Fig. 3: Actual-size PCB layout for the doorbell-cum-security alarm Fig. 4: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. 62 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig 5: Power supply for the doorbell-cum-security alarm. Fig 6: Suggested front panel layout for the security alarm. open sensor triggers the corresponding bistable to make its output high and cause the corresponding LED to glow even after the fault is rectified. The high outputs of the bistables are blocked by capacitors C6 to C10. Only a sharp positive pulse produced at the positive-going edge of any biastable output reaches transistor T3, which triggers the alarm monostable IC3. Use of pin 6 as ‘reset pin’, instead of the conventional pin 4, prevents IC4 from resetting as a long fault condition persists. This facilitates visual monitoring of all the zones, while keeping reset ‘on’ to disable audible alarm. This also prevents IC3 from retriggering after a reset with fault condition persisting. Capacitors C11 through C15 are used to suppress electrical interferences picked up by long sensor wires, which may otherwise cause a false alarm. Alarm monostable IC3 is wired as a monostable multivibrator. The destination and duration of its output are controlled by mode selection switch Sl. In maximum security mode, this output enables the wailer for approximately five minutes. In minimum seELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 curity mode, the output is fed to enable the musical IC UM3482A for 45 seconds. However, a reset during these periods can stop the alarm by resetting IC3. These durations may be changed as per individual choice by changing the values of resistors R13 and R14. To make the alarm of non-self-resetting type, one should simply remove resistor R14. ‘Max. security mode’ and ‘alarm active’ conditions are indicated by LED6 and LED5, respectively. Wailer High output from IC3 enables IC1 and IC2, both wired as squarewave oscillators in maximum security mode. Output of IC2 is used to modulate the frequency of IC1. The modulating frequency, depth of modulation and modulated frequency can be adjusted as per individual choice with the help of presets VR3, VR2 and VR1 respectively. The output power is increased by transistor Tl. Musical alarm and doorbell High output from IC3 enables musical IC11 (UM3482A) through diode D3 and resistor R52 only in the minimum mode. Resistor R53, diode D5 and capacitor C20 keep the voltage at pin 4 of IC11 within safe permissible limit. The pitch of the music is determined by resistor R34 and capacitor C23. Output from ICl1 is fed to transistor T11T13 combination through volume control preset VR4. Since both the wailer and musical ICs provide square waves only, speaker is connected to both the sections simultaneously through diodes Dl and D2. Doorbell switch S5 can also trigger IC11.While IC11 is activated from IC3 output through diode D3, transistor T10 pulls down pin 7 of IC11. It causes a little change in the pitch of musical tune. Though barely distinguishable, this change of pitch can differentiate the doorbell tune from the alarm tune. A small regulator constructed around transistor T12 provides the necessary 3.5 volts for IC11. Forward voltage drop across LED3 and LED4 determines the regulator voltage and also serves as ‘power on’ indicator. Diode D4 is used as an additional protection for IC11. Counter Each time IC11 emits a musical tune, its pin 10 goes low. This active low pulse, after being suitably changed in phase and voltage by transistors T9 and T8, is fed to clock input of IC10. IC10 counts the number of times the doorbell rings; its decimal count outputs are incremented accordingly. At the desired count selected by S7, transistor T4 conducts and triggers reset monostable IC9. IC10 normally kept reset by conducting transistor T6, is enabled only when clock signal goes high and transistor T7 discharges through capacitor C19 and diode D6. If another clock signal does not arrive within the next 20 seconds, C19 gets charged up to reset voltage level through resistor R45, and IC10 gets reset. IC10 is also kept reset by transistor T5 while the alarm activating signal is high. Reset monostable IC9, also wired as a monostable multivibrator, provides the necessary reset pulse. It serves the dual purpose of resetting and defeating the system for 30 seconds for authorised entryexit. However, this duration can be changed by changing the values of resistor R39 and capacitor C17 as per requirement. IC9 can be triggered by switch S6 or S4 only when enabled by switch S2. With S2 in RST disable position IC9 can only be triggered by transistor T4 at the desired count (selected by switch 63 Fig. 7: Internal view of the doorbell-cum-security alarm. S7) of doorbell ring. ‘Reset active’ and ‘reset enable’ conditions are displayed by LED1 and LED2 respectively. Power supply The circuit in Fig. 5 provides the necessary 12 volt regulated power supply to the circuit. Current rating of the transformer is kept on the higher side to prevent heating due to continuous operation. A 12-volt battery is essential as a backup in case of power failure or a tampered power cord. Construction The prototype was assembled on a veroboard. However, a suggested PCB layout and a component layout are given in Figs 3 and 4, respectively. Use of IC sockets is recommended only for IC4 through IC8, so that only the required ICs can be put into the circuit. IC12, Tl, T12 and T13 must be mounted on heatsinks. Five-way sockets or terminal strips may be mounted at the back of enclosure for connections of sensors and switch S5. It is suggested that only a section of the circuit should be assembled and tested before proceeding to next section. Housing of the full circuit within a strong metallic enclosure is of vital importance to make the main unit tamperproof. Suggested front panel layout is shown in Fig. 6. The loudspeaker, with small holes, should also be mounted inside the enclosure. The enclosure should have good ventilation, but at the same time it should be sufficiently protected against tampering from outside. In prototype, the use of keys switches was avoided due to their high cost. Instead, ordinary, low-cost drawer 64 locks—mechanically linked with push type 2-pole, 2-way switches—were installed. Though little mechanical adjustment was needed to position the switch and lock, it made an effective low-cost substitute for key switch. Mounting of drawerlocks, pushswitches, PCB, transformer, speaker, etc are illustrated in Fig. 7. The main unit should be mounted rigidly in a suitable indoor location, so that neighbours’ and guards’ attention can be attracted by the wailing sound. The location should be close to the main entrance, so that doorbell actuated music can be heard outside as well. The preset volume control VR4 should be adjusted likewise. Since the circuit is designed to be used indoor only, for an intruder it may not be possible to get access to the main unit without activating the alarm. Even then, suitable iron angles, firmly fixed in the wall, may be used to mount the main unit rigidly. A burglar needs a lot of courage to try to dismantle a wailing box from the wall or to open the enclosure screws to tamper with the circuit. Even if he succeeds in detaching the unit from the wall, it seems highly unlikely that he would prefer to carry a wailing box under his arm! Each soldering and fitting should be strong enough to withstand impacts, caused by hard blows on the enclosure. Though not necessary, one zone may be engaged to booby-trap the main unit, if used in other than the ‘domestic’ environment. Operation The alarm system can be kept defeated by keeping switch S6 closed with S2 locked in ‘enable’ position. It makes normal entry-exit possible, but it should be used only when security problems can be overlooked. Prior to leaving home unattended, the mode must be selected as ‘Max’. Just before the last person leaves, one should open switch S7, activate reset pulse for 30 seconds by pressing switch S4 (reset active indication comes on), disable further reset by switch S2, exit and shut the door. Alarm can be defeated for entry from outside only if the number ‘N’ selected by switch S7 is known. To defeat the alarm, press doorbell switch S5 to produce a musical tune. Only after the tune comes to its end (but within next 20 seconds) again press switch S5. The procedure should be repeated for ‘N’th time. At the beginning of the ‘N’th tune, the alarm deactivates itself for 30 seconds. This duration is sufficient for one to enter and again shut the door. Then the alarm system can be defeated for any length of time by enabling ‘reset’ by switch Sl and keeping switch S7 closed. The defeating process itself acts as an attraction to neighbours’ attention if a high value of ‘N’ is selected. Selection of number ‘0’ and ‘1’ is naturally prohibited. Switch S3 tests all the zones simultaneously. It should cause all the faulty zone indicating LEDs and alarm active LED to glow along with the audible alarm. A reset should cause the above LEDs to extinguish and ‘reset active’ LED should come on. Maximum security mode operation with reset disabled is essential to leave the house unattended. This mode may also prove useful at night, with occupants present in the house, depending on security risks. In day time, the irritating procedure during frequent entry-exit may be avoided with the minimum mode operation. With occupants (usually housewives) busy in their household chores, frequent exit-entry of children and servants makes it impossible to lock the entrance. Min. mode gives necessary, but soft musical warning to check the identity of the intruder. A switch mounted indoor and connected in parallel with a sensor can be used to bypass that particular sensor. However, the switch should be opened for normal use of the sensor.  ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 IMPROVED THREE-PHASE POWER SUPPLY CARD CHHAJED MAHAVIR D. A common requirement in the industry is that of a single/ dual-phase preventer. The current practice is to use a separate circuit for each instrument. Such circuits do not have any provision to take care of rapid on/off switching transients in the mains power supply. The circuit, described here, overcomes such drawbacks in a simple and economical manner. In addition, the circuit provides a soft on/ off switch (manual) for up to 5kW load, avoiding any mechanical contacts. Fig. 1: Block diagram for the three-phase power supply card. Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the card. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 65 Fig 3: Actual-size suggested PCB layout for the card. Fig. 4: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. Principle of working Block diagram of the circuit is shown in Fig.l. The card to be placed between the mains power supply and the PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 — 1C2 — IC3 — Tl — T2 — Triac — D1-D4, D6, D7 — D5 — 555 timer CD4027 dual JK flip-flop MCT2E opto-coupler BC157B pnp transistor SL100 npn transistor BT136 triac (4A, 400V) 1N4001 rectifier diode 1N4148 silicon switching diode Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon, unless stated otherwise): R1,R2, R4-R7 — 10-kilohm R3 — 100-kilohm R8 — 4.7-kilohm R9,R11 — 1-kilohm R10 — 1-megohm Capacitors: C 1, C8 C2,C5,C6 C7 C3 C4 — 470µF, 25V electrolytic — — — 0.1µF ceramic disc l00µF, 25V electrolytic 0.01µF ceramic disc Miscellaneous: — S1, S2 — X1 X2 — RL1 — — — 66 Push-to-on switch 230V AC primary, 0-12V, 350mA sec. trans­former 230V AC primary, 12V-012V, 250mA sec. transformer 230V 25A, 3-pole, 1-way relay Suggested PCB IC bases load has a timer circuitry and switch, an opto-isolator and relay circuitry. Assuming that only ‘B’ phase is present (out of R, Y and B), the timer circuit output will become high (when power on the system output becomes high after 10-sec. delay), and the transition from low to high is applied to clock input of JK flip-flop, which is edge triggered. But since the ‘Y’ phase is absent, the opto-isolator does not turn ‘on’ in spite of getting the base drive. Thus there will be no output from the opto-isolator (and therefore from relay) as long as only ‘B’ phase is present. If only two phases ‘Y’ and ‘B’ are present, the output of the opto-isolator becomes high and gets applied to the relay circuitry. But since ‘R’ phase is absent, the relay does not turn on, and hence the load does not get the supply. From the above discussion, it’s clear that, for the load to be connected to the mains, all the three phases must be present. Interchanging the phase connections to the three blocks does not alter the circuit ac­tion. Circuit description In order to prevent the load from respond­ing to rapid on/off switching of mains supply, a provision is made for adjustable deadband setting. (During this period the load does not get connected to the mains when the power supply resumes.) This is achieved by using IC 555 in monostable configuration, as shown in Fig.2. The time duration can be altered by changing the value of resistor R3 or capacitor C3. The time duration is given by the relationship: T=1.1 (R3xC3) The output pin of IC 555 is connected to clock pin of JK flip-flop as clock input. The T input of flip-flop is tied to Vcc. Also, the power-onreset is provided to the JK flip-flop so that whenever the ‘B’ phase resumes, the output Q of the flipflop should be high. Also, a manual on/ off switch is pro­vided in this system. Assuming all the phases are present in the system, when ‘on’ switch is momentarily pressed the relay gets energised and the loads get connected to the supply lines. When ‘off’ switch is pressed, the relay gets de-energised and the loads get disconnected from the supply lines. The main advantage of this arrange­ ment is avoidance of bulky mechanical switches, and the problems of arcing asso­ciated with them. The +12V supply derived from the ‘Y’ phase is connected to transistor of opto-isolator. So, if the ‘Y’ phase is not present, the transistor will not turn on, in spite of getting base drive. The ‘R’ phase is con­nected to the relay and its associated cir­cuitry. Construction The PCB and component layout of the circuit are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respec­tively. For perfect soldering, use of a good soldering gun is essential. Also, handle CMOS IC CD4027 with utmost care. Use IC bases for 555, MCT2E and CD4027 to avoid possibility of damage during solder­ing. The circuit achieves its desired objec­tives with minimal components, and is very inexpensive. As such, the circuit should gain ready acceptance in the industry.  ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 SOLIDSTATE ADVERTISEMENT DISPLAY PRADEEP G. A dvertisements have become a popular means of communication through newspapers and television for increasing sales of any product. Nowadays, people prefer shops that put up bright and beautiful lights to attract people. The advertisement display described here is inexpensive and easy to construct. The circuit uses readily available low-cost components. To display a seven-letter word ‘WELCOME’, Clock pulse Letters Illuminated 0 X X 1st W X 2nd W E 3rd W E 4th W E 5th W E 6th W E 7th W E 8th X X 9th W X 10th W E Note: X indicates off state of a bulb X X X L L L L L X X X X X X X C C C C X X X X X X X X O O O X X X Remarks X X X X X X M M X X X X X X X X X X E X X X (All off) (I letter on) (2 letters on) (3 letters on) (4 letters on) (5 letters on) (6 letters on) (7 letters on) (All off) (1 letter on) (2 letters on) Fig. 1: Circuit diagram for the solidstate advertisement display. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 67 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 IC2 IC3 T1-T8 T9 Dl D2-D5 Triac1-Triac7 — NE555 timer — 74HCT164 8-bit shift register — 7805 5V regulator — BC147B npn transisor — 2N3439 npn transistor — lN4001silicon rectifier diode — 1N4007 silicon rectifier diode — BT136 400V, 4A triac Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon unless stated otherwise): Rl — 10-kilohm R2-R9 — 2.2-kilohm RI0 — 1-kilohm R11-R17 — 330-ohm R18 — 4.7-kilohm R19 — 15-kilohm, 10-watt VR1 — 100-kilohm Fig. 2: Actual-size PCB layout for the advertisement display. Capacitors: C1 C2-C5 — 4.7μF,10V electrolytic — 0.1μF ceramic disc Miscellaneous: — IC sockets — PCB — LEDs letters are made with multicolour semitransparent plastic sheets and each of the letters is separated by black opaque sheets (cardboard, mica, hylam etc). Each letter is displayed one by one and finally all letters of WELCOME or any other word are displayed. The circuit automatically resets after the last letter. Then again, the circuit begins to function by displaying the letters. This process is repeated endlessly. Circuit Fig. 3: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 4: Circuit diagram for arrangement of bulbs. 68 The heart of the circuit is an 8-bit TTL shift-register 74HCT164. It is available in the market for about Rs 18. IC1 555 functions as a clock-pulse generator in free-running mode. The pulse rate of IC1 can be varied by potentiometer VR1, and hence the speed of display of the letters can be varied. For each clock pulse from IC1, IC2 shifts its output one by one till the seventh output. After the seventh pulse from IC1, the word WELCOME is completely displayed. Thereafter, the eighth output goes high. Then transistor T8 quickly conducts and holds pin 9 (reELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 crete transistor stages. The use of transistor T8 eliminates the need for an extra IC inverter like 7404. The complete sequence of operation is given in the truth table. Assembly Fig. 5: Circuit for optional LED display. Fig. 6: Display board setup. set) of IC2 at ground level. All outputs go low and all bulbs are switched off. As IC1 is continuously operating, the circuit begins to function again by displaying the letters, one by one. The display may be stopped by switching off the power supply. All triacs are triggered by using dis- Readers’ Comments: I am very thankful to Pradeep G. for his circuit. Due to non-availability of IC 74HCT164, I used IC 555 as clock pulse and a CMOS IC CD4017 as counter in place of IC 74HCT164. But only one LED is glowing continuously. Could the author suggest any modifications? Himangshu Majamdar Midnapore  The solidstate advertisement display is no doubt an inexpensive circuit. I had to use as many as seven of 555 ICs for making the same display work (EFY Jan’91). Each letter is lit up one-by-one from left to right, giving a visual effect of words. Why can’t we give a wiping effect also? Instead of connecting last output(pin 13 inverted by transistor T8) to reset pin 9, it can be connected to one of the serial input pins (1 or 2). Reset pin can be clamped to positive rail. With this small change wiping effect is given to the total ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 The complete circuit for the solidstate advertisement display can be assembled on a 12cm x 7.5cm PCB. All ICs and triacs are soldered on the PCB shown in Fig. 2. The ground line of PCB is connected to neutral wire of AC mains. One terminal connecting 230V AC bulbs is connected to the live wire of AC mains. Remaining terminals of all bulbs are connected to the seven triacs. In the prototype, IC sockets were used for IC1 and IC2. IC3 (7805), a 5V regulator, is included in the circuit to power the TTL IC. The entire circuit can be powered from an ordinary 9V or 12V battery eliminator. Don’t forget to use adequate heatsink for all triacs. If one wishes to use series of LEDs, the triacs can be replaced with high voltage 2N3439 transistors as shown in Fig. 5. All seven triacs can be replaced with 2N3439 transistors.  display and the circuit works endlessly. K.P. Viswanathan Calicut The author Pradeep G. Replies: The direct replacement of IC 74HCT164 with counter IC 4017 is not proper. While 4017 is a decade counter, the 74HCT164 is an 8-bit shift register. For wiping effect the circuit may be modified, as described by Mr Viswanathan. 69 AUTO-CHANGING IN/OUT INDICATOR WITH DOOR-BELL UNNIKRISHNAN P.R. G enerally, whether a person is ‘in’ or ‘out’ is indicated through a cardboard indicator which has to be turned for each arrival or departure. Instead of this, electronic indicators can also be used. However, these also need to be set for changing the display. So, if you forget to change the display the indicator becomes useless. The circuit described here solves this problem. It does not need any setting or adjustment for each change. It Fig. 1: Block diagram for the auto-changing in/out indicator with door-bell. Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the auto-changing in/out indicator with door-bell. 70 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 3: PCB layout for the main circuit. Fig. 4: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 5: PCB layout for the display circuit. automatically changes the display when you enter or leave your office or home. It has the following features: 1. The ‘IN’ and ‘OUT’ signs are indicated by using LED displays. 2. It displays ‘IN/OUT’ only when a guest presses the calling bell switch. This will avoid unwanted wastage of Fig. 6: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 5. energy. 3. If you are inside then a press on the switch displays ‘IN’ and sounds a bell inside the home for each press of bell switch. 4. If you are out then a press of the switch will display ‘OUT’ and the bell will ring inside. PARTS LIST Semiconductors: ICI,IC3 IC2 T1 T2-T5 D1,D2 — — — — — 555 timer 4017 decade counter BC149C npn transistor BEL188 pnp transistor 1N4001 rectifier diode Resistors (all 1/4 watt, ±5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1,R3 — 10-kilohm R2 — 470-kilohm R4 — 1-kilohm R5 — 6.8-kilohm R6 — 47-ohm, 1 watt R7.R8 — 5.6-kilohm ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 R9, RIO R11-R26 — — 8.2-kilohm 680-ohm Capacitors: C1,C6,C7 — 100μF,25V electrolytic C2,C5 C3 C4 — — — 0.0lμF ceramic disc 3.3μF,16V electrolytic 0.1μF ceramic disc Miscellaneous: DIS1-DIS3 — LS1,LS2 Sl — — LTS 543 common cathode display 4-ohm speaker Push-to-on switch Principle of operation The circuit works on the basic principle of a touch switch. The input of the circuit carries a touch plate (key plate). You must place the key of the main door on the surface of this plate once, before you take it away, so that the display keeps showing ‘OUT’. When power supply is switched on, the display shows ‘IN’. When you leave home you must take the key. Then, the touch switch is enabled because the key is placed on the plate. So the display is changed to ‘OUT’. When you reach home, you place the key on the plate. And again, the touch switch is activated and the display is flipped to ‘IN’. Circuit The circuit uses two 555 ICs and one decade counter IC 4017. IC1 and IC2 make the clap switch. The base of 71 is enabled. If you are out then the second speaker (LS2) is enabled. Working Fig. 7: Suggested front panel layout. transistor Tl carries the touch plate (key plate). IC3 functions as an oscillator. It produces a frequency of about 1kHz which is applied to two speakers. If you are in, then the first speaker (LS1) 72 When you touch the key plate, transistor Tl gets biased. So, IC1 is triggered. This changes the output of IC1 from low to a high state. This high state remains for about 52 seconds. Since output of IC1 is given to IC2, the output of IC2 also changes from the low to high state, with change in the output of IC1. This changes the display and rings the bell through the speaker. Installation The circuits of the internal speaker (LS2) and switch Sl may be fitted in a suitable cabinet. This box may be fixed in place of the calling bell switch or anywhere in the sit-out, so that a guest may see it at the first look. The external speaker can be fixed anywhere inside the house. The key plate should also be fixed in the house. It is better if the key plate is fitted near the main door. The key plate must be kept at a safe place to avoid unwanted touching. It should be fixed at a height to keep it away from children. Figs. 3 and 4 show the main PCB and the component layout, respectively. Figs. 5 and 6 show the display PCB and the component layout, respectively. Make a suitable cover and fit the main PCB, display PCB, LS2 and Sl in it. A model of the front panel is shown in Fig. 7.  ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 TELEX - COMPUTER CHANGEOVER SWITCH SANJOY N. ROY T his circuit is very useful for data communications in a data communication centre which does not have a telex dialing system. If leased communication channels become unserviceable, but telex is in working condition, then data from computer can be sent through the telex line, using this computer - telex changeover switch. This switch is useful also in situations where data or messages stored in computers need to be transmitted on telex line through the interconnection between a computer and a telex. Fig. 1: Block diagram for the telex-computer changeover switch. Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the telex-computer changeover switch. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 73 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 (a-e) IC2 (N1-N3) — — IC3 T1 T2 T3 — — — — 7404 hex inverter 7400 quad 2-input NAND gate 7805 +5V regulator BC107 npn transistor SKI 00 pnp transistor SL100 npn transistor Resistors (all 1/4 watt, +5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1,R2 — 10-kilohm, l-watt R3,R4 — 1-kilohm R5,R8 — 47-kilohm R6 — 1.2-kilohm R7 — 4.7-kilohm R9,R10 — 680-ohm, 0.5-watt R11,R12 — 470-ohm, 1-watt Fig. 3: PCB layout for the computer-telex changeover switch. Capacitors: C1,C2 — 0.1μF ceramic disc Miscellaneous: RL1 — A15,T Bv 3000/36 polar relay PCB etc. — sending line of the telex, as shown in the block diagram (Fig. l). Operation Fig. 4: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. If it is desired to send data through telex, then telex-computer selecting switch should be in telex position. Now, operation of telex is restored. If it is desired to send data from computer through telex line, then, first keep the selecting switch in telex position and dial the number to which data is to be transmitted. After the line connection is established with the number dialed, i.e. ending of ring back tone, etc, selecting switch should be flipped to computer position. At this stage, transmission of command data from computer will take place through this switch to telex line. The dialed station will now receive data from computer in their telex machine. Technical description Fig. 5: Internal structure of the polar relay. General description The telex-computer switch has two inputs and one output. There is an input selecting switch. With the operation of this switch, it appears that any one of the inputs is electronically 74 shorted to the output. One of the inputs is connected to the transmission side of the Line Terminating Unit [LTU], working at 50 Bauds. The other input is connected to the transmission leg of the telex machine. Output of the telexcomputer switch is connected to the The +60V or -60V telegraph signal either from LTU or from telex machine is converted to +5V or 0V by a clipper circuit. The output of the clipper is fed to one of the inputs of a two-input AND gate, as shown in Fig.2. The other input of AND gate is fed from a (HighLow) bounce-free switch. The bounce-free switch is made up of inverters and a toggle switch. The operation of bounce-free switch does ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 not change its states when the tongue (pole) of the toggle switch jumps from one contact to the other, and also when it bounces back on its arrival from the other. The output changes only when the tongue shifts and makes firm contacts with terminals. Whenever one input of NAND gates N1 and N2 is kept high from high-low bounce-free switch, the 5V or 0V telegraph signal at the other input will be available at the output of the NAND gate, in inverted form. The outputs of two NAND gates are ORed (NAND gate N3 acts as a negative input logic NOR gate) and fed to an electro-mechanical polar telegraph relay through transistors T2 and T3. When the output of gate N3 is high, the collector of transistor Tl is low and that of transistors T2 and T3 are logic ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 high. When collector of T2 is high, it is conducting, and there is a current flow from pin 8 to pin 5 of polar relay coil. If collector of T3 is high, it means that it is not conducting. Hence, there is no current flow through pin 1 to pin 4 of the polar relay. This causes relay tongue to move in some particular direction. Similarly, when collector of transistor Tl is high, collectors of T2 and T3 are low, hence T3 conducts and T2 does not conduct. Now, there is a current flow in the relay coil from pin 1 to pin 4 and no current flow in coil from pin 8 to pin 5. This causes relay tongue to move in the reverse direction than that of current flow from pin 8 to pin 5. With this arrangement, polar relay is being actuated in both directions from a single supply. The polar relay has been used to convert the 5V or 0V telegraph signals into +60V or -60V telegraph signals. The tongue (pole) of polar relay generally known as ‘A’ toggles between terminals known as ‘Z’ and ‘T’. Terminals (contacts) ‘Z’ and ‘T’ are connected to +60V and 60V terminals of telegraph power supply. At tongue A, where +60V and 60V telegraph signals, either from computer or from telex machine, depending on selection, are available and fed through the send side of telex line. The actual PCB for the purpose is shown in Fig. 3 and component layout is shown in Fig. 4. Spark quenching circuit is provided at the output of relay tongue to suppress any spark, due to relay tongue’s movement. TTL chips are powered through a 5V regulator IC chip (LM7805), derived from a 12V supply.  75 60W ACTIVE AMPLIFIER SYSTEM DORAISWAMY VISWESWARAN I n a conventional hi-fi system, the output from the power amplifier drives two or three units. The drive unit, which is the speaker, is the device that actually transforms the electrical signal from the amplifier into sound pressure waves. Ideally, we would use a single unit to cover the whole frequency range, but in practice we have to use two or three units to Fig. 1.: Block diagram for the active amplifier system. Fig. 2: Circuit diagram for the active amplifier system. 76 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 3: PCB layout for the active amplifier system. Fig. 4: Component layout for the active amplifier system. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 77 cover the desired range of 50 Hz to 20 kHz, because of the following facts: The useful frequency range of a speaker drive unit over which a linear output can be expected is primarily governed by two things. The low frequency limit is defined by the resonance frequency of the cone in the suspension system. The cone has a mass which is coupled with a spring, combining the compliance of the suspension system with the compliance or ‘springiness’ of the air in the enclosure. Below the resonant frequency, the unit is very inefficient and therefore requires a lot of power from the amplifier to gain any appreciable output. Above the resonant frequency, the cone operates in the ‘compliance’ region, giving a reasonably linear and efficient transfer of energy. It is in this range that the drive unit can be used. As the frequency increases, a point is reached when the wavelength of the sound reaches half the circumference of the speaker cone. Above this frequency, different areas of the cone start moving in different ways, resulting in phase anomalies and unwanted resonances. This then forms the upper frequency limit of the useful range of the drive units. Considering the above limitations, the reproduction of the lower frequencies, especially the base, requires a massive cone. For example, a 20cm bass unit may have a resonant frequency of around 40 Hz, but the upper frequency limit would be 3 kHz. The reproduction of the middle order and higher frequencies requires a lighter cone. So, in the simplest system, we would have two drive units: one for reproduction of the bass frequencies, which we call the ‘woofer’ and the other one suitable for high frequencies, which we call the ‘tweeter’. In the most popularly used approach, we use a ‘crossover network’, which splits the audio spectrum and feeds the relevant drive units. The crossover network consists of a passive filter network of inductors, capacitors and resistors, dividing the frequency range into a low frequency band which is fed to the woofer, a mid frequency band which is fed to the squawker, and a high frequency band which is fed to the tweeter. While this system works perfectly and adequately, and witnesses a number of excellent passive speakers in the 78 Fig. 5: Power supply for the circuit shown in Fig. 2. market, it has several inherent disadvantages. The problem arises in the design of such a filter. To design such a filter, two factors need to be known—the impedance of the source and the impedance of the load. The source impedance is the output impedance of the amplifier and the connecting loads. With good quality leads, this should be less than a tenth of an ohm, and no problems present. However, the load impedance is the impedance of the drive unit itself. Fig.6 shows the impedance of a typical loudspeaker. As you can see, the impedance varies considerably with frequency, and is, in fact, a filter designer’s nightmare. As you can imagine, crossover design is an art in itself. The second problem arises from the high currents involved in driving a loudspeaker, which can reach tens of amps. At low currents, capacitors, inductors and resistors are linear components. However, at high currents these can be far from linear, introducing their own distortions. This is particularly true when high values of inductance are required. To construct a coil with an inductance of over, say, l0 mH, a ferrite core is required, if the size of the inductor is not prohibitive. A ferrite core will impose its nonlinear hysteresis curve on the circuits, which could introduce serious distortion at high currents. As we have seen, the impedance of a drive unit by itself is far from linear, having an impedance value and phase angle that is variable with frequency. However, capacitors and inductors also introduce considerable phase (voltage) lags and leads. A crossover network, while having a linear frequency response, could present a very complex load to the amplifier. Another major problem con- cerns damping factor. A drive unit works just as effectively as a generator’s motor. When a transient peak occurs, the amplifier drives the cone outwards, and then applies a braking force. However, the cone will inevitably overshoot, and as it settles back, it generates a current that is fed back to the amplifier. If the impedance presented by the amplifier is very low, or damping factor high, then the current will disappear quickly. If, however, the impedance of the amplifier output is fairly high, the current will affect the performance of the amplifier. Effectively, then, a high damping factor increases the control of the amplifier over the movement of the speaker cone. In a passive speaker the crossover network forms a part of the impedance that the drive unit ‘sees’ as it looks back at the amplifier output. In the pass band of the crossover filter, the impedance of the crossover is fairly small, and the damping factor high. However, in the cut-off regions, the impedance of the crossover rises, as it cuts out the frequencies outside the pass band. This means that the damping factor decreases, and the amplifier progressively loses control over the speaker cone. On the other hand, in an active sys- Fig. 6: Characteristics of impedance of a typical speaker. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1,IC2 — TI,T3,T5 — T2,T4,T6 — T7 — D1,D2 — TDA2002 BC547 npn transistor BC557 pnp transistor 2N3055 npn transistor 1N4001 rectifier diode Resistors (all 1/4 watt, ±5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1,R2 — 220-kilohm R3,R9,R14 — 5.6-kilohm R4,R10,R15 — 2.2-kilohm R5,R11-R13 — 10-kilohm R6 — 3.9-kilohm R7,R8 — 150-kilohm R16,R19 — 220-ohm R17,R20 — 2.2-ohm R18,R21 — 1-ohm R22 — 680-ohm, 0.5 watt VR1,VR2 — 10-kilohm pot. Capacitors: C1,C22,C27 C2-C4,C20,C21 C26,C28 C5 C6,C10,C15 C7-C9 C11,C16, C17,C23 C12-C14 C18,C24 C19,C25 C29,C31 C30 — 100μF,25V electrolytic — — — — l00nF ceramic disc 470nF ceramic disc 4.7nF ceramic disc 5600 pF ceramic disc — — — — — — 10μF, 25V electrolytic 1.5nF ceramic disc 470μF, 16V electrolytic 1000μF, 16V electrolytic l000μF, 25V electrolytic 47μF, 25V electrolytic Miscellaneous: X1 — — — — 230V AC primary to 15V-0-15V, lAsec. transformer 8-ohm tweeter 4-ohm woofer PCB, heatsinks etc. tem described here, the amplifier output is connected directly to the drive unit, and one amplifier is used for each drive unit. The crossover network becomes electronic or ‘active’ and is connected between the power amplifiers and the ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 pre-amp. The job of the crossover network is simply to ensure that the amplifier receives only those frequencies that its drive unit can cope with in a linear fashion. The block diagram of an active system is given in Fig. l. A study of Fig. 1 will indicate that the frequency division is done before the power ampliFig. 7: Construction of heatsinks. fier stage by means of two electronic filters. The divided signal is fed 1. The electronic crossover consists to two individual power amps, which of the low pass section and the high then drive the woofer and tweeter. This pass section. The crossover frequency approach, enunciated in the early 80’s, is 2 kHz. The filter slopes are set at 18 did not find wide acceptance, mainly dB/octave. This steepness is required because of reasons of economy, though for hi-fi reproduction. this system offers several exciting ad2. The power amplifiers used are vantages over the passive system, such built around the rugged IC amps TDA as: 2002, which can withstand wide volt1. The individual amplifiers for age fluctuations. The use of these ICs woofer and tweeter can be designed, makes the circuit suitable for fitting into keeping the power requirements and the automobiles, having a 12V battery. characteristics of the drive units in mind. 3. A smooth supply, using 2N3055 2. The power supply design is sim- power transistor as series regulator, is pler and smaller. used for providing DC to the filter and 3. Short circuit protection circuitry the amplifier. can be done away with. 4. Because the power requirements 4. A 220W passive amplifier would of the tweeter are less than those of be required to give the same effect as a woofer, we have used drive unit with 8 3x25W active unit. ohms impedance for the tweeter and 5. The loss in the inductors and the 40 ohms for the woofer. phase shift in the capacitors of the 5. The dimensions of heatsinks for crossover network is avoided, leading the ICs and the series regulated tranto better damping factor at all frequen- sistors are given in Fig.7. cies (even in the proximity of the resoThe recommended PCB, sized nances of the drive units). 12.5cm x 10cm, is shown in Fig. 3. 6. It is possible to compensate for The PCB is designed to accommodate differences in sensitivity between the the power supply as well. drive units, simply by increasing or deIt is advisable to build the circuit creasing the gain of a particular ampli- on an aluminium chassis and infier. corporate it into the speaker cabinet The interesting aspects of this cir- itself. In such, a case we only need a cuit (Fig.2) are: preamplified signal.  79 IMPEDANCE METER KULWANT SINGH A nybody working with linear circuits in the high frequency range often comes across the problem of matching a tunable part of his circuit to the operating frequency. Some examples are: matching the front end of a receiver to the desired frequency signal or, conversely, matching the output unit of a transmitting equipment to the transmitting frequency, or matching the feedline for high-frequency signal transmission. Numerous other problems, such as those of knowing the antenna-system impedance at a particular frequency (resonant or otherwise), establishing the resonant frequency of a tuned circuit, measuring the characteristic impedance of a coaxial or flat cable or even of the lamp cord at a particular frequency, might come up. In a nutshell, whenever one needs to know the resonant frequency, the characteristic impedance of any circuit at resonance or any other particu- lar frequency, the multimeter device fails, since it is basically a DC instrument. And if at all it works on AC, its operating frequency is nominally 50 Hz. The meter described here is perhaps the simplest device as far as construction, cost and operation are concerned. Yet it covers a wide range of impedances from below 10 ohms to beyond 1 kilohm quite accurately, even at sufficiently high frequencies. The principle of operation The device is based on the wellknown ‘bridge’ which is used to measure accurately all ranges of resistances, from the fraction of an ohm to the gegaohms range. Even the reactances, such as inductance and capacitance, can be measured by this arrangement. The bridge is said to be balanced when Ra:Rb = Rc:Rx and no current flows through the closing diagonal at PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 — Dl — D2 — (for Fig. 1) 741 opamp OA79 or equivalent diode 9.1V zener diode (see text also) Resistors(all 1/4 watt, ±5% carbon unless stated otherwise): Rl — 10-kilohm R2,R3, R4 — 4.7-kilohm R5 — 100-ohm, 0.5 watt VR1 (Ra, Rb) — 470-ohm VR2 — 100-kilohm VR3 — 10-kilohm (linear) Capacitors: C1,C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Miscellaneous: — — — — — 0.01μF ceramic disc 0.047μF ceramic disc 0.02μF ceramic disc 0.1μF ceramic disc 100μF, 25V electrolytic — — VU meter Sine wave signal generator. Fig. 1: Circuit diagram for the impedance meter. 80 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 2: PCB layout for the impedance meter. Fig. 3: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 2. Since all other components, viz, potentiometer and resistor in the bridge are non-reactive to AC, only Rx introduces any impedance to the applied RF signal. So, the impedance of Rx at the applied frequency is determined by the bridge in terms of the other three arms of the bridge, directly in ohms, since impedances of all other three arms are in ohms. Besides, in this case, the calculations are cut short by pre-calibration of the meter by using a single potentiometer for Ra and Rb. The heart of the device is a direct coupled amplifier, built around the familiar operational amplifier IC 741. This DC amplifier serves three functions: 1. It increases the sensitivity of the bridge, making it more accurate and suitable for a wider range of impedances. 2. As very small RF signal of the order of 0.25 volt rms is required, low wattage resistances and potentiometer, etc. can be used. 3. A small VU meter may be used as an ‘eye’ of the instrument, making a small and compact independent unit allinclusive. However, an ordinary multimeter, put in the range of 2.5 volts or 0.25 volt, serves the purpose equally well. Circuit description Author’s prototype, including RF generator on the left this stage. This is termed as ‘null’ and is the precious state. Knowing Ra, Rb and Rc, the value of Rx can be determined easily through the above-mentioned relationship. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 To determine the impedance of any discrete inductive or capacitive component, or an LCR circuit, an RF signal is applied to the bridge in place of a DC potential required for resistive network. The bridge in its basic form is shown in part one of the circuit diagram. With a moderate RF signal of the order of 0.5 to 1.0 volt, it works well as such and no personal power supply is needed. Ra and Rb in the circuit are the two parts of a single 470-ohm potentiometer which must be linear and carbonfilm type. Of course, 220-ohm or 100ohm pots are still better if one’s interest is in measuring low impedances of 50-ohm range. Rc, as used in the prototype, is a 100-ohm, 1/4-watt carbon resistor. This makes the bridge most sensitive in 50to 200-ohm range and sufficiently accurate in 5-ohm to 2-kilohm range. For 25 to 100-ohm most accurate range, take the value of Rc as 50 ohms. (It could be taken as 200 ohms for highimpedance type bridge.) Diode Dl is BEL OA79 or any pointcontact type germanium diode, such as 1N34A. Silicon junction diode is not 81 advisable since it has a forward voltage drop of about 0.5 volt, thus affecting the accuracy of the bridge and requiring a higher RF signal injection. Diode Dl rectifies the signal of the unbalanced bridge and the envelope potential charges up capacitor C3. The charged level shows up as a deflection in the meter. A high-resistance-sensitive galvanometer movement is required. The circuit has been tested and found to work satisfactorily with ordinary 175μA multimeter put in the 0.25volt range, with above 1-volt rms signal infeed. Part two of the circuit is an improvement over the basic bridge circuit of part one. It incorporates a DC amplifier stage, built around operational amplifier IC 741, with the galvanometer being shifted to the output of the IC. The IC has been wired to operate from a single supply, stabilised to 9 volts in the prototype. Zener D2’s voltage could be raised to 12V or even higher, keeping in mind that the power supply must always be sufficiently higher than the stabiliser voltage. There is a potential divider arrangement, comprising resistors R3 and R4. A common supply of 12 volts for the signal generator and the impedance meter has been used. A small VU meter has been used to read the null position on the bridge. Two types of VU meter available in the market are 400μA 325ohm and 250μA 1-kilohm. The 10k potentiometer VR3 meant for offset-null can be substituted with a resistor of around 1k between pin 5 and the negative line, by trial and error. The gain of the IC could be increased, if desired, by increasing feedback variable resistor VR2 to 470k or, still better, a 470k pot. be used for a variable gain. However, the prototype has a fixed 100K feedback resistor. All components can be mounted on the PCB itself to reduce stray capacitance and inductance effects in the RF stage. The 470-ohm pot. should be soldered on to the PCB. A long spindle can be used to have the dial outside the cabinet. The meter can be fitted anywhere, but the prototype shows the meter too on the PCB itself. Sensitivity control can be achieved by the 470k feedback variable resistor. It can also be achieved through a variable RF signal, injected from the signal generator by means of another small 82 470-ohm pot, which also serves as a load to the. signal generator, besides giving a wider range of sensitivity. This mode is used in the prototype. Calibration To make a direct-reading instrument, avoiding calculation of impedance each time, one should use a single linear potentiometer of 470 ohms for Ra and Rb. For calibration of the instrument, a thick white sheet of paper may be pasted under the 470-ohm pot.’s knob. Switch on the power, providing a voltage well above the zener level. Adjust the 10k pot. to produce null in the meter. Now, move the 470-ohm pot. to its maximum side and apply a low-amplitude RF signal of a suitable frequency. Since the bridge itself does not contain any reactive component, the supply frequency is immaterial at this stage. (Of course, up to a limit, lest the circuit leads, etc. start producing their own appreciable inductance and capacitance.) Connect 1k resistor (preferably 1 per cent tolerance type, at most 5 per cent) for Rx and adjust 470-ohm pot. to get the null. Increase the sensitivity by increasing RF signal/feedback resistance, and adjust the pot. for null. This is called ‘fine tuning’. Now, mark 1k on the paper scale, below the knob position indicator. Switch off RF and change the resistor to another suitable value, say 750 ohms. Repeat the process and mark the knob’s position as 750 ohms. Carry on with lower-value resistors, like 500, 390, 250, right up to 5 ohms. Avoid long series of resistor combinations, since it would amount to an inductance in addition to the resistance even at ordinary frequencies, because carbon-film resistors are also toroidal conductors in real sense. AF-RF signal generator An integral part of the impedance meter, the RF signal generator, is otherwise too a necessity for everyone, related to the consumer as well as the experimental field of electronics. The general problems which arise in the construction of a signal generator are: a complicated circuitry, tedious coil windings with strict turns ratio that lead to non-signal generation, a lim- ited frequency range, and above all the nuisance of harmonics beyond reasonable limits. All such problems have been taken care of while presenting this miniature hut problem-free AF cum RF signal generator. The usage of coils, the most dreaded part of circuits, has been kept to a minimum. The circuit is a linear one, using three transistors—one each for master oscillator, driver and output stage—giving about 1-volt rms on all bands, tested up to 40 MHz (on a 20 MHzBW oscilloscope). The RF signal is sinusoidal, except a bit flattening of crests in the lowest frequency band (below 1 MHz), which is, of course, rarely used, except for IF stages of AM radio where the waveform is immaterial. Harmonics are amazingly low, even though the circuit is linear and no filters are used. The circuit fires on the very click of the switch, even if your coil turns ratio varies within limits. This has been achieved, first, by using a field effect transistor in place of a bipolar transistor in the oscillator section, second, by putting another FET as buffer driver through a 5pF load on the oscillator, and third, by applying audio modulation at the collector of the output stage transistor. Circuit C1 is an AM radio insulation gang condenser, which may even be PVC type. Both the stator plate sections have been connected in parallel for broader bands. For higher frequency bands, however, a single section may be used for better spread. L1 is one of the five fixed coils wound on readily-available 6mm plastic formers, each with four pins and a torroidal ferrite core. The coils could be selected by means of a double-pole, sixway switch. But to save space and avoid mechanical problems, an 8-pin IC socket could be accomodated in the PCB. The four pins of the formers of the coils fit into the IC socket after slight bending of the pins. Just plug in the desired coil and you get the desired band. Coil 1 among the set of five coils may be an ordinary MW osc. coil. Its output coil has seven turns, while the input coil has about 80 turns (with the middle pin cut-off) linked in series, the base fits into the IC socket. Coils 2, 3 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 and 4 may be wound, using 36SWG wire, while coil 5 may be wound, using 26SWG wire. Coils made with any available former and almost any wire with near about the same turns ratio as given here will oscillate well; the frequency range of course will change. The length of winding in each case should be 8 mm. Excessive turns, where required, may be wound in layers. For those who desire to use 8mm formers, two coils with ranges given in the Table (Coil Data) have been tested with the prototype. Other coils may be designed for 8mm formers, keeping in mind the specifications for 6mm coils. The frequency ranges of the coils were selected, so that they had frequency overlap and gave frequency ratios of 1:3 or. 2:5 for easy dial marking, except, of course, the first coil, which was not self-wound. Diode Dl, used in the prototype, is OA79 germanium type. It limits the gate potential of transistor T1, the purpose being amplitude stability. Omission of Dl or use of silicon diode makes no other difference. Similarly, diode D2 used in the prototype is a 9.1 V zener, but it could be of any other voltage rating from 6V to 12V, the purpose being frequency stability. The FETs are used in common- drain mode, whereas BF959 is used in common-emitter mode. Audio section The audio section may be used for modulating the RF carrier signal or it may be used for audio gadget checking. IC 555 gives out square waves of about 1.35 kHz, with the suggested R10-Cl1 combination. The filter circuit, comprising resistor R11 and capacitor C13, makes the wave almost sawtoothed. When it is fed to the collector of BF959 through C14-L2 combination, it nearly resembles a sine wave. The feeding of audio at the collector of BF959 helps in prevention of frequency modulation and hence a pure, amplitude-modulated, harmonics-free RF signal is obtained. Moreover, such a modulation is found to have no adverse effect (as compared to unmodulated sine wave) while using with the impedance meter, which is our main concern here. The RFC(L2) can be made by winding about 300 turns of fine wire on a 6mm or 8mm former, covering a length of 3 mm to 5 mm. With this AF-RF combination, nearly 50 per cent modulation of the carrier is obtained, which is just right for most purposes. Some applications The impedance meter is a versatile test instrument, whose capability can be utilised in various ways. Here are some of its applications: To determine the characteristic impedance or the terminating load impedance of a transmission cable: Different cables pose different impedances to RF passing through it. This impedance is independent of the signal frequency, if the load matching is proper. This fact is very important for the selection of cable for proper signal transmission. It helps to avoid reflection of signal from the antenna or the input circuit back into the cable or vice versa. If the impedance of source, transmission line and load is proper, no signal reflection or absorption takes place in the transmission line and, above all, a transmission line of any suitable length may be used. To use, connect one end of the cable to the bridge at Rx position by the shortest length of leads. To the other end of the cable, connect a known resistor of the order of 200 ohms. Feed low-amplitude RF signal of any frequency from the signal generator. Adjust the bridge pot. to get the null point, i.e. zero on the VU meter. As the reading may not be exactly zero Fig.4: Circuit diagram for the AF-RF signal generator. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 83 Fig. 5: PCB layout for the AF-RF signal generator. Fig. 6: Component layout for the AF-RF signal generator. due to stray effects, take the minimum of meter as null point. Let’s say the pot. is at 150 ohms at null. When you vary the signal generator frequency, the VU meter will show variance in null position. Change the terminating load resistance to 150 ohms. Vary the frequency from signal generator again. The meter now will not move from its minimum position. (You might have to change a bit of resistance further but generally you get the matching in the very first instance.) Now at this position your impedance meter reads 150 ohms with any length of the cable and at almost any frequency, with a load of 150 ohms itself, and your cable is posing practically zero resistance to the signal. This 150 ohms is the characteristic impedance of the cable, i.e. this cable will match exactly into 150-ohm load. It will be found that a flat TV cable gives the free null point with 300-ohm impedance while the round coaxial cable has 75-ohm impedance. Impedance matching of cable is important because then any suitable length of the. 84 of 2.777 metres. But with the abovementioned theoretical lengths, nearly 150-ohm antenna system was obtained at 27 MHz. With 5.10 metres (100ohm type) flexible cable feeder and 2.70 metres each of balanced 16 SWG wire dipoles, an antenna system of only 25-ohm impedance was obtained. A final test was done by feeding in exactly 27.045 MHz (fixed) signal from a small transmitter of a toy car, and the above said impedances were confirmed. Parallel and series tuned circuits: Just connect the tunable circuit to the meter (in Rx position) by short leads. Let it be a series LC circuit. As we know, series circuit is an acceptor type of circuit and will provide the minimum (but not zero!) impedance at resonance to the signal frequency, which is given by the relationship 1 f = 2LC Our aim is to tune the circuit so that it provides a minimum impedance at a particular frequency. Feed in the desired frequency low-amplitude signal. Say we get a null point at 150-ohm position. Move the pot. knob to a lesser impedance position, say 100 ohms. Retune the circuit, by changing the inductance or capacitance to come to the null position again. Come down further on the impedance scale and retune, and so on, till you get the minimum possible impedance. Increase the signal from the signal generator for a more pronounced null and more clear tuning. If the natural frequency of the already tuned circuit is to be established, connect as usual and vary the frequency from the generator till you have the minimum possible reading on the impedance scale. A final reading should always be taken with elevated signal feed. Further, we know a parallel tuned circuit is a rejector circuit, as it provides the maximum impedance to the cable (not necessarily an integer multiple of half wavelength) may be used with the matched load. Antenna and feeder matching: Theoretically, a half-wave dipole antenna, fed at the centre, by a half-wavelength sized feedline cable (or an integer multiple of the half wavelength) gives a proper antenna system with the minimum impedance. But, practically, a bit less is required for proper matching. To ascertain this fact, connect the input of the antenna system (free end of feedline cable) to the impedance meter at Rx position. Feed low-amplitude RF and rotate the bridge pot. to get the null. The bridge reading gives the antenna system impedance directly. Ciol Turns As an example, No. (1-2):(2-3) 27MHz frequency an1 AM osc. coil tenna system should 2 15:150 require 5.555 metres 3 10:60 of feeder cable (of any 4 06:20 5 05:8.5 characteristic imped1(i) 10:40 ance) feeding into a 2(i) 06:15 dipole with each arm COIL DATA Former Descrp. Band Limits 10 mm IFT 6mm, Full core 6mm, Full core 6mm, Halfcore 6mm, Halfcore 6mm, Full core 6mm, Half core 0.4 to 1.2 MHz 0.55 to 1.8 MHz 1.6 to 5.5 MHz 4 to 15 MHz 10 to 38 MHz 1.8 to 6.0 MHz 5.4 to 18 MHz ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 — D1 — D2 — TI,T2 — T3 — (for Fig. 4) 555 of any series OA79 detector diode 9.1V zener diode BFW10 (BEL) BF959 (BEL) Resistors (all 1/4watt, ±5% carbon unless stated otherwise): R1,R2 — 100-kilohm R3,R4,R5 — 470-ohm R6 — 27-kilohm R7 — 330-ohm R8 — 10-ohm R9 — 1-kilohm R10 — 2.2-kilohm R11 — 220-ohm R12 — 47-ohm VR1 — 1-kilohm pot. Capacitors: C1 C2 C3, C4, C11 C5 C6,C7,C8,C12 C9,C10 C13 C14 — — — — — — — — Miscellaneous: Sl — Coil 1 (L1) — L2 — — 2J air gang 100pF ceramic disc 0.1μF ceramic disc 5pF ceramic disc 0.01μF ceramic disc 47μF, 25V electrolytic 0.47μF ceramic disc 4.7μF, 25V electrolytic 1-pole, 2-way switch One of the 5 coils (please refer text) 300 turns of fine copper wire on 6 or 8mm dia former. Output jacks etc. tuned frequency. So, you have to go in for the maximum possible impedance in this case. Rest of the procedure remains the same. A 27MHz tuned circuit, with inductor and capacitor in series, and the secondary open, was tuned by core, and the impedance was found to be 5 ohms at resonance. The same circuit ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 gave an impedance of 2000 ohms when the same very components were put in parallel, at proper resonance. In rejection type circuits, the VU meter does not read zero exactly, due to reflected feed signals. Tuning the output filter circuit: To the output end of the filter circuit, connect a properly selected load resistor of the same value, as that of the antenna system or the load to be connected. It should be of suitable wattage (generally 50 ohms or else as required by the circuit design). Connect the input end of the filter circuit to the impedance meter (at Rx position). Apply low-amplitude RF signal of the desired frequency and obtain null. Move the knob to the desired impedance position, the same as that of the terminating load (50-ohm position or else), and tune the filter circuit (through core or capacitor, as the case may be) till you get your meter to the null position again. Increase the signal level for an exact and final tuning. Now, your filter circuit poses the minimum possible resistance at the desired frequency and the stipulated operating load, and hence has the best filtering efficiency. Some more interesting applications of the impedance meter are suggested below, but you may try others yourself. Measuring L and C: A bridge can measure (in fact compare) inductances and capacitances. But our present meter has diminished accuracy due to the presence of filtering capacitors C3 and C4, following the basic bridge circuit. The way out is: replace 100-ohm resistor Rc with a fixed inductor. (For example, an ordinary radio IFT, without capacitor, has an inductance of around 600 μH.) Now, you can calibrate your meter for various inductances and capacitances at Rx position, as you did for resistances. Of course, the scale will be direct for inductances and inverse for capacitors. As mentioned earlier, the VU meter may not read exactly zero in this case too. Check yourself the functioning of balun: The input of a TV set has 75ohm input impedance. But we generally use 300-ohm antenna, with a 300ohm flat cable. Sometimes, 75-ohm coaxial cable is used. Let us see how a balun converts impedances in such cases. Connect 75-ohm end of the balun to the impedance meter. To the other (300-ohm) end of the balun, connect a 300-ohm resistor directly or with a piece of (300-ohm) flat cable. You will see that your bridge nulls at 75-ohm position, although the terminating resistor is of 300 ohms. It means the balun has converted the impedance from 300 ohms to 75 ohms. Conversely, connect the 300-ohm end of the balun to the meter. Now, you will see that you have to connect 75ohm resistor to the other end of the balun, directly or through a piece of 75-ohm coaxial cable to get the null position on the impedance meter at 300ohm position, thus showing that the balun has converted the impedance from 75 to 300 ohms.  85 INTERRUPTION COUNTER CUM BURGLAR ALARM S.S. CHENDAKE N ow-a-days the electronic digital interruption counter is very popular. It counts and records automatically the number of objects passing on a conveyor belt or the people entering or leaving any place through a particular gate (permitting only oneway entry). The interruption of light beam in this circuit is counted in two digits—up to 99. The burglar alarm provides an inexpensive yet effective form of protection against intruders. When the invisible ray of light is interrupted momentarily by any person, the alarm rings up to indicate entry of some unidentified person. The alarm stops Author’s prototype automatically after a preset time period. Such burglar alarms are widely used parator) and an npn transistor. The com- of detector stage. The two-way selector switch enin homes, banks and offices as a secu- parator switches from low to high state rity measure. This compact and por- whenever the incident light on the ables one to use the gadget as either an table gadget is easy to operate and can phototransistor is interrupted, produc- interruption counter or a burglar alarm. ing a clock pulse at the collector of npn When the selector switch is at position be set up in minutes. The circuit can be easily understood transistor. These pulses are the output ‘A’, the counter converts the clock by dividing it into seven sub-units, as shown in Fig. 1. Two very important sub-units are source and detector, which are common to both—interruption counter and burglar alarm. The source has an LED, which emits the invisible infrared light, when a small DC voltage is applied across it. This light beam is made to fall on the phototransistor inside the detector stage. The detector also has an op-amp (used as comFig. 1: Block diagram for 2-digit interruption counter cum burglar alarm. 86 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig.2: Circuit diagram for the interruption counter cum burglar alarm. pulses into BCD and its equivalent decimal number is displayed on the 7-segment display. When the selector switch is at position ‘B’, the clock pulses at the detector output are given to the timer, used in a monostable mode to switch the timer output high. This high output starts the alarm and the ion-buzzer oscillates, producing a pleasant sound. A precise 5-volt power supply is recommended for the circuit. Circuit operation The heart of the source stage is an infrared (IR)-LED. The source is used to emit infrared light, using a small DC voltage since the IR-LED requires a very small current (about few mA). Thus, series resistor Rl is used as a current limiting resistor. The main part of the detector stage ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 is the phototransistor. Although the IR light beam is invisible, it behaves like ordinary light and is focused on the phototransistor by using a convex lens. When IR light beam is focused on phototransistor Tl, the resistance of T1 becomes low. Hence, the voltage across resistor R2 increases. An op-amp (IC1) is used in the circuit as a comparator. When the IR light stops falling on phototransistor Tl, the resistance of phototransistor becomes very high. In this state, Tl and R2 act as a resistive voltage divider at the inverting terminal of the comparator (IC1). With resistance of Tl being very high, the voltage at inverting terminal is very low. Using variable resistance VR1 (preset), the voltage at non-inverting terminal of comparator is so adjusted that it is slightly greater than the voltage at inverting terminal. As a result, the output of IC1 becomes high. Similarly, the output of ICl becomes low when voltage at its non-inverting terminal is slightly lesser than voltage at the inverting terminal. The comparator’s output changes from high to low or from low to high, with small changes of a few millivolts at its input terminals. When output of IC1 becomes high, it gives sufficient base bias to drive npn transistor T2 to conduction through diode Dl and resistor R3. Since Dl is forward biased, it conducts only when output of IC1 is high. Resistor R4 keeps transistor T2 ‘off’ when output of IC1 goes low. When the IR radiation is incidental on transistor Tl, its resistance decreases. This increases the voltage drop across resistor R2 sufficiently to change the output of IC1 from high to low state, and so transistor T2 turns ‘off’. Thus, the collector of T2 becomes more posi87 Fig. 3: PCB layout for the circuit shown in Fig. 2. tive through resistor R5. No current flows through LED2 and it remains ‘off’. When LED2 turns ‘on’, it indicates that the IR beam has been interrupted. When IR beam is interrupted momentarily, as explained earlier, the output of IC1 becomes high and transistor T2 starts conducting. Thus, collector of T2 is grounded for a moment, LED2 lights up momentarily and a clock pulse is produced at point ‘C’. Each time the IR light is interrupted, another clock pulse (square shaped) is produced at the collector of transistor T2. When selector switch S1 is at position ‘A’, the pulses produced at collector of T2 indicate the number of interruptions through the counter chain for counting and displaying the actual count digitally. The first decade counter IC4 processes the pulses and gives a binary output to IC6 which drives a 7-seg88 Inside view of author’s prototype ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 4: Component layout for the PCB shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 5: PCB layout for the display. ment, common-anode display and shows the corresponding decimal number. After counting up to 9, the tenth pulse overflows to IC3, whose output goes to IC5 that drives another 7-segment display. The two displays together enable a count of up to 99. On 100th ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 6: Component layout for the display. pulse, the combined display shows ‘00’. The pushbutton switch S2 resets the circuit and returns the display to ‘00’. Hence, the maximum number of interruptions that can be counted is 10n-1, where ‘n’ is number of digits. So, in this case the number is 102-1, i.e. 99. The number of digits can be increased by cascading more counters with decoder drivers and displays, to show a larger number of interruptions. When selector switch Sl is moved to ‘B’, capacitor Cl being initially dis89 PARTS LIST Semiconductors: IC1 — IC2 — IC3,IC4 — IC5,IC6 — IC7 — T1 T2 LED1 — — — LED3,LED4 D1 D2-D5 B1 DIS1,DIS2 — — — — — LED2 — CA741 op-amp NE555 timer 74LS90 decade counter 74LS247 BCD to 7segment decoder display driver LM7805, +5V voltage regulator TIL81 phototransistor BC148 npn transistor Infrared light emitting diode 5mm general-purpose LED IN4148 switching diode 1N4007 rectifier diode PB27 ion buzzer LTS542 common-anode display D.P. of DIS-1 display Resistors (all 1/4 watt, ±5% carbon unless stated otherwise): Rl — 220-ohm R2 — 6.8-kilohm R3 — 2.7-kilohm R4, R5, R8, R10 — 1-kilohm R6, R7 — 10-kilohm R9 — 270-ohm R11 to R24 — 330-ohm R25, R26 — 680-ohm VR1 — 4.7-kilohm preset VR2 — 220-kilohm preset Capacitors: C1,C5,C6,C8 C2 C3 C4 C7 — — — — — Miscellaneous: X1 — Fig. 7: Wiring diagram. F1 PCB-1 PCB-2 S1 S2 S3 J1,J2 — — — — — — — — — — Fig. 8: IR-LED and phototransistor arrangement. charged, trigger pin 2 of IC2 gets Vcc through resistor R6. When the light beam is interrupted by someone, the output of IC1 becomes high and produces a pulse at the collector of T2. This pulse triggers IC2 through capacitor C1 and makes its output high. This output is given directly to the ionbuzzer which produces a pleasant alarm sound. After a preset interval, the out90 put of IC2 goes low and the buzzer stops producing sound. If another interruption takes place, the alarm again rings for a few seconds and stops automatically, ready for the next interruption. The current consumption of the alarm circuit being only a few milliamperes, IC2 can easily withstand this load. As use of relay at the output of — — — 0.1μF ceramic disc 0.01μF ceramic disc l0μF, 16V electrolytic l000μF, 25V electrolytic l00μF, 16V electrolytic 230V AC primary to 12V, 500mA sec. transformer Fuse with holder PCB for components PCB for display SPDT switch Push-to-on switch SPST switch Jumper wires IC sockets, DIL (two 8-pin, two 14-pin and two 16-pin) LED holder Heatsink for IC7 (TO-220 package) Convex lens and plane glass Nut bolts and screws Wooden cabinets (three) IC2 has been eliminated, the circuit’s overall cost gets reduced. Power supply Power supply for the ciruit is very simple as it requires only +5 volts. It uses step-down transformer X1 to reELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 9: Front panel layout. duce mains voltage to 12 volts, diodes D2 through D5 for converting AC voltage to DC, capacitors C4 through C7 for filtering the DC and 3-terminal positive voltage regulator (IC7) for a constant voltage. C5, C6 and C8 also act as surge capacitors. LED4 monitors the working of the circuit. Since TTL ICs require a regulated power supply, it should be ensured that Readers’ Comments: The author may please clarify some of my doubts: Can a 6V stepdown transformer be used, instead of a 12V transformer? How could this project be used as a burglar alarm and interruption counter together? Can it be used by connecting the points B and C together with point A? What should be the maximum distance between the IR transmitter and the receiver? Could the buzzer be replaced with a speaker? Sandeep Mathur Delhi  In the counter there are two ICs used to drive one display and a total of 4 ICs for the two displays. This will make the PCB more complicated which will thus cost more. Instead of using ICs 74LS247 (BCD to decimal decoder) and a 7-segment display for counter 1, only a CD4033 can be used for one display. It has both decade counter as well as BCD to decimal decoder and in-built circuit, limiting resistors and drives a common-cathode 7-segment display, thus reducing the size and cost of the PCB. R. Sasidhara Reddy Bangalore ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Fig. 10: Back view of the cabinet. the regulated voltage remains within 4.5 to 5.5 volts. Installation To simplify installation, the unit may be split up into three parts: (a) source of light, (b) phototransistor, and (c) the rest, comprising detector, counter, timer with alarm, display and The author, Shamsundar Chendake, replies: As explained in my article, TTL ICs require regulated +5V supply. If voltage across TTL ICs increases beyond 5.5 volts the ICs will get damaged, and if voltage falls below 4 volts the ICs will not give proper performance. Thus, this project needs regulated voltage and the input voltage (through the regulator) must be 3 volts higher than the output voltage. This circuit can be used both as burglar alarm as well as interruption power supply. The IR-LED and phototransistor can be fitted on either side of the conveyor belt or the entrance gate (about 90 cms above ground level). Convex lens may be used to focus the IR light beam on phototransistor. The box, containing the rest of the circuit, may be kept elsewhere.  counter. The maximum distance between the IR transmitter and the receiver should be 2.4 metres, but if you install another convex lens at IR diode (LED1) the distance can be increased up to 7.6 metres. The buzzer may be replaced after this modification as shown. Here IC 555 is used as a stable multivibrator which produces 1kHz audio tone at its output. IC CD4033 (or CD4026) can be used instead of two ICs (7490 and 74247). 91 SECTION B: CIRCUIT IDEAS 92 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS DIGITAL EVEN AND ODD PARITY CHECKER/GENERATOR J.P. SHARMA T his circuit checks and generates even and odd parity of nine input signals. It is wired around IC 74HC280. The 74HC280 is a high-speed parity generator/checker that accepts nine bits of input data and detects whether an even or an odd parity exists, and whether these inputs are ‘high’. If an even number of inputs is high, the sum even output is high. If an odd number of inputs is high, the sum even 94 output is ‘low’. The sum odd output is the complement of the sum even output. The input signals are applied by closing switches S1 to S9, which is indicated and confirmed by red light of the bicolour LEDs. Absence of logic high input signals is ensured by opening of switches S1 to S9, indicated and confirmed by green light of the bicolour LEDs. N1 to N9 are the inverting gates of 7404 ICs to provide alternate light of bicolour LED. IC1 accepts nine inputs. Its outputs are obtained at the fifth pin as even and at the sixth pin as odd. Diodes D1 and D2 and display LTS-543 are used to show E (even) and O (odd), according to the sum of input signals. Red light of bicolour LED is considered for total logic high inputs to decide parity signal at the output. This circuit works well off 4.5V DC supply for any combination of input signals. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Resistors R10 to R16 limit the current to display. Luminosity of display may be decreased by increasing the series resistance or vice versa. If output is tapped off pins 5 and 6, it is used as parity generator. SW BOOSTER FOR DXERS PRADEEP G. A mateur Radio enthusiasts and shortwave listeners will find this circuit very useful. Using the circuit, even weak shortwave stations can be heard clearly through an ordinary SW radio set. The circuit should be connected between the antenna and receiver. The RF signals picked up by the antenna are first amplified by this booster and then fed to the receiver. The circuit is a single-stage, common-source amplifier built around BEL dual-gate MOSFET 3N200. Any other similar MOSFET can also be used. L1 is a shortwave antenna coil used for radio receivers. Commercially available coils with movable ferrite beads (slug-tuned types) can be used. The RFC coil may be wound on resistor R4 with thin enamelled (40 SWG) copper wire of 180 turns. Use a 1-watt resistor as R4 for convenience. Receiver’s 9-volt supply can be used for this booster but it should be well filtered. Otherwise, use a 9-volt, PP3 battery. As the current consumption of this circuit is very low, the battery life will be long. Necessary care should be taken while soldering the MOSFET. Before soldering, all the leads of MOSFET should be short-circuited with a copper wire. Shorting should be removed only after completing the assembly of the unit. INTERCOM FOR YOUR HOME IYER MAHESH NAGARAJAN I ntercom systems are becoming increasingly popular these days. Persons having big bungalows with garages, or a flat with several rooms, often prefer an intercom set. So, here is one to fulfil such requirements. This intercom is designed to ensure privacy in conversation. It basically consists of a 4-stage transistor amplifier. When a set’s DPDT switch is in Talk-Listen mode, the audio signal from ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 the condenser microphone is first fed to the base of transistor amplifier Tl, via volume control VR1. The audio signals from transistor Tl to T2, T2 to T3 and T3 to T4 are coupled by capacitors Cl, C2 and C3, each of 10 microfarads. Resistors R1-R2, R3-R4, R8-R9 and R12-R13 determine the base bias to transistors T1,T2,T3 and T4. Resistors R5, R7, Rll and R14 act as emitter stabilisers. Capacitors C4, C5, C6 and C7 bypass spurious distortions to the ground level. X1 is an output-matching transformer of the type commonly used in radio sets. The circuit is powered by 9V battery. After assembly, power the unit and slide the switch to Talk-Listen position. Now, talk through microphone MIC.1 and listen through loudspeaker LS1. If you want to listen through loudspeaker LS2 and talk through microphone MIC.2, slide the switch to 95 Listen-Talk position. The wiring between two rooms should be carried out with a shielded cable. This intercom unit can also be used for other applications, e.g., as a baby alarm to monitor the baby’s movements. SLAVE SWITCH P.K. MISHRA W hile using a computer, both the monitor and the CPU have to be switched on or off. The same is the case while using a VCR with a TV. This low-cost circuit switches off the slave (monitor or TV) when the master (computer CPU or VCR) is switched off, provided the two are being powered through the slave and master sockets respectively in this circuit. Whenever a load (equipment) is connected to the master socket in circuit, the voltage developed across the load resistor R8 saturates transistor T1. At the same time, the AC mains voltage––rectified by diode D1 and reduced by resistors R1 and R2––gets applied to transistor T1. This voltage saturates transistor T2 also and thus helps to switch the SCR on. Coil L1 is made by winding 9 turns of 36 SWG enamelled copper wire on 96 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 a 10mm dia. ferrite rod. It helps to protect the circuit against radio interference. Capacitor C4 and resistor R6 filter the spurious waveforms to protect the SCR from high-voltage transients. The SCR should be mounted on a proper heatsink. The circuit costs around Rs 25 only. MORSE INTERPULSE TIME PERIOD COUNTER KULJEET SINGH A person learning Morse code knows the importance of time gap between words. This time should be nearly the same throughout the transmission of the Morse pulses. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 The circuit given here enables one to check this timing. It can count time from 0.01 to 0.8 seconds. Generally, the time between two words never exceeds 0.8 seconds. The circuit is intended for use with a tape recorder. The Morse signals are recorded on an audio cassette and then replayed. This circuit is connected to the tape recorder, with a wire taken 97 from the extra speaker connection. The circuit detects the audio signals and produces a square waveform accordingly. A time-base produces l00Hz pulses, which are fed to a counter, after resetting it. As soon as a pulse disappears, the counter keeps counting until the next pulse is received. Then it displays the count for a fixed short period. In normal condition, only a dot in the deci-second display gets illuminated, and the whole display remains off. The display starts glowing only when the gap is more than a cer- tain specific time. The circuit skips off the gaps between two characters as these are too small. For this purpose, a timer is incorporated, which is triggered by each positive going pulse. If the next pulse arrives before its time period, that pulse will not be acknowledged. This time period can be set by preset VR1 and depends on the code-sending speed. The time for which the display holds the counted time can be adjusted by VR2. Generally, 0.2 seconds are sufficient. The time is shown in deci-seconds. Note: On connecting pin 9 of IC 4538 to pins 1 and 7 of both 4543 ICs, the display works in latched mode. The display in normal condition will be blank, except for a dot (dp) on the left side digit. This circuit displays the peak value of the time lapsed between two successive words (not letters) of the Morse signals. It displays that peak value for a while, but internally, it starts counting the next time period, since the two 4543 ICs are used in the latched mode. That is why the display does not glow all the time. AMPLIFIER TACITURNER AMRIT BIR TIWANA M ore often than not, one hears the door-bell ring when the audio rack is turned up to its maximum volume range, causing inconvenience to the visitors. In case you are concerned about this, this simple circuit will aptly solve the problem by turning the volume to nearly zero level the moment it make two of its four used gates to function as inverters with a hysteris level acting at the inputs. When the bell (mains-operated) rings, a parallel connection input sends a voltage through the voltage dropper components Dl, D2, Rl, R2 and Cl. These apply a 9-volt DC pulse at the input audio amplifier inputs, the amplifier’s volume is dropped to zero for that period. This is indicated by the LED. The circuit can be used with amplifiers running at up to 60 volts; for higher voltage types, transistors Tl and T2 should be replaced by higher voltage devices. hears the door-bell ring, and then back again to its normal level after an adjustable time gap. The circuit is based on a fairly overused quad CMOS inverter CD4093, whose inputs are wired to of gate N2, which triggers gate Nl, whose output goes high for a time period, depending upon the setting of VR1. As long as the output remains high, the two transistors remain conducting. As these are connected to the The current intake of the circuit being very low, the need for a separate power supply will never arise. The circuit can also be tailored to suit the amplifier’s power supply by varying the ratings of resistor R3 and zener D3. 98 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 REMOTE AUDIO LEVEL INDICATOR RAJESH L. CHHABRIA T he normal level-indicator circuits which are available in the market require connections to be made to the output of the player, which may not be easily accessible. The circuit described here removes this restriction as it may be placed close to the player’s speakers and yet the desired effect can be realised. As shown in the circuit, signals are picked up by the condenser microphone, which get further amplified by the non-inverting amplifier built around one of the four op-amps of LM324. The remaining three, along with four op-amps of the second LM324, are used as seven comparators to work as the level detector, giving seven output levels through seven coloured LEDs. The sensitivity of the circuit may be improved by varying the 220k potentiometer. If a fine adjustment is desired, a 4.7-kilohm potentiometer may be connected in series with the 220k potentiometer. SIMPLE KARAOKE CIRCUIT L. SRIDHAR C ostlier audio systems generally have ‘sing along’ facility nowadays. Generally, all these circuits employ a simple mixer, which accepts head signal from a recorder as well as a microphone signal simultaneously. Familiar songs enable us to sing in such a way that the singer’s voice in the recording is eliminated. This circuit utilises easily available components and its performance is really satisfactory. Only mono version has been given here. A replica can be ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 used for the stereo version. The ‘fanin’ facility of op-amp 741 is employed. This circuit is to be connected in between a cassette player and a cassette recorder. Recording output or ‘external’ terminal of cassette player A is to be used. As the output from the terminal is sufficient for recording, it need not be further amplified. Hence, an emitter follower is constructed, using transistor T1. If the output level is more than re- quired, it should be attenuated. For this purpose, a potmeter (VR1) is provided. Transistor T2 is meant for microphone. The value of resistor R18 lies between 4.7-kilohm and 22-kilohm, depending upon the sensitivity of the microphone. The passive network is for an auxiliary input, such as a keyboard. The op-amp is built in the ‘buffer’ mode. Output from the op-amp is to be maintained at the ‘recording’ level. Preset VR4 is set by trial and error to get undistorted recording. Output from 99 VR4 is fed into the input of tape B, kept in the recording mode. A very good power supply with least ripple level should be used to energise the circuit. Tmhe signal-carrying wires should be good-quality shielded cables to avoid noise pick-up. In the stereo version, by maintaining an effective control over the inputs, actual stereophonic effects can be produced. Author’s Comments: In my circuit for ‘Karaoke System’ re- sistor R18 had been used for biasing of the condenser microphone. However, if one inserts a dynamic mic., it may get damaged due to the current flowing through R18. So, before using a dynamic microphone, resistor R18 should be removed. TRANSISTORISED ‘WALKMAN’ RADIO PLAYER PRADEEP G. A fully transistorised circuit is given here for a ‘walkman’ radio player. The circuit comprises a single transistor RF stage, a two-stage head preamplifier and a four-stage main amplifier. The entire circuit is developed for 3-volt operation, meant to be used with compact ‘walkman’ mechanisation. The circuit employs seven cheap silicon transistors. The head preamplifier is the popular two-stage npn-pnp DC amplifier. The main amplifier is a four-stage, direct-coupled amplifier. The output 100 stage is made with BEL 187 and 188 matched pair. 250mW power can be obtained at 3-volt supply with this amplifier. The outputs of the head preamplifier and the RF stage are selected by a two-pole, two-way slide switch and given to the main amplifier through the volume control. This circuit has comparatively good sensitivity for the local MW stations. In the circuit, only one channel is shown. All stages, except the RF stage, should be made twice for stereo opera- tion. The radio stage is common for both channels. Use high-quality shielded wire for the tape’s play head and the volume controls. The length of these wires should be as short as possible. Connect the motor to supply rails through the leaf switch of the mechanism. The motor will be operated only when the Play, R/W or F/W switch is operated. Use a separate on/off switch for battery. Otherwise, the switch of the volume control can be used. As already stated, this circuit can ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 deliver 250 mW power into each channel. So, instead of a headphone, minispeakers can also be used. For on/off indication, a red LED with a 470-ohm resistor can be connected across the power supply lines. The specifications of the coils (LlL3) used are : LI — 100 turns of 42SWG enamelled copper wire on flat ferrite bar. L2— 10 turns of 42SWG enamelled copper wire near top end of L1 over the ferrite bar. L3 — Philips interstage (IFT) without parallel capacitor. (Primary winding only.) The switch connections are also shown in the circuit. SAFETY CIRCUIT FOR INSTANT WATER HEATER H.M MARUTHI RAO RAYKAR I nstant water heater is a very useful household device. Inside its attractive body, there is a metal container with an insulated heater coil. Inlet and outlet water pipes are fixed to the container. A thermostat is placed outside towards the top of the container to protect the gadget against excessive temperature. The circuit needs a continuous flow of water while working. The inlet and ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 outlet pipes should be connected properly. There is no protection to the heater coil, if there is an inlet water flow failure, owing to the pipes being reverse connected or otherwise. This can damage the heater coil. Here is a unique circuit to protect the heating coil. Two probes are fixed inside the container, just 2.5 cms above the coil through an insulated watertight tube with a gap of 7.5 cms for each probe. The circuit has a single-stage amplifier built around transistor Tl, which operates relay RL1. When switch Sl is turned on, step-down transformer X1 provides 12-volt AC. This is rectified by diodes Dl and D2, filtered by capacitor Cl and applied to the base of transistor Tl through water probes. Positive voltage to its base passes through resistor Rl and the water probe, tran101 sistor Tl conducts and the relay energises. Diode D3 and capacitor C2 are connected in parallel to relay RL1 to avoid chattering of the relay. Resistor R2 is used to limit the current flow to LEDs. The heater coil gets supply through the relay’s N/O contacts. The green LED indicates safe working. As the water falls down below the probe level, due to absence of base voltage to Tl, the transistor stops conducting, and the relay de-energises. The heater is turned ‘off’. In this circuit, 12-volt, 250-ohm relay with 10-amp DPDT contacts is used. One set of contacts is used for indication and another for heater supply. When relay is de-energised, the red LED indicates that there is no water inside the container. The circuit can be built on a small general-purpose PCB, housed in a small metal box, fixed very close to the equipment. LONG DURATION SEQUENTIAL TIMER WITH IC MM5387 A.U. AHMED W ith the addition of the circuit described here, your digital clock, built around IC MM5387, can be used to automatically switch on an electrical appliance at the alarm set time. It can also be used to switch it off after a certain time duration, adjustable between 1 and 59 minutes. The circuit also features display of the countdown (in minutes) to the completion of the process, which is announced by a self-resetting audible alarm. So, it can prove very useful for the automatic operation of a variety of electrical appliances, such as heater, geyser, TV, VCR, etc. 102 The circuit becomes operational only when switch Sl is in position 3. Precisely at the alarm set time, a momentary high state of alarm output triggers IC1, which is wired as a monostable multivibrator. IC1’s output pulse is used to set the internal ‘sleep counter’ of the clock IC by providing necessary high state to the ‘sleep display input’ and ‘fast set input’ simultaneously. The pulse length, and hence the sleep counter setting, is adjustable by potentiometer VR2. The resulting high sleep output is used to drive the relay through transistors T2 and T3. Sleep display input is also provided with the necessary high state to display the countdown process. At the end of the duration, IC2, triggered by the negative going pulse edge, triggers the tone generator IC 555 for approximately one minute. However, an alarm reset pushbutton switch is also provided. Manual on and off switches are provided to facilitate manual operation. With switch Sl in position 1, the clock functions as usual. To calibrate VR1 and VR2, keep switch Sl in position 2. In this mode, the circuit can be test-operated without disturbing the relay output. Now, ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 keep VR2 at its zero-resistance position. Adjust VR1 and press the manual on switch to get the sleep counter setting displayed. Then press the manual off switch briefly to try again. Achieve the required maximum setting of 59 minutes by trial and erELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 ror. Similarly, keeping VR2 at its maximum-resistance position, adjust VR4 for a setting of one minute. VR2’s dial may be marked accordingly. However, while setting the timer for real operation, it is advisable to crosscheck VR2 dial-setting by operating manual on/off switches in the test mode. The relay output can drive lowpower loads like TV and VCR directly. However, the optional circuit to drive loads with higher power rating is also given. 103 TELEPHONE SILENCER PRADIP KUMAR BOSE S uppose you are in the bathroom or enjoying a TV program while your telephone is ringing. Someone is calling you on your phone. This is a very irritating situation. Perhaps you lift the telephone handset off the cradle and put it on the table to avoid this kind of situation. But there is a chance you may forget to place the handset back on the cradle. This simple circuit solves this problem. Connect this gadget to your telephone line. Press a switch whenever you want to disconnect your line. The telephone will get reconnected after a preset time, set by switch S1. Anybody trying to call you during this period will get a busy tone in his telephone. The basic idea of this circuit is that it puts a resistive load equal to that of your telephone set in the telephone line when you press switch Sl. The load gets disconnected after a preset time. The load forces the telephone exchange to think that the line is busy. So, anybody trying to get your number will receive a busy tone. The time period can be adjusted according to one’s choice. The heart of the circuit is a 555 IC, which is wired in one-shot monostable on-timer configuration. On pressing switch S3, the IC gets power through the switch. At the same time, a negative-going pulse is applied to the trigger pin of 555 through another part of switch S3. So, the timer starts working, making the output pin high. As a result, relay RL1 energises. On energising relay RL1, the circuit gets its power through one of its contact points. So, releasing switch S3 will not disconnect circuit from the supply. Another contact point of the relay is used to apply a resistive load on the telephone line. A bridge rectifier is used to avoid the problem of polarity. The LED should glow, indicating that the silencer is working. The value of Rl may be changed to suit different telephone lines. The time interval is set by switch S1 to 5, 10, 20 or 40 minutes. After this time, the line will be normal. Switch S2 is used to reset the circuit. After the time interval set, the circuit will get disconnected from the supply, causing no power consumption. A 9V battery may be used to power the circuit. The circuit can be housed in a small box. Use miniature relay to save space. Transistor Tl needs a good heatsink. S1 TIME SELECTOR 1-POLE 4-WAY SWITCH R2 1K S2 RESET SWITCH C3 1000μ 25V TO TELEPHONE LINES BRIDGE RECTIFIER 104 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 CONTROL CIRCUIT FOR IN / OUT COUNTER BHASKAR BANNERJEE T he following is a reliable and easy-to-build transistorised control circuit for In / Out counter. There are various object counters available, but they cannot be used for simultaneous in and out counting. In most cases, there is only one door for entrance and exit, so false counting is likely. The circuit presented here solves the problem. The circuit, built around transistors Tl through T4 and the LDRs, controls the relay circuit. When LDR1 and ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 LDR2 are simultaneously obstructed, relays RL1 and RL2 get energised and finally activate relay RL3, through transistors T5-T9. The LDR-controlled relay circuit is very simple. Here, only potentiometers VR1 and VR2 are adjusted for a better triggering of the LDRs. When LDR1 and LDR2 are obstructed, the respective relays RL1 and RL2 get energised at once. When RL1 gets energised, T5 is biased. T5 biases T6 and capacitor C3 gets charged. Similarly, when RL2 gets energised, it connects the base of transistor T7 to the emitter of transistor T6, and thus T7 is biased. This activates transistor T8, and T8 biases transistor T9 through relay R5. Finally, relay RL3 is energised. The on-time of RL3 is about seven to eight seconds and depends on the values of resistor R3 and R4. An LDRcontrolled object counter may be connected to RL3, which acts as the On/ 105 Off switch for the counter. If the persons entering are to be counted, then only one circuit is necessary. But when the persons entering and leaving are both to be counted, then two such circuits are needed. You must be careful about the settings of the lights and the LDRs. LE1 and RE1 of the entry counter should come first when a person enters, then come LE2, RE2 and LE3, RE3. On the other hand, LX1 and RX1 are chosen first, when a person exits. This is shown in the diagram below the circuit. LE and RE represent the lights and LDRs for the entry counter, while LX and RX represent the lights and LDRs for the exit counter. If you want to keep LE3, RE3 and LX3, RX3 in separate places, then increase the on-time of the relay RL3 by increasing the values of resistors R3 and R4. Be sure that a person takes lesser time than the on-time of relay RL3 to reach that point. For convenience, keep the distance shorter and on-time of RL3 higher. Keep LEI, LE2, RE1, RE2 and LX1, LX2, RX1, RX2 close, so that a single-light source may be used. The advantage of this circuit is that, if RE2 or RX2 or RE3 (LDRs of the counter-circuit) or RX3 is obstructed first, relay RL3 will remain off. Thus, false counting is prevented. The circuit can be constructed on a veroboard or a general-purpose PCB. If possible, use lenses for perfect and accurate operation. The light must be focussed just on the LDRs. Low-cost lenses available in the market can be used without hesitation. LOW-COST PULSE GENERATOR MUKESH AMBWANI H ere is a low-cost pulse generator with four independent controls for pulse, i.e. On and Off periods and On and Off levels. IC LM393 has two comparators. We can use any comparator IC. The first comparator is used as an astable multivibrator and the other as a zero crossing detector. We can calculate 106 TON, TOFF, VON and VOFF from the following equations: TON = VR1 x C TOFF = VR2 x C VON = Vcc x R5/(R5 + VR3) VOFF = VDD x R5/(R5 + VR4) The circuit was tested with VON = +15V and VOFF =-15V, up to 300kHz. The circuit can be energised by a single supply of up to +30V or dual supply of +17V > Vcc and -17V > VDD. The output pulse is obtained from pin 5 or pin 7 of IC1. The characteristics of the waveform obtained are shown in the figure besides the circuit diagram. The values of the variable resistors and the capacitor can be calculated from the equations, given in the text. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 TOP-SECRET CODE LOCK K.A. SAKTHIDHARAN M ost electronic code locks are provided with a number of push switches. These are pushed one by one in a particular sequence to activate the ICs through transistor T2. IC1 is reset at this time. The second push switch S2 is pressed to give positive pulses to the IC2 gets positive voltage and its output pin 3 goes high. This condition is indicated by the glow of LED2. The power transistor 2N3055 conducts and the lock. However, if somebody else is present while we are operating such a lock, that person can easily manage to grasp the code by noting the finger movements. The code lock described here eliminates this drawback. It has only two push switches for entering the code number. The mode of operation depends upon the number of times the switch is pushed. Since the finger movements are minimised, it is impossible for another person to copy the mode of operation. Besides, the electronic part of this lock switches off automatically after each operation. When reset switch S1 is pushed, capacitor C1 gets charged and gives enough bias to operate transistor Tl. The positive supply is connected to the input of IC1 , which is a decade counter. Each time switch S2 is pushed, the output of IC1 increments one step. On the sixth step, pin 5 (Q6) goes high and charges C2, providing bias for transistor T3. Transistor T3 brings down the trigger pin 2 of IC2 to negative level. But its output does not go high because reset pin 4 remains at a low level. If switch S2 is pushed again, transistor T4 shorts the base of transistor T3 to ground and pin 2 of IC2 will be brought to positive again. This should not happen for a successful operation. After the sixth push of switch S2, IC1 is reset by pushing S1 again. Four successive pulses are given to the input of IC1 to hold the Q4 output (pin 10) high. In this position, reset pin 4 of motor starts rotating. This is a DC motor, rotating both in clockwise and anticlockwise directions, depending upon the position of switch S3. In the beginning, set the slide switch S3 in open or close mode. Then push S1 once. LED1 glows . Push switch S2 six times. Then push switch Sl once and then switch S2 again four times. LED2 glows. Now, the lock is closed or opened. The code numbers 6 and 4 are with respect to the diagram given. These may be altered by reconnecting the outputs of IC1 with diodes D2, D3 and pin 4 of IC2. The door lock can be opened or closed with the help of the motor, which moves the latch inside forward or backward with the help of a toothed wheel. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 107 Readers’ Comments: Please convey my thanks to the author of the above circuit, published in EFY March’94. 1. I could not understand the use of the two leaf switches L1 and L2, connected in parallel. 2. May I connect a relay at the output in place of the motor? Can I use transistor BC 148 in lieu of transistor 2N3055, when I am using the relay only? Simon Philip Thiruvalla  I want to clarify the following points from the author regarding the above circuit. 1. Can the circuit be used without a motor? 2. Does the circuit need an ordinary motor as used in tape-recorders or a special one? Ritesh Kumar Ratlam The author, Mr K.A. Sakthidharan, replies: 1. To clarify the doubt, I am illustrating it with the help of a simple diagram, as shown in the figure. Leaf switches L1 and L2 are intended for stopping the circuit. These are to be connected on both sides of the lock lever (see fig) in such a way that each time the lever is moved to and fro, either L1 or L2 gets closed. 2. The DC motor can be replaced by a relay switch to drive any type of locking system. In this case, 2N3055 may be replaced by SL100. The positive pulse available at the output of IC2 may be used for triggering other electronic gadgets. In this case, a motor is not necessary. If the mechanical parts of the lock are smooth running and light weight, an ordinary motor serves the purpose. Otherwise, a powerful motor should be connected through a relay switch. ACCURATE FREQUENCY-TO-VOLTAGE CONVERTER C. SELVAM H ere is a circuit of an accurate frequency-to-voltage converter using analogue phase detectors and multiplexers. The analogue-type phase detector compares the two signal input frequencies fin and f0, and provides an output signal, which comprises the sum and difference of the two signal frequencies fin ± f0. The frequency comparator gives low output (0V) when fin < f0 and high output (+Vcc) when fin > f0, and this controls the 2-to-l analogue multiplexer. The multiplexer selects the component fin ± f0 when its control is low and selects Vcc/2 when it is high. Initially, let fin < f0. The component fin ± f0 is given to the low-pass filter, to filter out the component fin + f0, and its output DC voltage is proportional to the input frequency fin for constant f0. When fin becomes >f0, the output goes to saturation, i.e. to Vcc/2. 108 The reference clock, phase detector and frequency comparator can be implemented by using a single CMOS PLL IC CD4046. This IC consists of two phase detectors and one linear voltage-controlled oscillator. The phase comparator I is a digital type, employing an X-OR gate and the phase com- ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 parator II is of the analogue type. The analogue phase comparator II compares the frequencies of the two input signals and it has two outputs. One output (at pin 1) provides an average voltage, proportional to the component fin ± f0 and another (at pin 13) provides low when fin < f0 and high when fin > f0. The linear voltage-controlled oscillator in IC 4046 can be used as reference clock for constant f0 by giving constant input voltage to it. The 2-to-l multiplexer can be implemented by another CMOS IC CD4053. This IC has three, 2-to-l multiplexers. Out of three, one can be used here. For the low-pass filter, a simple RC filter can be used. The complete implementation is shown in the circuit diagram. The graphical characteristics of phase comparator at pin 1 of IC1 are shown alongside. From this, it is obvious that when fin=f0, the average output voltage is maximum, i.e. Vcc/2. This is given by: fin x Vcc Vo = –––––––– where fin < f0 2f0 While testing, f0 was first set to 1kHz by adjusting the value of resistor VR1. Then the input frequency was varied from 100 Hz to 1 kHz, and the corresponding DC output voltage measured. The output DC voltage can be attenuated to a required level and can be given to a PMMC meter for analogue indication or to a DVM for digital indication, corresponding to the unknown input frequency fin. Hence, this circuit can be used for frequency measurement also. ROLLING ELECTRONIC DICE SANJAY MALJURE M ost popular indoor games require a dice. The circuit for electronic rolling display given here simulates an actual dice very closely. Seven LEDs are used in the display. These LEDs are driven by a decoder circuit of 3 NOR gates, which in turn are driven by the decade counter (IC7490) ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 wired as a six-state counter, the counter sequence being 0-1-2-3-4-9-0. Each state of the counter is used to obtain one of the possible states, i.e. outcomes of the dice. It can be seen from the table that the QA bits inverted correspond to the states of LED7, QC bits inverted correspond to the states of the LEDs 2 and 5, QD bits directly correspond to the states of the LEDs 3 and 4. The QB and QC bits are NORed to obtain the states of the LEDs 1 and 6. IC555 is used in the astable mode to provide the clock to the counter. The frequency in this case is 22 Hz. The discharge pin 7 of the IC 555 is connected 109 to an RC combination through a switch as shown. The 330μF capacitor charges up to the supply voltage through the 100-ohm resistor, and when the switch is released this capacitor discharges through the 10-megohm resistor. This mode of connection gives a signal of decaying frequency. This effect is seen on the display as a continuously slow change of count of the dice till it settles down to some steady state. Since the count of the dice continues to change even after the switch is released by the person who tries a roll, the cir- State of IC7890 QD 1 0 0 0 0 0 Condition of LEDs QC QB QA LED7 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF LEDs3,4 OFF ON ON ON ON ON cuit becomes foolproof even at low frequencies and the use of this model at play becomes exciting. The plots of capacitor voltage and Count of LEDs1,6 LEDs2,5 OFF OFF OFF ON ON ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF ON Dice 1 2 3 4 5 6 output of IC 555 are given below for better comprehension. Switch S2 is pushed on at t =Tl and released at, say t =T2. GRADUALLY TURNING-OFF COURTESY LIGHT M. S. NAGARAJ T his simple circuit enables the construction of an inexpensive and compact courtesy light controller. Unlike the other controllers, this one does not switch off the light abruptly, putting the user in instant darkness. Instead, it provides the user full intensity light for a fixed time, which then gradually dims and finally goes off. The circuit dispenses with the bulky electromechanical relay and the stepdown transformer by using power MOSFET as the control element. The circuit is configured such that the normally discharged timing capacitor ensures that the circuit does not start timing sequence when the mains supply fails and then resumes. The line voltage is rectified by diodes Dl to D4. Op-amp LF351 is energised by the supply Vcc, developed by resistor R1, diode D5, capacitor C1 and zener D6. Voltage V NI, at the noninverting input of the op-amp, has a DC component derived from voltage Vcc, scaled down by resistors R4, VR1 and R3, and a ripple component derived from bridge rectifier output, scaled down by resistors R2, VR1 and R3. When switch Sl is closed, the voltage VI, at the inverting input-pin 2 of IC1, is made zero and the capacitor C2 is charged to Vcc volts. Op-amp output switches to Vcc volts, switching the 110 MOSFET and the lamp ‘on’ simultaneously. When switch Sl is opened, C2 is allowed to discharge through resistor R5. Full-intensity light is produced till VI is less than VDC, the DC component of VNI. During the period, VI is compared with the ripple component of VNI. The duty cycle of the pulses at line frequency at the op-amp output decreases from 100 per cent to zero percent, causing gradual dimming of the intensity of the light to zero. When VI exceeds the ripple peak value, the lamp becomes fully off. Potentiometer VR1 provides an adjustment for off delay from about 40 seconds to 20 minutes. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 DIGITAL ON-OFF TIMER BIJUKUMAR J. T he circuit described here is of a digital on-off timer. This timer is capable of dual-mode operation. It also provides a wide range of timings (up to 9999 states) in seconds or minutes, ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 ranging from both the On and Off period control of the relay. The circuit consists of eight ICs, a set of four thumbwheel switches and six logic indicators. Automatic loading in this circuit gives on-off timing property, which avoids the need of mechanical switches. Programmable lamp flasher is another feature of this circuit. In PLF working, the relay 111 turns ‘on’ and ‘off’ alternately, with equal periods as in the case of an astable multivibrator. A four-stage display is replaced by five logic indicators, which is another advantage of this circuit. The four 74190 presettable decade up-down counter ICs are the heart of the circuit. IC 74190 is more suitable for developing timer circuits. It has four data input pins labelled A, B, C and D and four output data pins labelled QA, QB, QC and QD. Its pin 11 is used to set the input data into the output. When a low pulse is applied to this pin, the data at the input pins is transferred to the output pins, i.e. QD, QC, QB, and QA become D, C, B, and A. This operation has a priority over others and is done independently in all the cases. This has an ENABLE pin 4. To operate the counter, this pin is connected at low level. When the pin goes to a high level, the IC stops counting and disables all the operations except load operation. To set the counters in the countdown mode, keep the up/down input pin high or open. This pin is labelled Down/Up and is pin 5. The clock is applied to pin 14. QD is taken as the clock output. This also has two outputs, which indicate the conditions of outputs QD, QC, QB, and QA. When the counter output reaches 0000 in the countdown mode and also 1001 in the countup mode, the maximum/minimum pin 12 goes to the high level. Hence, in this system, the data output is used to identify the maximum and minimum count states of the counter outputs. When the output of any counter reaches 0000, its pin 12 goes to a high level. IC 7408 contains four two-input AND gates. Three gates are connected to get a four-input AND gate. The fourth gate is used for ANDing the load pulse, which is given from power on the reset switch and output of four-input NAND gate. IC 74LS00 contains four two-input NANDgates. Two gates of this IC are used as inverters. One of these inverters is connected at the output of the fourinput AND gate and results in a fourinput NAND gate configuration. The second inverter is used to invert a low pulse given by power-on reset switch when power is on. This single high pulse is used to clear the subcounter IC 7493. 112 IC 7493 is also a subcounter which is used in the timer unit to drive the relay transistor. The QA output is used for this purpose. The QB output is used to operate the presettable counters. This output is connected to ‘enable’ input of all presettable counters. Hence, whenever a high appears in the QB output, the counters stop counting operations and remain in disable state. This sub-counter is cleared by applying a single high pulse while power is on. A low pulse of time duration above 1 ms is generated when the power is on. The electrolytic capacitor C1 charges through the resistor R10. After maximum charging, the output is held in high state, but initially no charge condition produces a low pulse. To get the desired result, a resistor of one-kilohm and 10μF capacitor is used. Thumbwheel switches are used to give the desired time to the counters. The thumbwheel switches have one input terminal and four output BCD lines. The actual method to select the desired BCD code using thumbwheel switches is to connect the input terminal to the output when high output is required. To get this result, connect VCC supply to input terminal and connect 16 resistors from each output of four thumbwheel switches to the ground. The output data is taken from the BCD outputs. In the connection arrangement described above, whenever we need a high data, the connection occurs, and hence the voltage across the resistor is +5V. But for a low pulse, no connection occurs, and hence there is no source current. So, the above arrangement gives ground through the resistor. After arranging the desired On time in thumbwheel switches, press the power-on switch. The power is given to the timer unit and the common circuits. The load pulse applied to the counters is done in two ways. Due to low detecting operation, an AND gate is used. Pin 12 of all counters is connected to the four inputs of the fourinput NAND gate. This gate is realised by using three two-input AND gates and an inverter. Whenever the output of all the counters becomes 0000, pin 12 of all counters goes to a high level. Hence, the output of NAND gate becomes low. This output is always connected to the clock input of the subcounter IC 7493 to count a single pulse after the first programed time in the counter. In this way, the first programed time in all the counter outputs becomes 0000 and a low pulse acts at output of NAND gate. The subcounter counts up a single pulse, and hence its output becomes 0001. The relay is turned on at this time. The output of NAND gate and integrator output are ANDed using a twoinput AND gate and the resulting output connected to load inputs of all counters. Due to this arrangement, after the operation for first programed time completes, an automatic loading is done, and hence the second time or Off time is automatically loaded into the counters. After automatic loading of Off time, the clock runs and the output becomes countdown with the clock. In this way, after the second programed time, another low pulse appears at the NAND gate output. This results in next loading and single pulse counting by the sub-counter. Hence, its output becomes 0010. At this time, the relay turns off due to low level in QA and a high pulse in the QB results in a hold state of the system operation. Then all presettable counters stop counting, and hence all counter and subcounter ICs’ output states remain in the above state. Due to this reason, after the On time, the relay works and then after the Off time, the relay turns off. Hence, the system automatically remains in the disabled state. The clock generator unit is used to give one-second and one-minute pulses for the operation of the timer. It is wired around a CMOS IC CD 4060, due to its advantages over all other clock generators. It contains an oscillator section and a divide by 214 counter. The oscillator section produces high frequency clock and then the counter section divides it to suitable one-second and one-minute periods. The basic clock has a time period of 2.2 RC seconds, and hence the final output has a much larger time period of 2.2 RC x 214 seconds. Due to the smaller values of the capacitor and resistor used, the stability of the clock period becomes constant. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 RAIN-OPERATED WIPER UNNIKRISHNAN T he circuit shown in the figure is designed to operate wipers fitted in vehicles. These are special types of wipers that turn on automatically when it begins to rain and turn off when the rain stops. The circuit is based on the versatile, multipurpose timer chip 555. The timer 555 is used in the monostable mode in the circuit. The timer is triggered when a voltage below 1/3 Vcc is applied at its trigger pin. The sensor is connected between the trigger pin and ground. The circuit can also be turned on or off, using switch S1. As the sensor detects rain, the wiper starts operating. One can make a suitable sensor according to one’s choice. A model of the sensor is shown in the figure. The distance between the rails is made as small as possible, so as to have a more compact and reliable sensor. The sensor shown here is made from resistor leads or small metal foil pieces. PROGRAMMABLE 100-DAY TIMER BABU M.G. T his is a timer circuit designed to give five different outputs. The output can be delayed up to 100 days by varying the clock frequency. The circuit has an advantage that it provides flexibility in the output range. If the five outputs are taken at a time when the clock is adjusted for 0.5 Hz, the outputs are given by the time periods of 10,20,30,40 and 50 days. By adjusting VR1 now, if the clock frequency is made 0.1 Hz, the output time periods change to 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 days. If only the fifth output is taken, the timer will give an output after 100 days. The circuit makes use of a 555 clock IC, two 12-bit binary counters ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 (CD4040), a four-input AND gate (CD4082) and a decoder (CD4515). The clock frequency of 555 is adjustable and can be varied by adjusting VR1 suitably. When the first 12-bit binary counter (IC2) gets a count of 900, the second binary counter (IC3) is driven by IC2 via IC5, which is a fourinput AND circuitry. The count of IC3 is 960 when all the outputs from IC3, i.e. Qo to Q3 become high and the overall count is 864000. When a clock frequency of 1Hz is given, the output time period of the 113 Frequency (Hz) 0.5 0.1 1 2 10 Outputs (After days) Output1 Output2 Output3 Output4 Output5 10 20 30 40 50 20 40 60 80 100 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 3 4 5 1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5 1 fifth output will be ten days. With a clock frequency of 10 Hz, the output time period at output terminal 5 becomes one day. Thus, by changing the value of VR1, the clock frequency changes accordingly, which in turn introduces a change in the output, as depicted in the table. PHASE SEQUENCE DETECTOR CUM SINGLE-PHASE PROTECTOR HARINDER SINGH F or three-phase motors, it is essential that all the three phases are present in a particular sequence. This circuit cuts off the supply to the equipment if any of the phases is ab- 114 sent, or if the phases are not in a correct sequence. The problem with most electronic equipment is that the supply frequency should be precisely 50 Hz for correct operation, but in actual practice the supply frequency is anywhere between 47 Hz and 53Hz. This circuit is able to accommodate such changes in the supply frequency. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Rectified voltage from each phase is stepped down, using voltage dividers formed around resistors Rl to R6. This stepped-down voltage is used to drive transistors T1-T3 from phases B,Y and R, respectively. Schmitt-triggered NAND gates N1-N3 shape up the signals from transistors T1-T3, respectively. IC2 is a positive edge-triggered, clocked, dual-JK flip-flop. The sequence is detected, using IC2 and N4. When the red-phase(R) voltage VR rises just above 146V, the output of NAND gate N3 goes from low to high, resulting in clearing of both FF1 and FF2 through capacitor Cl. While VR is still above 146V, the yellow-phase(Y) voltage VY rises above 146V, resulting in the output of gate N2 going high, and hence providing a clock pulse to FF1. Thus, the output of FF1 goes high (as the J input of FF1 is already high at the time of the clock pulse leading edge arriving at the triggering terminal). Now, when the blue-phase(B) voltage VB goes above 146V, the output of gate Nl goes high, while the output of gate N2 is already high, resulting in the output of FF2 going high. The above process repeats itself once in each cycle. When the Q outputs of both flip-flops FF1 and FF2 are high, i.e. the phase sequence is correct, the output of gate N4 goes low, resulting in the triggering of IC3, and hence energising the relay which controls the supply to the machine. IC3 is wired as a retriggerable monoshot timer, whose time period is set by resistor Rt and capacitor Ct. If the monoshot is not retriggered within this period, the relay is put off, i.e. the equipment is disconnected. The time period is given by: T=1.1 Ct+Rt T is set to approximately 25ms, i.e. the circuit will operate flawlessly at frequencies as low as 42 Hz. Diode D4 protects T5 from the back emf, generated due to the switching of relay RL1. If any of the phase supply fails, the phase sequence is disturbed, resulting in de-energising of the relay, and thus switching off of the machine. The circuit is so small that it can be fitted even within an existing switching unit. The circuit costs around Rs150. Note: As some of the parts in the circuit contain fatal voltages, special care should be taken during testing and installation. The circuit should be properly isolated from all metallic parts of the machine and its switching units/casing. MULTICHANNEL TOUCH SWITCH PRADEEP G. T his is a circuit of a touch switch which operates by simply touching the touch-plates. The relays are operated sequentially on touching TP1 to TP7. The heart of this circuit is a seven-channel Darlington array IC ULN2004. Seven touchplates are provided, one each at the input of each Darlington stage. And seven relays are connected at the outputs. When we bridge any touchplate with the main plate be a finger (connected to the positive supply), the corresponding Darlington transistor saturates and the corresponding relay gets energised. That is, when TP1 is bridged to the main plate by a finger, relay RL1 is energised. On bridging TP2 with the main plate, relay RL2 is energised. This process continues all through the ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 seven channels. One of the interesting applications of this circuit is a touch-sensitive tape-recorder. The tape recorder’s Play, Fast, Rewind, Stop and Eject switches may be mechanically or electronically connected to the relay contacts. So, different relays can be operated by touching the corresponding touchplates. Reverse-biased diodes connected across the relays inside IC1 protect the IC from back emf, generated during the relay coil breaks. Electrolytic capacitors connected across the relays help to prevent relay chatterings. The IC ULN2004 costs around Rs15. Note: The spacing between the touchplates to the main plate should be as short as possible (2mm in prototype). 115 TWO-IN-ONE SWITCH CIRCUIT TARUN IQBAL SINGH H ere is a circuit which provides two types of switches, i.e. touchswitch and staircase switch. Most touch-switch circuits published in earlier issues of Electronics For You have the disadvantage of having two separate touchplates for the On/Off operation. The circuit presented here uses a single touchplate. On touching the plate, the gadget connected through the relay will switch on and on next touch, the relay will switch it off. Therefore, a single touchplate performs both the functions. An electrical device can be controlled from a number of switch locations with the help of switches S2, S3 ... Sn. IC1 has been wired up in monostable mode, with the time period given by 1.1RC. Each touch causes it to perform one monostable operation. A similar action takes place when any of the push-to-on type switches, i.e. S2, S3... Sn is pressed. The output of IC1 from pin 3 is connected to the clock input (pin 13) of JK master slave flip-flop CD4027. Its truth table is also given. Out of the four conditions, the last one is used in this circuit. J and K, i.e. pins 10 and 11 of IC2 are made high. Now, for every positive-going clock edge obtained from IC1 (pin 3), the output of CD4027 toggles. So, if the output on pin 15 is high, it becomes low on touching the touchplate or by pressing S2,S3 ... Sn and vice versa. This makes the relay activate and deactivate, thus switching on and off the device connected to the relay contacts. S1 is an SPDT switch, which is used here as a selector switch. Please, note that CD4027 has two independent JK flip-flops, and only one of these two has been used here. If by chance one of these gets damaged, the other one can be used by simply studying the pin configuration of CD4027 and then suitably changing the pin connections. Readers’ Comments: The circuit of ‘Two-in-one Switch’ is very interesting. I have assembled it on the PCB designed by myself. But when I switched on the supply the relay got energised without my touching the touchplate or pressing the switches. The PCB designed is matching the circuit. Please suggest remedies for proper operation of the circuit and the PCB. Also, I used transistor CL100 instead of SL100. Are these transistors simi- lar? tween pin 3 of IC1 and ground. By touching the touch plate or pushing the push-button switch, the meter should read about 8V or so for three to ten seconds. If this happens, the IC is good. Now, connect again the voltmeter between pin 15 and ground. On touching the plate or push-button switch, the meter should now read about 9 volts until we touch the plate or press the push-button switch again. 116 Sandeep Mathur Delhi The author, Tarun Iqbal Singh, replies: I am thankful to Mr Mathur for taking interest in my circuit. Transistor CL100 is a suitable replacement of SL100. The PCB design sent to me is correct in all respects. Please, try to increase the value of R4 to 2.2M or even higher, if necessary. Connect a voltmeter (0-10V) be- ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 STEREO AUDIO LEVEL INDICATOR UNNIKRISHNAN P.R. A udio level indicators are used with most audio systems and can be easily incorporated into any deck. There are many audio level circuits published in earlier issues of Electronics For You. The circuit presented here describes a stereo version of audio indicators. The first ten LEDs are used to indicate the right channel and the second row of LEDs indicates the left channel. The two switches go On/Off according to the output levels of the 4017 IC. IC 555 works as an astable multivibrator to generate a rectangular wave at a frequency of about 55 Hz. It is fed to the input of IC 4017, CMOS decade counter. This IC is working in the toggle mode, because the Q2 output (pin 4) is connected to the reset pin. The output from the CMOS switch is amplified by a single-stage amplifier, tor T3. Transistors T2 and T3 are also controlled by the outputs of IC 4017. When the first output of IC 4017 (pin 3) is high, the first switch in IC 4066 is enabled. Since transistors T2 and T3 are both pnp type, therefore transistors T3 is cut off when transistor T2 goes into saturation. The anodes of the first set of LEDs get the positive supply, so LEDs 1 to 10 glow according to the right input, since the first switch in IC 4066 is The circuit uses a bar graph display driver ICs LM3914N, 555, 4017 and 4066. The input signal is given to two presets to set the voltage at a correct level. This is then fed to the CMOS switches inside IC 4066. Only two of the four switches are used in the circuit. built around transistor Tl. It is then fed to the input of IC4 (3914). The outputs of IC 3914 are connected to 20 LEDs. The anodes of the first ten LEDs are connected to the collector of transistor T2. The anodes of the other ten LEDs are connected to the collector of transis- connected to the right channel. When the output of IC2 (pin 2) is high, the second switch in 4066 is enabled. So, the left input is given to the input of IC 3914. Transistor T2 is cut off and transistor T3 goes into saturation. Thus, the second set of LEDs ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 117 glows according to the voltage level. The only adjustment required is that of the two presets VR1 andVR2. Both the presets are adjusted to a suit- able level to display the LEDs in each channel. Readers’ Comments: Regarding the circuit ‘Stereo Audio Level Indicator’ by Mr Unnikrishnan P.R., the author has multiplexed both the channels on the same bar-graph display IC LM3914. The approach is excellent, but the circuit is not economical. The cost of other ICs (555, 4017, 4066) and transistors (BC188 etc) exceeds the cost of IC LM3914. It would be better to use another LM3914 IC for the second channel to avoid wiring over the other ICs and transistors. Using a separate IC LM3914 for each channel will also save space on the PCB. Pawan Kumar Khatri Jodhpur are ill-founded. Moreover, the technique of multiplexing enables the circuit to handle up to ten channels, which means it can give ten different outputs. The circuit can thus be used to indicate: 1. 4- or 8-track stereo signal levels. 2. Play back and recording levels in double cassette deck at the same time, which is very useful for synchronous dubbing. 3. Different channel inputs in a public address system simultaneously. The author, Mr Uhnikrishnan P.R., replies: ICs 4017, 4066 and 555 cost around rupees twelve each and transistor BC188 costs rupees three. So, the total cost for stereo indication does not exceed rupees forty two. On the other hand, a single IC 3914 costs about rupees fifty five. So, the reader’s fears KEYBOARD WITH STROBE SIGNAL PRATAP HALKARNIKAR T he circuit shows a keyboard which can generate a key-code along with handshaking signals. The circuit uses hardware detection of depressed key and generation of its code. By generat- 118 ing the strobe signal STB, it can load the key-code into the input port of the microcomputer system. In this circuit, eight keys of the pushbutton type are used. The output of IC 7430 goes high, whenever any key is pressed. This triggers one of the monostable sections(A) of IC 74123, which activates IC 74374 latch by enabling it (LE). This latches ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 key-code into IC 74374. At the same time, it triggers the next monostable section(B) of IC 74123 which gives the STB signal. This signal loads the valid data latched into IC 74374 into input port. This circuit is useful where handshaking signals are necessary for keyboard interface. Handshaking signals can be made compatible by adjusting the R-C value of the second monostable. Active high (STB) or active low (STB) signal is generated by selecting the Q or Q output of the monostable. HYBRID AUDIO OUTPUT AMPLIFIER A.S.V. RAVI SHANKAR P resented here is a hybrid type high-fidelity audio output amplifier. The design allows it to deliver 8W into an 8-ohm load, and 16W into a 4-ohm load. IC1(a) is a preamplifier with input impedance of about 100 kilohms. This is followed by the volume control VR1. The signal is then fed to the voltage amplification stage, based on IC1(b). The high slew rate of the opamp (9V/μs) is ideally suited to this application, since the voltage ex- cursion at the output of the opamp is about ± l2V at full-drive condition. This voltage drives the current amplification section, based on a complementary Darlington emitter-follower configuration. The coupling between the voltage and current amplification sections is formed by just four resistors. The final output is taken out through a zoebel network for stability. The output voltage at full drive is around 8V. The output current must not exceed 2A. Transistors T2 and T4 are to be mounted on heat sinks. The circuit needs a symmetrical power supply capable of providing 1.5A, with an 8-ohm output load and 3A with 4-ohm output load. The circuit has been tested at an 8-ohm output load. The cost of the circuit is about Rs 60. Note: The circuit was tested at EFY Lab with two 741 opamps, instead of NE5532, and was found to be working well. SAWTOOTH WAVE GENERATOR C. SELVAM A sawtooth wave is generated by charging a capacitor at a specified rate and then rapidly discharging it with a switch. Here is a circuit which ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 utilises this principle. The switch is realised, using the 4053 analogue multiplexer. IC1 is a VI converter (integrator) that forces ca- pacitor C to charge at a rate set by I = Vi/R. For proper operation, this current must always flow out of IC1’s summing junction; hence, Vi must 119 TABLE C Practical Calculated in μF frequencyin Hz frequency in Hz 0.1 1710 1706 0.2 1047 0853 0.3 0824 0569 0.4 0708 0427 0.5 0635 0341 0.6 0584 0284 0.7 0546 0243 0.8 0515 0213 0.9 0491 0190 1.0 0471 0170 Note: -Vi = 476.5mV; R = 558.4 (1%); and VT= 5V; C is Laboratory Standard Capacitor ~ always be negative. Resistor R2 and R3 establish a threshold voltage Vcc x R3 VT = (R2+R3) During capacitor charge, the comparator output is in Low state and the switch is in Off state. The output of the integrator will be Vi 1 t Vs = –––– Vidt = –––– t ...1. RC o RC When the output of the integrator exceeds the threshold voltage VT, the comparator output becomes high and the switch shorts the capacitor C, and hence Vs falls down to 0V. The comparator is prevented from responding immediately to this change because of the charge accumulated in capacitor Cl during the comparator’s output transition from 0V to +7.5V. This one-shot action, whose duration TD is proportional to product R1 x C1, is designed to ensure complete discharge of capacitor C by the switch. With the components shown, TD is less than 20μs. After timing out, the comparator output returns to low state and the switch becomes Off again, allowing capacitor C to resume charging. The cycle, therefore, repeats itself. The waveforms generated are shown below the circuit. From the waveforms shown here and from the equation (1), at time t = T, Vs = VT Vi f = –––––––– ...2. VT RC The above circuit was tested in our laboratory (Measurements & Instruments Lab, IIT, Madras) and the observations during the testing of this circuit are as under: Voltage : HIL 2665 DMM measured (0.5% accuracy) Waveforms : KIKUSI COM 7101A and frequency 100 MHz digital measured oscilloscope. MULTICHANNEL WATER LEVEL MONITOR-CUM-CONTROLLER AJITESH ARUN AND ANIMESH ARUN T he circuit differs from standard water level monitors in that it is more user-friendly, economical and easier to construct. Its main features are—mains operation, a 64-note ROMbased music generator to provide au- 120 dio indication of a full tank, auto-off for the pump and an inverter logic gate to prevent dry running of the motor. The circuit is configured around three parallel BEL188 pnp transistor amplifiers. The note generator com- prises the UM66 musical IC and the logic gate turns off the pump when water is not available for pumping to the upper tank. Assembling can be easily done on a 5 cm x 5 cm veroboard. The circuit, ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 speaker and transformer can be housed in a plastic remote-bell cabinet. A normally-closed solidstate relay can be used in place of the musical circuit to turn off the pump automatically. Probe 1 goes to the top of the upper tank, to indicate full water level. Probe 2 goes to the middle of the upper tank to indicate normal water level. Probe 3 is kept at the bottom of the lower tank. A chime and turning off of pump automatically, accompanied by bicolour LED showing yellow, means upper tank is full. Readers’ Comments: I am a new reader of EFY and have found the circuit ‘Multichannel Water Level Monitor-cum-Controller’ by Messrs Ajitesh and Animesh Arun very useful. I used two types of UM 66 ICs, with annotation UM66 (TOIL) 8719 and UM 66 (TI9S) 911. The first IC works very well, but the second one generates music only once. It does not repeat the music, unless the power supply is disconnected first and then reconnected across pins 2 and 3. Is it possible to generate a continuous tone form UM66 (TI9S) 911? Bimlendu Shekhar Bihar TABLE LED Display Inference Yellow Water levels normal in both tanks. Green Upper tank short of water; lower tank normal. Red Lower tank has no water; upper tank normal. Directors Pump may be turned on, if more water is to be pumped up. Turn-on pump. Turn-off pump. The authors, Messrs Ajitesh and Animesh Arun, reply: We thank Mr Shekhar for the interest shown in our project. In the prototype we have made, we used UM66 IC available in TO-92 package. Apparently, the first type of UM66 IC used by you gives a continuous output, whereas the second one needs to be triggered each time to give a series of notes. The relay works in both the cases. PROGRAMMABLE 100-HOUR TIMER UNNIKRISHNAN P.R T his is a simple timer, designed with readily available ICs. It can be programmed up to 100 hours. When it reaches the preset time, the timer ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 cuts off the load automatically, resets the counters and gets ready for the next operation. The circuit uses a single 4060 oscillator cum binary divider, two 4017 decade counters, one 4011 quad NAND gate and one 7555 CMOS timer IC. IC 4060 produces a pulse every hour. This is fed to the input of first 121 4017 (IC2). The carry output from IC2 is given to the input of the next 4017 (IC3). Both the ICs are connected to rotary type 10-way switch. The time period is preset, using these switches S2 and S3. S2, is meant for hour position and S3 for ten-hour position. That is, if switch S2 is in the third position (cl), it stands for third hour, and if switch S3 is in fourth position (d2), it stands for 4 x 10 hours. You can get the time by adding the two, i.e. 40 + 3=43 hours. It means, the load is disconnected when 43rd hour is reached. The common points of switches S2 and S3 are connected to the two inputs of NAND gate IC5(a), whose output is given to the reset pin 4 of IC4. Pin 7 Readers’ Comments: In ‘Programmable 100-hour Timer’ it is not possible to set switches S2 and S3 (discharge) of IC4 is open. So, if IC4 is triggered, its output stays in the on state as long as it is not reset. Switch S5 is used to trigger IC4 and switch S4 is used to reset IC4. The condition of the load is detected by watching LED21. The output of IC4 is fed to the base of transistor Tl. The relay is connected at the collector of transistor Tl. For each pulse from IC 4060, the output of IC2 is changed in a sequential mode. After 10 pulses, IC2 gives a pulse to IC3. Thus, for each set of 10 pulses from IC1, output of IC3 changes sequentially. When the (high) outputs of IC2 and IC3 reach the preset value set by switches S2 and S3, both the inputs of NAND gate IC5(a) go high, so that for 1 to 10 hours. By inserting an SPDT switch, as shown, one may fulfil this requirement. The position of the switch can be changed as per one’s requirement. V. Shailaja Kumari Bangalore The author, Mr Unnikrishnan P.R., replies: The modification suggested in 122 its output goes to a low state. This resets IC4 and the output of IC4 goes low. This de-energises the relay. At the same time, the input of NAND gate IC5(b) goes low, so that its output is high. This high output resets ICs 1, 2 and 3 and helps them to stay in the reset state. When switch S5 is pressed to start the timer, the timer’s output goes high, so that the output of second NAND gate IC5(b) goes low. This enables the three ICs to count. The twenty LEDs help to detect the counting of the two 4017 ICs. The only adjustment needed is to set the value of preset VR1. It is adjusted to get exact one-hour pulse from the third pin of IC1. the letter is not necessary because the timer itself can work from 00 to 99. The confusion has arisen perhaps from the example cited in the description, wherein to get 43 hours the common pins of switches S2 and S3 are to be in contact with the third and fourth outputs of respective ICs. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 -30V TO +30V REGULATED POWER SUPPLY SUNIL KUMAR D ual power supply circuit presented here provides 1A regulated supply from -30V to +30V. The variable resistors VR1 to VR6, used in the circuit, are dual type pots. The power supply’s output voltage can be increased or decreased by VR3 and VR4, and more smoothly and accurately by VR1 and VR2. The variable resistors VR5 and ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 VR6 are used to limit the value of current. This circuit has a short-circuit protection. If we connect together the output terminals of the power supply, its output voltage will be zero, though some voltage drop occurs across resistors R5 and R6. Transistors T5 and T6 conduct and a negative current will flow towards the cathode of zeners and a positive current will neutralise it, and no current will reach the base of transistors Tl and T2. Hence, transistors Tl and T2 remain cut-off. Since emitter terminals of T1 and T2 are connected to the bases of transistors T3 and T4, these will be cut-off too and the supply would be cut-off. Thus, short-circuit protection is ensured. 123 SCR/TRIAC TESTER CUM DISTINGUISHER B. S. MALIK T he size and shape of an SCR and a triac being similar, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the two, particularly when the device number is not visible. When the device is marked properly, it is of course easy to consult a data book to distinguish it. To distinguish an unmarked device, a multimeter or some other sys- and G-2 will display ‘G’. Displays B, G-1 and G-2 are of common-anode type, whereas display ‘t’ is of common-cathode type. Switch Sl is used to distinguish the SCR/triac under test. Resistor R2 limits gate triggering current to SCR/triac. IC socket is provided for fixing the device under test. Switch S2 is press type (Bell switch) and tests and switch S2 is pressed, then none of the seven segments operate. When switch S1 is at position 1 and S2 is pressed then B and G-1 displays operate; B display indicates that the device under test may be an SCR/triac. Both G-1 and G-2 displays indicate the device is good and ‘t’ display indicates that the device is a triac. tem can be used, but this is not a straight and easy method. To solve this problem, a simple and reliable system without any complicated operation is required. Such a circuit is given here. X1 is a 6V, 250mA sec. transformer. Resistor Rl is a current limiter for the seven-segment displays. Diodes Dl and D2 are half-wave rectifiers. B, t, G-1 and G-2 are the seven-segment displays that display the letters B, t and G. G-1 the device for its working order. As 230V AC is applied to transformer X1, 6V AC gets applied to diodes Dl and D2 for half-wave rectification. When switch Sl is at position 2 then negative DC voltage is applied to seven segment t, G-1, G-2 and anode/ T2 terminal of SCR/triac, respectively. One end of transformer X1 goes to cathode/ Tl of IC socket directly. If an SCR is fixed in the IC socket When a triac has been inserted in the socket and switch Sl is at position 2 and S2 is pressed, then B and G-2 displays operate. When Sl is at position 1 and S2 is pressed, t and G-1 displays will operate. In this way the device can be tested and distinguished and an indication of whether the triac/ SCR is good or bad is given by the displays. For ‘B’ display (common anode 124 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 type) short pins a,b,c,d,e,f and g. For ‘t’ display (common cathode type) short pins d,e,f and g. For G-1 and G-2 displays (common anode type) short pins a,c,d,e and f. Insert a good SCR in the IC socket and switch on the mains supply. Put switch Sl to position 1. Press switch S2. Displays B and G-1 should operate, showing that the device may be an SCR or a triac, but it is good. Now put switch Sl to position 2 and press Sl. None of the displays should operate now. It confirms the device is an SCR and not a triac. Now, insert a triac in the socket and put switch Sl to position 1. On pressing S2, displays B and G-l light up to indicate that the device (SCR/triac) is good. Turn switch Sl to position 2 and press Sl. Display shows t and G-2, i.e. the device is a triac and is good. Without pressing S2, none of the displays should operate. Following points may be noted: (a) No display should operate with- out pressing switch S2. (b) If displays operate without pressing S2, then the SCR/triac is internally short. (c) If the device is open internally, then no display will operate in any condition of switches Sl and S2. (d) All the connections and fittings should be firm and proper. The approximate cost of the circuit is Rs 125. Readers’ Comments: The circuit for ‘SCR/Triac Tester Cum Distinguisher’ is very interesting, but has become expensive due to use of the four 7-segment displays. I propose use of four LEDs, instead of the displays to make it economical. Green LED could be used to indicate good SCR/Triac in position ‘1’ of switch S1. No indication of LEDs in position ‘2’ of S1 would indicate a good SCR on test. Similarly, a red LED could be used to indicate a good triac in position ‘2’ of switch S1. If the LEDs light up without pressing S2, then the triac/SCR is internally short. And if none of the LEDs light up in any position of S1 and S2, then the device under test is open internally. Jayanta Kumar Chakraborty Jamatra (Distt Dumka) as far as economy is concerned. But whereas the LEDs will indicate the status through a set of combinations, the 7-segment display will show letters B, t and G to present a clear, confusionfree display. Though my circuit is costlier, its performance would prove much better in the long run. Initially, I had also developed the circuit with LEDs, but later I decided to use the 7-segment display instead. I thank the reader for pointing out this possibility The author, Mr B.S. Malik, replies: The reader’s suggestion is correct THERMOMETER ADD-ON TO MULTIMETER AMRIT BIR TIWANA T he compact add-on described here, when used in conjunction with a multimeter (analogue), will enable it to measure temperatures in the -50° to +150° centigrade range. The whole thermometer is based on the National Semiconductors’ opamp type LM10, which suitably amplifies and regulates the low current produced across the sensor. The sensor, an IC type LM134, produces a small current of the order of a few microamps at 150° centigrade, and this varies linearly with the change in temperature. Preset VR1 is used to correct linearity of the incremented output. The final output is fed via points A and B to a multimeter or milliammeter, switched to the 100μA range. The circuit needs no on/off switch, ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 since its current demand is so low that even the mercury cell used in elec- tronic watches (1.2V, button type) will last fairly long. 125 LISTENING BUG PRADEEP G. U sing this circuit, one can listen to the conversation going on in a room from a remote place. The circuit is highly sensitive. Sound signals are picked up by a condenser microphone and converted into electrical signals which are then amplified to a suitable level. The sound is reproduced through a loudspeaker. The circuit mainly consists of two amplifiers. One of these is a microphone preamplifier and the other is a mini power amplifier. The preamplifier stage is of high-gain type. It is a two-stage direct-coupled complementary-stage, which has a gain of about 100. The R8/R5 ratio gives the gain of the preamplifier stage. At the power amplifier stage, IC LM386 has been used. Different types of LM386 ICs are available. These can be operated at a supply voltage of 6V to 12V. The difference between different versions of LM386 lies in the maximum output power delivered by them, at different maximum supply voltages. The circuit can be easily assembled on a general-purpose PCB of dimen- sions 6x4 cms. Volume control and the speaker are fitted externally. A shielded two-wire ribbon cable is recommended to connect the micro- through the loudspeaker, if somebody talks into the microphone. Log preset VR1 is used to control the input, given to the power amplifier. phone. The wire should be as short as possible, otherwise AC hum will be generated. Shielded wire should be used for volume control also. A simple 9V unregulated but well filtered power supply is recommended. Check all the connections thoroughly. If everything is correct, keep the loudspeaker a few metres away and switch on the power supply. Turn on the volume control slowly and adjust it to mid position. Sound can be heard Next, place the circuit in an adjacent room where a conversation is going on. Keep the loudspeaker in your own room. Two-core ordinary plastic insulation cable can be used between loudspeaker and the amplifier. One can hear the conversation very clearly. The circuit can pick up sounds from a distance of several metres. Do not place the amplifier and the loudspeaker in a single room or nearby to avoid howling feedback. TELEPHONE TAPPING/MISUSE INDICATOR H. RAJEN SINGH W hen the phone is in idle condition (on hook), the full voltage of 48V DC from the exchange appears across the line. When the phone 126 is engaged by lifting the hand-set, the voltage across the line falls down to around 12V. Thus, under idle condition (48V), VR1 is adjusted to give a posi- tive biasing voltage to the base of transistor Tl. As transistor Tl conducts, transistor T2 gets into reverse bias and stops conduction. If the phone is off-hook, ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Tl stops conducting due to voltage drop across the lines and subsequently transistors T2 and T3 start oscillating and beeping is heard. The on/off switch S1 may be a push to on switch. It can be fitted inside the telephone instrument in conjunction with the hook switch, so that unwanted beeping can be avoided during use of the phone and beeping can be heard only when the phone is tapped, disconnected or faulty. Thus, this circuit can be used as an indicator for telephone tapping/misuse by an unauthorised person. Readers’ Comments: I have made a little modification in it and found that it can work as a telephone misuse indicator as well as a telephone amplifier. Just a simple 2way, 1-pole switch is to be connected, as shown, for the purpose. Sasank Borua Golaghat (Assam)  I would like to request the author of Telephone Indicator circuit to clarify: 1. Whether the +Vcc supply can be taken from phone line itself? 2. Can an LED be placed with a series resistor in place of R3, eliminating the other components? B. Chatterjee Calcutta The author, Mr H. Rajen Singh, replies: Mr Sasank’s idea is nice. The most important point that we have to keep in mind is the basic working principle of the circuit. Once we know the working principle, the circuit can be modified in many ways for various purposes/ indicators. Regarding Mr Chatterjee’s questions: 1. The +Vcc supply can also be taken from the phone line itself through a circuit to control the required lower voltage level. However, this gadget not only indicates the tapping/misuse of the phone, but also monitors the health of the phone line. So, use of separate power supply is recommended. Moreover, as far as possible, we should not disturb the tele- phone line voltage for satisfactory operation of our phone. 2. Yes, an LED can be placed as suggested, but an audio indi- cator is more efficient than a visual indicator. ELECTRONIC CALLING SYSTEM PRAVIN KRISHNARAO RAUT T his calling system is useful to doctors, officers etc for use in their cabins. The system comprises four units—the relay driver unit, the flashing unit, the alarm unit and the display unit. Switch Sl in this circuit is to be placed on the user’s table. The disELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 play boards are placed on the door of the cabin and the alarm is placed on the display board. Relay driver unit comprises a stepdown transformer, rectifier diodes, a filter capacitor, a 6V DPDT relay and a switch. Connect the N/C point of relay RL-B to the flashing unit and N/O point to the alarm unit. Similarly, connect the N/C point of relay RL-A to the triac and N/O point to the display board. Flashing unit is configured around the timer IC 555. VR1 is connected between pins 6 and 7. The output pin 3 of this IC is connected to triac BT162 127 through a diode D7 and a 220-ohm resistor R2. This diode is used to protect the IC from back emf. When the supply is connected, capacitor C2 begins to charge. As capacitor C2 gets charged to a voltage lower than 1/3 Vcc, pin 2 of IC1 is triggered and the output goes high, turning the triac on. When capacitor C2 gets charged to 2/3 Vcc, pin 6 gets triggered and the output goes low, the triac turns off. On-off period of the triac can be adjusted by VR1. The alarm unit is built around transistors BEL187 and BC147. An 8-ohm speaker is used. Inplace of this alarm circuit, you may use any other musical sound circuit or COB with the amplifier. There are two display boards in the 128 last unit. These boards are made up of LEDs. Each board consists of 130 to 175 LEDs connected in series. Board I indicates the message ‘WAIT PLEASE’. Power supply is connected to this board from the triac through R9, a 1.8k, 2W resistor. Board II flashes the message ‘COME IN PLEASE’. It gets supply from the N/O terminal of relay RLA through R10, a 1.8k, 2W resistor. The brightness of these LEDs can be changed by using suitable values for resistors for R10 and R9. Make two plywood boxes of the size of the display boards and fix the boards inside the plywood boxes. Close the front side of these boxes with transparent glass. Fix the alarm circuit in another small box. Fix the two boards and the alarm unit on the door of the cabin. Put switch Sl on the table of the user. When the supply is connected and S1 is off, the relay is in off state. Therefore, 9V DC appears across the flashing unit. Now, the first board starts flashing ‘WAIT PLEASE’. The flashing period can be varied through potentiometer VR1. When Switch Sl is pressed, the relay is energised and the second board indicates ‘COME IN PLEASE’, as this board gets supply from N/O terminal of relay RL-A. The alarm unit also turns on as it gets supply from the N/O contact of relay RL-B. As the visitor enters the cabin, the user releases switch Sl, so that the second board and alarm are cut off and board I again indicates ‘WAIT PLEASE’. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 HEN SOUND EMULATOR K.A. SAKTHIDHARAN T his circuit is capable of producing a sound which is similar to that which a hen usually produces when it is alarmed or after laying an egg. The first two NOR gates (a and b) of IC1 are wired as a low frequency oscillator. The frequency, which should be below 1 Hz, can be varied by adjusting preset VR1. The output of this oscillator is applied to the clock-input pin 14 of IC2, which is a decade counter. The first three alternate outputs of IC2 are connected to pin 7 of IC3 through preset VR2 and three diodes D1-D3. The seventh and ninth outputs are given to the set and reset inputs of a flipflop, which is formed by the combination of two other NOR gates (c and d). When pin 8 of gate ‘c’ receives a high pulse, it will retain a high voltage at pin 11 of gate ‘d’, until its pin 13 receives a high pulse. The audio frequency produced by the timer IC 555 depends upon the voltage re- ceived at its pin 7. The sound produced will be like that of a Morse code, containing three dots followed by a dash (…-). The frequency and pitch of the dash should be higher than that of dots. This can be achieved by adjusting presets VR2 and VR3. To get an exact replica of hen or cock sounds, try different values for capacitor C3. The circuit can produce a number of sound effects, like those of robots, computers, birds, space talk etc after minor changes. PHONE LINE MONITOR PRADIP KUMAR BOSE S everal telephones, when connected to a single line, are generally connected in parallel. Sometimes, it is necessary to know the number of phones, connected to the line at a particular moment. The circuit described here can perform this function. It does not interrupt normal telephone operation and draws power from the telephone line itself. Telephone lines operate at 40 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 to 48V DC. A load of about 200-ohm appears across the line when a single handset is lifted. This voltage suddenly drops to 9V with one handset lifted and to about 5V with two handsets lifted. The monitor indicates this state by glowing two different LEDs. The basic circuit is a constant current source (CCS) that remains off at voltages greater than 35V. At 9V the CCS switches on and at 5V, a single- transistor switch is activated that lights up another LED. When the line voltage is more than 35V, transistor Tl switches on through base bias from diodes D5 and D6, and switches off the CCS transistor T2, so that no LED can glow. This is the idle state of monitor when it draws about 1 mA. When the supply voltage drops to about 9V, transistor Tl becomes off and 129 switches on the CCS transistor T2. But transistor T3 being on, only LED2 glows to indicate that a handset is lifted. In this state the current supply is about 2 to 3 mA. As soon as the second receiver is lifted, the voltage becomes 5V. Thus, transistor T3 switches off and causes LED1 to glow. This indicates another receiver has been lifted. The current through LED now is 5 to 7 mA. A bridge rectifier is employed as a polarity guard. The values of resistors Rl, R4 and R5 may need to be adjusted. As the current through LEDs is very small, high efficiency LEDs should be used. The gadget can be housed in a small plastic box and may be placed near a telephone terminal. This equipment is very useful for PCO and EPABX users. The circuit can be modified, using high-power load, instead of LEDs. It can also be used as a voltage monitor to measure low voltage on line, if any. IMPROVED PEST REPELLER PRADEEP G. T he circuit employs four CMOS ICs. IC1 works as a clock pulse generator for IC2, which is a CMOS shift register. IC3 is 7555, the popular timer wired as astable flip-flop which oscillates at about 80 kHz frequency. 130 The frequency of oscillator is varied by about 10 kHz in four steps. The circuit works effectively up to five metres. IC4 is a D-type flip-flop for obtaining symmetrical output at an average frequency of 40 kHz. This frequency is sufficient to repel pests and at the same time is inaudible to human beings. IC4 also drives an ultrasonic transmitter-transducer. All presets VR1 to VR4 are of 10k type, but have been set to different values. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Readers’ Comments: With reference to the circuit idea, some clarifications are needed: 1. Most of the pest repellers available in the market are not very effective against mosquitoes and cockroaches. I want to know whether this repeller is an improved one to repell mosquitoes and cockroaches effectively? 2. Four diodes are used across the presets VR2 to VR5, but no specifications are there in the circuit about the type of the diodes. 3. The last line about the circuit mentioned “All presets VR1 to VR4 are of 10k type, but have been set to different values,” whereas in the circuit diagram VR1 is shown to be of 1M and VR2 to VR5 are 10k. Again, nothing is mentioned about how to set the presets. 4. In the circuit, no information is given about the type of the speaker used. The author, Pradeep G., replies: My pest repeller can be effectively used to repel pests like mosquitoes and cockroaches. All diodes in the circuit are 1N4148, presets VR2 to VR5 are 10k type. An ultrasonic transducer is used at the output. Ordinary paper cone loudspeakers are not recommended. The frequency range of this transducer should be 30kHz to 50kHz for maximum effectiveness. A frequency counter may be used to adjust presets VR2-VR5, otherwise it can be done by trial and error method. LOGIC LEVEL DETECTOR CUM CONTINUITY TESTER ASHISH AND PRAKASH MEHROTRA T his is a logic level detection circuit, with the facility of continuity testing. The circuit is built around two BC148C transistors, used as NOT gates (RTL). When the input at probe ‘A’ is low or probe ‘A’ is disconnected, the display (LT543) shows ‘L’, indicating ‘low or zero logic’. But when probe ‘A’ is at high logic, the display shows ‘H’, indicating ‘high or logic 1’. The circuit can also be used as a continuity tester by using probes B and C. When there is a continuity between B and C, the display will show ‘C’. The given circuit uses FND LT543 display, but any common-cathode display can be used instead. FLORA CARETAKER AMRIT BIR TIWANA N ext time you will not have to think twice before going out on a holi- ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 day, just because of your plants, which might dry up without your care. Here is a flora care taker that will take adequate care of your plants. 131 Two sensor probes, about 40 cm each, are inserted into the soil at a suitable location. The preset VR1 in series, with the soil resistance between the probes, forms one arm of a potentiometer, while resistor R1 in series with preset VR2 forms the other arm. The resistance between the probes increases as the moisture in the soil decreases. When the moisture in the soil is low (below some preset limit set by VR1), the input voltage to gate N1 goes low and its output goes high. As a result transistor T1 begins to conduct and activates the spray pump, through the relay. At the same time capacitor C1 begins to charge. After lapse of a certain amount of time called ‘spray time’, determined by preset VR3, the voltage across capacitor C1 reaches the logic high level. This causes the output of gate N2 to go low, cutting off transistor T1 and the relay. As a consequence, the spray pump turns off. A 20 mega-ohm resistor, which is in parallel to C1, ensures that the circuit is ready to work in the same man- ner next time. Presets VR1 and VR2 are used to set the sensitivity. VR3 is used to set the time for which the centrally placed pump sprays water. ELECTRONIC CANDLE MANGESH M. KASBEKAR T he circuit uses a bulb in place of the candle-flame, which can be ‘lighted’ with a matchstick and ‘blown out’ like a conventional candle. An LDR is used for sensing light from a matchstick. When illuminated, the LDR causes the voltage at pin 2 of IC2(NE555) to go lower than one-third Vcc. The output voltage from IC2 goes high and switches on the bulb. On blowing at the thermistor, its temperature falls, though slightly, and the voltage across it increases by about 0.4V. IC1 (μA741) is wired as a comparator. The reference input is obtained from a potential divider circuit, built around resistor R2 and preset VR1. Under normal conditions, the output of the comparator is the lower saturation voltage. Due to the voltage rise across the thermistor, the output of the comparator switches to the upper saturation voltage (+Vsat >2Vcc/ 3.) This voltage appears at pin 6 of IC2, causing its output 132 to go low, and thus switching off the bulb. It takes one to two seconds for the thermistor to heat up again and the output of the comparator to settle to the lower saturation voltage. During this period, the candle cannot be lighted again. Mount the bulb, the thermistor and the LDR on the top of a candle, with the light-sensitive face of the LDR away from the bulb. As the three components have a common ground terminal, only four wires are to be taken up through the hole in the candle. After switching on the supply, allow a preheating period of at least 21/2 minutes. Then, adjust the preset such that the output of the comparator just reaches the lower saturation voltage. The circuit does not cost more than Rs35. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 MOTOR PROTECTOR AND WATER LEVEL INDICATOR R. BALAJI T he circuit protects motor pumps running under no-load condition, i.e. when there is no water in the pump. The working of the circuit is facilitated by the indication of bulb 1, which lights up only during presence of water in the pump. When there is no water in the pump, probes 1 and 2 are open and transistor T1 remains non-conducting. Generally, when the motor is switched on, it takes 5 to 6 seconds for water to reach the delivery pipe end A. During this period transistor Tl does not conduct. As water reaches point A, probes 1 and 2 get closed and Tl conducts, causing bulb 1 to glow. Glowing of bulb 1 indicates that the pump is running on load. But if the bulb does not glow even after 5 or 6 seconds, this is an indication that the pump or borewell is dry and the motor should be switched off under such conditions. In a similar way, bulb 2 glows when the water in the tank is full. Probes 1 and 3 form a closed circuit path as the tank becomes full. Transistor T2 conducts and results in the bulb 2 glowing. When bulb 2 glows, the motor is to be switched off, so as to prevent the overflow of water. 360W HI-FI STEREO POWER AMPLIFIER N.S. HARISHANKAR T his Hi-Fi amplifier produces 360W (180+ 180) PMPO into a 4-ohm load. The amplifier is built around the STK 461 chip, which needs a dual supply of +21V at 5A continuous rating. The 42V DC symmetrical supply is used, so that no electrolytic capacitors are needed in the output stage. Use of large, thick and fanned heatsink is recommended for cooling the STK chip within its permissible limit(105OC max.). The 15-0-15V, 5A supply is rectified by a high-current bridge rectifier and filtered by ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 133 suitable capacitors. STK 461 is protected against short circuit by a 2.5A fuse in series with the loudspeaker. The speakers should be of 50W RMS rating for good quality and long life. The circuit was tested with the universal 240W (120+ 120) premplifier. STK459 chip can be used in the same way to produce 300W PMPO. STK459 needs a DC supply of + 16V at 5A. Readers’ Comments: Please clarify the following doubts regarding the circuit idea for ‘360W HiFi Stereo Power Amplifier’: 1. The author has recommended 50W RMS speakers, whereas the output is of the order of 125W RMS (180W PMPO) in each channel! 2. In the beginning of the text, it is mentioned that the amplifier needs a +21V @5A supply, but later the author states that a 15V-0V-15V supply @5A can be used. Chetan Khanna New Delhi  The author has used very highly rated 1μF, 63V capacitors for C2 and C9, while a lower rate 1μF, 25V capacitors would have sufficed. Similarly, a 100μF, 25V rated capacitor would suffice for C11 (in place of 100μF, 63V). What’s the cost of IC STK461 and where from can it be obtained? Pawan Kumar Khatri Jodhpur The maximum supply recommended for STK461 is +21V for 8ohm load. A 15V-0-15V supply would produce the required +21V DC after rectification by diode and filteration by capacitor. Regarding Mr Khatri’s letter, lower voltage rated capacitors may be used for C2, C9 and C11, provided these are of good quality. IC STK461 may cost anywhere between Rs 300 and 450. For its pin configuration, one may refer Sanyo 87/88 Semiconductor STK Data and Application book. The author, Mr N.S. Harishankar, replies: The output at 1 kHz is 45W RMS. So, 50W RMS speakers are all-right. REGULATED POWER SUPPLY WITH SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTION PRADIP KUMAR BOSE A regulated power supply is very essential for the proper functioning of a circuit. The regulated power supply described here is an IC based, ripple-free power supply which keeps its output voltage constant even with variations in the input voltage. It also protects the supply by disconnecting itself when any short circuit occurs in the output line. The power supply is configured around the versatile op-amp IC LM741. The voltage at its non-inverting input pin 3 is maintained constant with the help of zener D2, which determines the output voltage. Resistor Rl is used to limit the current through zener D2. The output of IC1 at pin 6 is fed to the base of series regulator transistor Tl through resistor R2. The base voltage of Tl, determines the voltage drop across the emitter and collector (Vce) of T1, thus resulting in the selection of the output voltage. The inverting pin 2 of IC1 is 134 connected to a voltage divider at the output. Thus, in the beginning, the differential voltage between the inverting and non-inverting pins switches on Tl. With a variation in the input voltage the output of IC1 changes to suit the base current of transistor T1, which in turn controls the output voltage. The short-circuit protection system is built around transistor T2. If a large ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 current flows through the output, i.e. in case of a short circuit, the voltage drop across resistor R3 increases sufficiently to switch on transistor T2. T2 applies reverse bias to Tl, which in turn switches off the output supply, and in this way safe-guards against any short circuit. All the components are readily available in the market. The circuit can be constructed on an IC veroboard. The circuit provides flexibility in the output voltage and maximum short circuit current limit by proper selection of zener D2 and resistor R3. These components can be changed according to the user’s requirement. Readers’ Comments: Could the author please suggest the use of this circuit for conversion from 24V DC to 12V DC? However, if this is not possible then please suggest any other circuit. If we use 24-48V DC as input in the given circuit, can we get 12V DC regulated at the output after varying VR1? G.D. Rajpali Ghaziabad  I want the author to comment on the following queries: 1. Can I feed maximum of 15 volts unregulated DC to obtain variable DC voltage ranging 0V through 12.5 volts. 2. Are R1 and D1 proper to get the above required voltage range? 3. I think the output voltage can be varied from 1.5 volts to 12.6 volts with the help of VR1. 4. What is the maximum value of current to be drawn from the output at 12.6 volts? 5. Please mention the changes in the modified circuit diagram. 6. Can we replace SL100 transistor with 2N3055, if more current (say 500 mA) is to be drawn? P. Ghosh Howrah  In the above circuit, the author used only one SL100 transistor to power the circuit. I think it is better to use two transistors in Darlington mode to boost the current. I want the author to comment. Pawan Kumar Khatri Jodhpur. for short circuit protection. The current rating depends upon T1 and hence transistor 2N3055 may be used. But it is also necessary to adjust R3 for short circuit protection. Regarding Mr Rajpali’s queries, the circuit may not work in 24-28VDC range, but he can try the circuit with a series resistor in supply of IC 741 only to control the output. Otherwise, he may try to use a linear regulator for 12V regulated output. But a linear regulator will waste much power if sufficient current is drawn. Here, we can use a 7812(12V) regulator too. VR1 is used as dummy load and hence it will affect the output by its movement, but to the minimum extent. Keep VR1 at half of its value in this case. I agree with the reader from Jodhpur with regard to connection of a Darlington pair, instead of single SL100 for higher current consumption. The author, Pradip Kumar Bose, replies: Regarding the queries of Mr Ghosh, the circuit can be used with up to 15volt input. You can make a variable power supply by varying voltage at pin 3 of IC 741. This can be done in several ways; however, a zener with a pot. (variable) can be used. The circuit was basically designed MUSICAL GREETING CARDS IYER MAHESH NAGARAJAN H ere is an electronic way of greeting people through an electronic ‘musical greeting card’, based on the UM series ICs. The UM musical series ICs offers a wide range of musical application IC chips for use in greeting cards, interlude players, intercoms, toys etc. It requires a very low power supply, ranging from 1.5Vto 3V, so that a small button cell can be placed inside the greeting card as a power supply to the circuit. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Some of the commonly used UM series chips are UM3166, U M 5 1 6 2 , UM3561, UM66, etc. The circuits using UM3562 and UM66 have already been published in earlier issues of EFY. UM3166 series is 135 a complete melody generator chip, capable of directly driving a small piezo buzzer. The UM series ICs function with in- built oscillators and memory programs. Since the circuit incorporates a single IC with a resistor, battery and a leaf switch, no PCB is required. The leaf switch is fixed inside the greeting card in such a way that on opening the card the two terminals of the leaf switch make contact with each other. In my original manuscript, I had also included a diagram for using the IC as a melody generator/doorbell, with an external amplifier, which was not published. It is now being reproduced above. Pins 5, 6 and 8 of the IC 3166 have to be grounded. Readers’ Comments: I request the author of the very interesting ‘Musical Greeting Cards’ circuit idea to answer: 1. What’s the approx. cost of the UM3166 IC and the piezo buzzer? 2. How can I replace the piezo buzzer with and 8-ohm speaker? 3. What use are the pins 5, 6 and 8 of the UM3166? Bimlendu Shekhar Bihar The author, Mr Iyer Mahesh Nagarajan, replies: The piezo buffer and the UM3166 ICs are available in a small plastic package which is as thick as a card. So, it is easily hidden in a greeting card. The package costs around Rs 25 in Bombay. TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED FAN CHHAJED MAHAVIR D. T he system described here is quite useful during summers, since it automatically controls the speed of a fan. Speed control is determined by the outside temperature. Normally, a fan operates at three to five speeds. This circuit offers upto five speeds for a fan. Besides, it provides a visual indication of the speed of the fan. The electronic temperature controlled fan given here is cheap, quite accurate and effective. The temperature is easily set to cover a wide range, viz, 10OC to 30°C or 3OC to 22°C. This increases the reliability and versatility of the device. Temperature is converted into voltage by LM335 which holds its voltage at 2.73V at 0°C. As the temperature increases, the voltage increases 136 linearly @ 10mV/°C. This voltage is passed through a buffer (IC2) and then applied to the non-inverting inputs of IC3 through IC7 (CA3140). A reference voltage obtained from resistor R7, the 3.3V zener D3 and the ladder circuit configured around resistors R8 through R14, is applied to the inverting inputs of IC3 through IC7. The ladder resistances should have one per cent tolerance for accuracy. In order to reduce the size of the system and to have greater reliability, triacs have been used in place of relays. Triacs 2, 3 and 4 should be connected to points 2, 3 and 4 of the regulator respectively, which is not shown in the circuit. A 12V supply for the circuit is obtained through Rl, Dl, D2, Cl and C2. The voltages at the respective points are as shown in Table I. These voltages should be measured accurately with a digital multimeter. Voltages at no two points should be equal, which means that no two LEDs should glow at the same time. The 100-ohm resistors (R9 to R13) can be replaced by 100-ohm presets to get more accurate voltages at points A to E. TABLE I Point Voltage A B C D E 2.94V 2.97V 3V 3.03V 3.06V ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Readers’ Comments: The circuit for ‘Temperature Controlled Fan’ is excellent, but the author has not taken care of cost. Instead of the six CA3140 op-amp ICs, it is better to use one LM324 (quad op-amp) and one LM1458 (dual op-amp). This will reduce the cost as well as the space required on the PCB, besides reducing the wiring. What is the cost of LM335 and wherefrom can it be obtained? Pawan Kumar Khatri Jodhpur  I want the author to kindly clarify the following problems concerning the above article. 1. How can we adjust the temperature range and its setting? 2. Is there any problem if the phase and neutral wires are interchanged? 3. Specifications for the triac are not mentioned in the circuit; please ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 name the triacs which can be used in the circuit. Saji K.M. Cochin  The circuit idea of Temperature Controlled Fan is very interesting. The author is requested to clarify the following: How can we replace the temperature sensors (LM335) in the circuit? If the sensor is kept near the fan, it will cool down by itself. Thus, the circuit will not work properly. The author, Chhajed Mahavir D., comments: In temperature controlled devices, accuracy and stability of the circuit is more important than the size and cost of the circuit. As in my circuit the output of IC2 increases linearly @ 10mV/oC, the input offset voltage is of more importance. The input offset volt- age for CA3140B (Bi-MOS op-amp) is 2mV (max.) while it is 9mV for LM324 and 7mV for CA 1458, which may bring instability to the circuit. LM335 may be obtained from Kits ‘n’ Spares, 303 Dohil Chambers, 46 Nehru Place, New Delhi 110 019. IC LM335 is a temperature sensing device, which should be kept far away from the fan. It should be placed at a proper place to sense the temperature of the room. Regarding Saji’s letter, the temperature range of the circuit may be changed by altering the voltage levels at points A and E. The given voltage levels in Table I are the temperature range of 21 o C to 33 o C. The phase and neutral wires can be interchanged. You can use any 4A, 400V triac as mentioned in the circuit, viz, ST044, BT136, etc. 137 LINE SYNCHRONISED OSCILLATOR V. VIDYALAL, K. RAJASREE AND V. SIVANAND T his circuit is useful for triggering circuits which need a 50Hz square waveform derived from AC mains. Such sources are being increasingly used and incorporated in modern oscilloscopes and waveform generators. ICl is a 741op-amp, configured as a comparator. It squares the 50Hz signal reduced by the transformer and resistor network. Offset voltages of the op-amp can be trimmed by pot. VR1. The output from the comparator is fed to a resistor - diode network, comprising resistor R6 and diode Dl, which cuts off the negative part of the signal and ensures only positive triggering of IC2. This waveform is fed to the clock input of decade counter CD4017B(IC2). The output Q5 at pin 1 of IC2 is connected to the reset pin 15, and clock enable pin 13 is grounded. Q0 output is taken from pin 3. This configuration finally results in an undistorted 50Hz square wave. A monitor output is provided at pin 3 of IC2. The signal is buffered and is available at the collector of transistor T2 with slight amplification. LED1 in- This circuit, due to its compactness, lower component count, and ruggedness, can be easily incorporated into older model oscilloscopes which do not dicates presence of the signal and is also useful for optical fibre coupled applications and/or for opto–coupler coupled isolated mains circuits. have this facility. Moreover, the signal source is fully isolated from the mains and can be optically routed. ELECTRONIC FUSE B. JAYAPRAKASH T his gadget trips the supply in case of a short circuit or an overload. The circuit is based on the fact that when a current flows through resistors Rl and R2, there is a voltage drop, proportional to the amount 138 of current passing. The voltage drop across Rl or R2 is compared against the reference voltage set at the non-inverting input of the 741 IC, used as comparator. The current limit can be set by adjusting VR1, according to one’s requirement. If the current to load exceeds the predetermined level, the output of comparartor (IC1) goes low. At the same time, transistor T2 is cut off, which in turn cuts off transistor Tl. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Relay RL1 is thus de-energised. Since no current flows into the load, the voltage drop is zero. In this condition, the output of IC1 goes high once again, which makes the Ql output of IC2 (CD4017) to go high. As Q1 goes high, LED1 glows. Thus, whenever a current greater than the predetermined level flows into the load, the relay is de-energised and LED1 glows to indicate this state. To activate the relay again, push switch Sl which would reset IC2, thereby energising the relay if, and only if, the current is less than the predetermined level. Calibration can be done according to one’s current requirement. If a current limit of 5A, say, is chosen, the voltage drop across resistors Rl and R2 will be 2.5V, which requires the reference voltage to be set at 2.5V, so as to cut off the supply to load, whenever current exceeds 5A. POLARITY TESTER PRADIP KUMAR BOSE T his polarity tester can detect the polarity of a supply voltage of 3 to 30V and indicate the same with an LED. The tester can be used for digital circuits to check the polarity of the supply unit. The circuit is basically a constant current source, which drives an LED. The CCS (constant current source) is connected to a transistor switch which turns on when the correct polarity of supply is connected. Diode D2 makes the base voltage of transistor T2 constant, as a result of which the collector current of T2 becomes a constant current source. On connecting correct polarity of input test ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 voltage, transistor Tl turns on and switches the CCS to drive LED 1. If reverse polarity is connected, diode Dl conducts. As a result, transistors Tl and T2 both switch off and LED1 does not glow. The switch Sl is meant for connecting LED1 to internal or external circuit, as required. The tester can be assembled on a small veroboard, in a small cabinet. 139 LOW-COST 4- TO 16-LINE DECODER PRADEEP P. KAVI T his is a 4- to 16-line decoder circuit that uses a minimum number of, cheap and easily available components. The circuit provides a suitable replacement for the 4- to 16-line decoder IC 74154, which is quite expensive. The circuit comprises four ICs. IC1 NE555 is wired in the astable mode. Its frequency can be varied by the 1M potentiometer VR1. The clock pulses from IC1 are fed to IC2 SN7493, which is a 4-bit binary counter. Two SN7442 ICs (IC3 and IC4) provide the 4 to 16-line decoding function. IC3 decodes the 4-bit inputs from 0 (0000) to 7 (0111) and IC4 decodes the inputs beyond 7, i.e. from 8 to 15. 140 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Transistor Tl BC548B functions as an inverter (NOT gate) for the ‘D’ input to IC4. For inputs beyond 7, i.e. from 8 (1000) to 15 (1111), IC4 counts from 0 to 7, since the input to IC4 is DCBA. Hence, for an output of 8 (1000) from IC2, the input to IC4 will be 0 (0000), and so on. The truth table for the circuit is also given. At any instant, only one LED will glow. The speed of the running LEDs can be adjusted by potentiometer VR1. The whole circuit can be assembled on a general-purpose PCB, at a cost of Rs 60 to 70 approx. AUTOMATIC VOLUME CONTROL AMRIT BIR TIWANA T his automatic volume control can be incorporated into any audio equipment, using a few discrete components, as described below. The circuit is connected with the output and volume control of the AF amplifier section of the equipment. When the input signal strength rises, diode Dl will conduct and tend to short the upper terminal and ground of the volume control, hence reducing the output. The reverse happens in case the input signal drops. Hence, the output vol- ume is maintained nearly constant. A capacitor, ranging from 220nF to 4.7μF (16V), may be connected across the base of transistor Tl to attenuate the changes. Preset VR1 sets the sensitivity and level of automatic volume control. MUSICAL CONTINUITY TESTER PRADEEP G. T he circuit described here is very useful in checking the continuity of low resistance coils, speakers, IFTs, small audio transformers, etc. A special feature of this continuity tester is a low supply voltage (2-3V) and a low quiescent current (1.5mA at 3V). IC1 TLC251 (or TLC271) is an opamp, wired as a comparator. When an external low resistance is connected across the probes, output of IC1 goes high and IC2 UM66, the popular melody generator, gets supply voltage. Music signals, generated at the output of IC2, are amplified by transistor Tl, which directly drives a low wattage speaker. This continuity tester can be used to check low resistances only, and not high resistances or semiconductor devices. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 141 HI-Q STEREO MIXER K.K. MURTY T his two-channel stereo mixer uses two LA3161 ICs and some related components. These ICs are commonly 142 used in the preamplifier stage of car stereo amplifiers. The circuit was originally designed to satisfy the needs of a classical musician for recording on his stereo deck, with at least four microphones, ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 and it performed well. It can be converted into a four-channel mono mixer by closing switch S1. We can stack more LA3161 ICs to get more inputs. The circuit suits the mod- ern low-impedance microphones well. Its output is connected to the mic. input of the main amplifier or stereo deck. The power supply required for it is straightforward, regulated and hum-free 9V DC. Diode-capacitor combinations of D6-C20 and D7-C21 decouple ICl and IC2. 1Hz MASTER OSCILLATOR VIBIN ANDREWS K. T he circuit presented here is of an inexpensive 1Hz master oscillator. It uses only a few components, but gives satisfactory results. The multivibrator, wired around gate Nl, produces 10Hz pulses. These are divided by 10 to produce 1Hz pulses. Capacitor Cl is connected between the input of the gate and ground. The output of N1 is fed back to the input via potentiometer VR1 and resistor Rl. The capacitor is either charged or discharged, depending on the logic level at the output of Nl. Whenever voltage across the capacitor reaches the threshold trigger level, the output of schmitt gate Nl toggles. The values of Rl and Cl are so chosen that they produce pulses @ l0Hz, which are then divided by IC2 to get 1Hz output. In order to get accurate output pulses, the l0Hz generator must be adjusted to the correct frequency by means of potentiometer VRl. SUPER SIMPLE TIMER SUPRAVAT DAS H ere is a very simple, low-cost and useful timer circuit. It will automatically turn off power to your TV, VCR, radio, tape recorder or any other electronic equipment after a predetermined period. The circuit basically uses only two transistors as a Darlington pair and a 6V relay. When you push switches Sl and S2 at the same time, capacitor C1 charges to about 9V and this voltage goes through preset VR1 and R2 to the base of transistor Tl. The relay energises and its N/C contacts open and the common point gets connected ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 143 to N/O contacts. Due to base current drawn by Tl, capacitor Cl discharges after some time and the relay cuts off, connecting the relay’s common point to the N/C points. This circuit can be housed in a plastic or a metal cabinet. A 3-pin socket may be fitted on this cabinet for the ‘E’, ‘N’ and ‘L’ points, and the device to be controlled may be plugged into this socket. You can vary the time period by adjusting the 1M preset VR1. STEREO DISCONNECTOR WITH TIMER PRADEEP G. W hen you are enjoying loud western music or other songs on your stereo, and if a visitor comes and presses the calling bell switch, you may not hear the bell due to loud sound from house. So, when the electric bell is rung, a low DC voltage gets applied to the LED of opto-coupler IC1. As the optocoupler’s LED glows, the photo-transistor inside IC1 conducts. As a result, ected through N/C contacts of the relay for a few seconds. The switch-off period is determined by potentiometer VR1, connected in the 555 timer circuit. Thus, you can hear the bell clearly the stereo deck. The circuit shown here provides a remedy for this problem. The input of this circuit is connected in parallel to the electric bell of your IC2 (555), which is in monostable mode, gets triggered. So, output of 555 goes high and the relay gets activated. This switches off the stereo set conn- even when your stereo is on. Besides, the red LED connected across the relay lights up to indicate that the timer is ‘on’. Readers’ Comments: The circuit of ‘Stereo Disconnector with Timer’ is very interesting and useful, but has some drawbacks: 1. The circuit requires continuous power supply, while the stereo system is on. 2. The opto-coupler further increases the cost of the circuit. The circuit shown here excludes opto-coupler, but bears all the features at much lower cost. Also, the trans- former is controlled via relay RL1 in such a manner that it connects to the mains only when the push-button is pressed, otherwise it remains disconnected from the mains. Thus, the transformer works only for a short time, 144 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 which is equal to the on-time period of the IC 555. Thus, the misuse of transformer and power both are avoided. Generally, double-pole push-to-on switches are not available; use of two single-pole pushbutton switches, connected with a common yoke, is recommended. Vidyut Sarkar The author, Pradeep G., replies: Use of opto-coupler can indeed be avoided by using a transformer. Consumption of electricity is minimised with this modified circuit, but the circuit can be modified in many ways. However, I agree with the modifications, done by Mr Sarkar. FREQUENCY FILTER FOR PLAYING OLD RECORDS PRADIP KUMAR BOSE W hen old records become dusty, the non-linear movement of stylus over the record produces a variable ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 and irregular voltage, which produces noise when amplified. With this filter, you can now play worn-out records, with much better results. This device is basically an RC-coupled two-stage amplifier with several capacitive and re- 145 sistive controls for frequency selection. A ganged band switch with several filter capacitors is used for selection. Also, a ganged potentiometer is used for the desired level. Several other networks are used for perfect filtration. Connect this device between the preamplifier and the power amplifier of the record player’s circuitry. For a stereo player, two units are required. The supply may be drawn from the DC supply of the record player. Play an old record and place switch Sl in such a position that the noise be- comes minimum. Now, adjust dual potentiometer VR1 and VR2 to get proper and desired level of sound. Every time you play old records, you will have to adjust VR1/ VR2 and switch Sl. Keep the connecting wires as short as possible to reduce humming noise. STATIC STARTER AMRIT BIR TIWANA C onventional starters used with fluorescent tubelights are often the cause of much interference and hum. These are also prone to become defective soon, just for the reason that the gas may leak out or the contacts may burn out. The circuit presented here can be used as a direct replacement for the same. It can fit within the same enclosure. The circuit uses two series-connected diacs and a diode, all in parallel across a filter capacitor . These pro- vide the same action of switching current as the starter. The diac may be selected for general use, depending on the mains voltage ratings (28V diac for 220V AC). HEADPHONE ADAPTOR FOR HI-FI STEREO PRADIP KUMAR BOSE I f you wish to listen to your hi-fi stereo through the headphone of your personal stereo (such as a Walkman), here is an adaptor you can use for the purpose. The adaptor basically comprises a divider network with a simple delay line. It simulates cross field for stereo effect and introduces delay for identical stereo sound from both channels. The circuit has been designed for an average 8cm difference headphone. Coils LI and L2 should be closely wound on 5mm dia ferrite cores, with 100 turns of 33SWG enamelled copper 146 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 wire in each case. After assembly, connect the adaptor between your hi-fi stereo amplifer and the headphones of your personal stereo. Keeping the volume of stereo amplifier low, adjust VR1 and VR2 slowly till you hear equal volume in your both ears. The balance control (VR3) should be kept at its mid position. Sometimes, a better result can be obtained by changing the values of network resistor and capacitor. If the sound in headphones is too high or too low, try changing the values of resistors Rl through R4, one by one, till you get the sound of your choice. You may also adjust potentiometers VR1 and VR2 for the purpose. LINEAR BULB LIGHT CONTROLLER B.S. MALIK A s light dimmers generally available in the market are non-linear, users find it inconvenient to use them, as they cause abrupt change in intensity. The circuit for linear control of light is given here, with which a 100W bulb may be used to work as 15W, 40W or 60W bulb, as per requirement. On/off switch Sl for the controller is fitted on potentiometer VR1. Resistors Rl and R2, zener D5 and pot. VR1 provide the emitter-bias circuit for UJT Tl. Capacitor Cl is a wave shaper. Zener D5 operates above 12 volts and regulates the biasing voltage for transistor Tl. Capacitor C2 smoothes DC voltage at the emitter of Tl. Resistor R2 provides bias to B2 terminal and R4 to Bl terminal of Tl. Capacitor C3 smoothes gate triggering voltage of SCR and avoids false triggering. When S1 is switched on, 230V AC is rectified by the bridge, formed by diodes Dl through D4. Positive voltage gets applied to one end of the load (a 100W bulb), while the negative goes to cathode of SCR through a 1A fuse. DC current, flowing through resistors Rl and R2, breaks down zener D5 to regulate the 12V DC. Pot. VR1 varies the emitter voltage of unijunction transistor Tl, which in turn varies the conduction of Tl. So, voltage drop across resistor R4 varies accordingly. This is applied to the gate of SCR to control its angle of firing. Increase in voltage across resistor R4 increases the ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 firing angle of SCR and makes the bulb glow brighter. The opposite happens if T1 conducts less. In this way, the light intensity of a 100W bulb gets varied from minimum to the 100W bulb on for about 15 minutes at its maximum intensity, and then switch it off and disconnect the mains supply. Check the temperatures of T1 and SCR. They should be maximum. So, it can be used as a 15W or lower wattage bulb, while going to bed, and a 60W bulb or so while reading. The circuit can be wired on a small general-purpose PCB or veroboard of about 5.5cms x 4cms and fitted within the base of a table lamp or inside a switchboard in a room. Pot. VR1 may be fitted firmly on the PCB and controlled through a small knob. A small heatsink should be used for the SCR. To test the circuit after wiring, switch-on Sl and vary pot. VR1 slowly. The intensity of bulb light should vary linearly (and not abruptly) with the rotation of the pot’s knob. If it does not vary gradually, replace capacitor C2 with a lμF, 63V capacitor. Switch at their normal temperatures, and not in an overheated state. Resistors Rl and R2 should not be too hot either. Otherwise, change their values to 10k, 2W each. Some of the precautions that need to be taken are: 1. Do not use an airtight box for the circuit; leave a few holes in the box for air circulation. 2. Do not forget to disconnect the circuit from mains, while checking the components. 3. The circuit should be fitted away from a radio receiver to avoid interference in the latter. 4. Use a suitable heatsink with the SCR. The circuit will cost approx. Rs 90 to build. 147 Readers’ Comments: Is it possible to use triac, instead of SCR by connecting the bulb directly to the AC mains? Pawan Kumar Khatri Jodhpur  I have assembled the circuit, but getting a fluctuated output. The wattage is below 30 watts. Is it possible to use this circuit as regular for an iron or a tubelight? One more problem occurs when we replace 2.2μF, 63V capacitor with a 1μF, 63V capacitor; the resistor (R1, R2), SCR and UJT get heated up. So, the idea is not quite reliable! The cost of the circuit is more than Rs 100 against Rs 90, mentioned in the circuit. Rajesh Kothari Chitardurga, Karnataka The author, B.S. Malik, replies: I am very thankful to the readers for their keen interest in my circuit. 1. Triac can be used in place of SCR. But SCR has higher current/voltage rating, as compared to triac. Also, it is possible that the intensity of the bulb may increase. Triac should be con- nected in series with the bulb to AC mains, otherwise SCR/triac will show the same result. 2. Regarding the letter of Mr Kothari, the circuit can be used as a regulator for iron and tubelight etc, after replacing rectifier diodes and SCR suitably. 3. Cost of components varies from time to time and place to place; so it may be costlier at your location. 4. Mr Kothari is advised to use exact valued components to operate the circuit successfully. ELECTRONIC AUTOMOBILE HORN K.A. SAKTHIDHARAN T he commonly used automobile horns are either electrical or airpressure type. While these horns are generally unpleasant to hear, the airpressure type horns in particular, con- The circuit is built around a CMOS IC CD4001 or CD4011, which contains four NOR/NAND gates. These gates are wired as two sets of astable multivibrators. One set works in au- supply voltage, different values of R2 and R3 are required for 6 and 12-volt operations. The output of ICl is drawn from pin 11 and applied to the input of IC2 tribute a lot to noise pollution. The pleasant and distinct tone, generated by the electronic horn described below, cannot be ignored even by an absent-minded pedestrian. It also abides by the regulations, according to the author, but it would be safer to recheck with the local authorities before putting it to actual use. The horn can be used with any vehicle, fitted with a 12-volt or 6-volt battery. dio range, while the other oscillates at about 2 Hz. Both multivibrators are interconnected through resistor Rl, so that the low-frequency oscillator forces the audio oscillator to change its output frequency continuously. Resistor R3 and capacitor C2 determine the low frequency, while resistor R2 and capacitor Cl decide the audio frequency. Since these frequencies are dependent on the through coupling capacitor C3. The audio amplifier is a monolithic TDA2002 IC which can produce 6-watt output, when working on a car battery. The gain of this amplifier is fixed at 100 (R4/R5). The output is connected to a 4-ohm, 10-watt tweeter. The volume of sound can be adjusted by preset VR1. Diode Dl, on the positive line, prevents any damage due to reverse polarity connec- 148 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 tion. A separate rectifier circuit is given with whose help the horn can be connected to a two-wheeler without a battery (with AC dynamo). All components can be assembled on a general-purpose PCB. Use socket for IC1. The amplifier IC does not need any heatsink. Use a thin plastic film to insulate the PCB from the metallic parts of the loudspeaker. A round shaped plastic container can be used as the cabinet for the horn. CALL BELL FOR THE IMPATIENT K.N. SUNIL KUMAR S ome people keep ringing the calling bell impatiently, without giving adequate time for the concerned person to respond. This calling bell will deactivate for a minute after it has already been rung. Two 555 timers, which are built into the 556 IC, get activated on pushing switch Sl. While one timer provides the delay of about 55 seconds—with resistor R3 and capacitor C3 deciding the delay period—the other remains on for about five seconds. The 5-second delay of the second timer permits the bell to ring for upto five seconds, with resistor R2 and capacitor C2 deciding the delay period. Power supply for the IC is provided by the half-wave rectifier cum stabiliser circuit, comprising rectifier diode Dl, zener diode D2, resistor Rl and filter capacitor Cl. The outputs of both the timers are combined in an AND gate. (Only one AND gate of the triple 3-input R6 and R7. Both the timers are operated in monostable mode. A momentary push 74LS11 is put to use.) The 5V supply for the TTL gate is provided from the potential divider, comprising resistors on switch S1 makes the output to go high for the first five seconds. This triggers the triac and makes power available for the calling bell circuit. 0-10V AMPLIFIER DILIP KUMAR DE A zero to 10V amplifier is useful in line synchronisation where the tacho or line speed referene voltage source is too weak to drive a sync- ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 hronising machine. It may be used in taping head to synchronise and adjust any lay length of polyester tape wrapping on cable. Whenever line speed increases or decreases, the angular speed of taping head will change accordingly on account of this amplifier. 149 Two op-amps are used in the circuit—one as an amplifier and the other as a scale changer. The offset null condition, besides being universal in nature, minimises the common mode signal. The amplifier draws very feeble cur- a veroboard. Keeping the centre-tap of 100k preset in the middle, open resistor R8 at point ‘2’ and connect point ‘1’ to ground. Set your multimeter to the 10V DC range and connect across point ‘2’ and ground. Depending on the direction of deflection ground and reconnect resistor R8 to point ‘2’. The output is available at point ‘3’. For testing in the laboratory, the potential divider circuit comprising 22k preset VR3 and 12k resistor R12, at the extreme right of the circuit, may rent from the source for a full-scale output voltage. A voltage divider, comprising a 1k resistor R10 and a 100k resistor R11, is used at the output for short-circuit protection. The circuit runs on a simple capacitor filtered power supply. The circuit may be assembled on of the multimeter’s needle rotate the 100k preset (with the help of a screwdriver) to the right or left till the meter shows no deflection of its needle. Repeat the process, this time keeping the multimeter at 2.5V range. After the above zero-setting has been done, disconnect point ‘1’ from be used. Connect VR3’s centre-tap (point ‘4’) to the input (Vin). Vary the VR3 preset from its minimum to maximum position, which will also vary the Vin voltage from its minimum to maximum. The actual input to the amplifier at point ‘1’ is in the range of 0 to 100 mV. A SENSITIVE TOUCH SWITCH SHASHANK WADIBHASME T his switch will turn on an appliance on first touch and switch it off at the second. The circuit has an oscillator built around IC NE555, which is followed by a JK master-slave flipflop (FF) IC CD4027. On touching the metallic plate, the trigger terminal of IC NE555 mono- 150 stable multivibrator performs one monostable operation. Its pulse width, given by 1.1 x RC, is three to ten seconds. The timer’s output is connected to the clock terminal of JK master slave FF. A master-slave JK FF is a combination of two clocked RS latches. The first latch is called the master, while the second is called the slave. The master is clocked by positive edge, but the slave is negatively clocked. Hence, when clock is high, the master is active and the slave is inactive, and vice versa when the clock is low. When inputs J and K in the circuit ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 are high, the JK FF toggles. If Q output was high on the previous pulse, it becomes low. Hence, Q output changes to the complement of last state, when both J and K are connected to Vcc level and positive going clock pulse is fed to the clock terminal. With each finger touch, a positive pulse of 3 to 10 seconds is produced across pin 3 of NE555 IC, and this is applied to clock pin 3 of IC CD4027. The output voltage of IC CD4027 is connected to base terminal of transistor BC148 (T2) through 10k resistor R4 to energise the relay. The diode is connected in reverse bias mode to protect the relay from back emf. The circuit also gives visual indication of the touch switch, using a bicolour LED. Before touching the touchplate, the LED shows red colour. On touching the plate, the LED changes its colour to green. An npn transistor (Tl) is used for the purpose. As the voltage is applied on the base terminal of transistor T1 through 10k resistor R6, it goes into saturation, and current flows through the transistor (collector to emitter), instead of the LED. This changes the colour of the LED to green, indicating the operation of the touchswitch. Some of the precautions that need to be taken are: 1. The metal used as a touch plate should be a good conductor, so that the plate’s size can be limited to 15mm in dia. 2. The wire used to connect the touch-plate and pin 2 of IC NE555 should be as thin as possible. 3. A suitable capacitor may be used to avoid sparking in relay. Alternatively, a triac may be used, instead of the relay. 4. The earthing of the ciruit should be proper. REMOTE TV TESTER SUPRAVAT DAS I t’s a very useful circuit for all TV technicians and service engineers. The circuit can be assembled on a piece of veroboard. Basically, it is a hi-fi VHF oscillator, which oscillates with the help of transistor BF194B and some other parts. A horizontal line pattern and audio tone is produced on the TV screen, which makes the repairing of VIF stage faults quite easier. The circuit works on a 3V battery. By changing the value of 4.7μF capacitor C2 and the number of turns of L2, the number of horizontal lines can be changed. The tester can work up to five metres distance. To get a wider range, the length of the telescopic antenna has to be increased. For testing purposes, assemble ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 the circuit and keep it at a distance of three metres. Set the TV (B&W) on channels 5, 11 or 12 for better reception of horizontal line pattern and audio tone. If the reception is poor, change the direction of antenna towards the TV set, and your remote TV tester starts working perfectly. 151 pH METER NAVEEN SHARMA K nowledge of pH value of a given solution is often needed in dyeing and pharmaceutical industries, etc. The term ‘pH’ is a measure of the de- lower, while IC2 is configured as an inverting amplifier, with a gain of 10. Pot. VR2 is an offset cancellation control. The offset control is adjusted For calibration, the pH electrodes are dipped in a fluid of known pH value, and VR2 is adjusted till a correct reading is obtained on a DVM/DMM. The gree of acidity or alkalinity in a solution. The circuit has two op-amp stages in which IC1 is used as a voltage fol- to set output to 7volts when the input voltage is zero. VR1 is a multiturn pot. It is used for calibration of the pH meter. power supply for the circuit is straightforward. It uses regulators of type 7812 and 7912 in standard configuration. CORDLESS INTERCOM PRADIP KUMAR BOSE T he intercom circuit described here is simple, low-cost and cordless. It operates on AC mains. The communication between two units is carried out through the supply lines. As we know, in single phase AC supply, the potential between neutral and earth is zero under ideal conditions. But if the insulation resistance 152 between phase, neutral and earth is insufficient, due to poor and old wiring, a potential difference may be found between the neutral and earth lines. The safe difference is 1 volt to 2 volts. If the voltage difference is more, the intercom may get damaged; use of a separate wire is recommended in that situation. The signal is carried through the neutral and earth wires. In case, a wrong connection is made while servicing, the high line voltage can prove very harmful for the intercom. It would burn all components of the set. So, an autoshut-off system is provided in the set which disconnects the communication line when such a mistake occurs. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 According to the normal domestic wiring regulations, a 3-pin top’s right hand pin facing the switchboard is connected to the live wire and the left hand pin is connected to neutral wire. The big remaining pin gets connected to earth wire. Under normal conditions, when all connections are according to the rules, relays RL1 and RL2 are energised, while RL3 is de-energised. This is indicated by glowing of LEDl ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 and LED2. The wiring is such that only in this condition the circuit is complete for conversation. Any irregularity in connections switches off the line. So, in case of a wrong connection, the communication line disconnects itself from the fatal voltage. Two capacitors are provided for preventing slow discharge in this condition. But a momentary high voltage may also damage the equipment, if it is switched on with a wrong connection. This is prevented by switch Sl which should be kept in ‘on’ position after connection of the relays. This arrangement prevents the swing of voltage that may damage the circuit. Besides, an alarm rings to indicate presence of high voltage in the communication line. The switches Sl and S2 are ganged together, enabling the alarm, 153 when high voltage is present. Using discrete components, the mains 230V AC is dropped to 6V to power the circuit. It is, however, dangerous to touch any part of the intercom in working condition. IC CA810 and two transistors form an audio amplifier. However, one may use any audio amplifier circuit for better performance. The supply for amplifier may be taken from a good ripplefree and filtered power supply unit. The microphone should be kept Readers’ Comments: The transmission through mains wiring is not new for EFY readers. An article by Amrit Bir Tiwana on this subject has already been published in Jan.’92 issue. The only new thing in this circuit is protection against any wrong connection. Here is a circuit which protects the intercom against any wrong connection and also maintains potential difference between neutral and earth within a required level. Here the volt age drop for one diode = 0.6V, two diodes = 1.5V, three diodes = 3V, when connected in series. If in the circuit, the phase and earth wires are interchanged (by mistake) a short circuit occurs and the fuse blows off. During blow-off the circuit will not be damaged because the maximum potential difference between neutral and earth is 3V (can be decreased to 0.6V by using one diode and 1.5V by using two diodes in series between N and E). The diodes between N and E will not affect the audio frequency passing away from the speaker to avoid howling sound due to feedback during use. A separate switch for feedback path is provided to call on the other set. The speaker should be placed in front of the cabinet. The optional alarm circuit is built around IC 741, which is wired as a square wave generator. The feedback resistor determines the frequency of sound. Output available at pin 6 of IC 741 is amplified by push-pull transistors T1 and T2 and fed to the speaker via capacitor C20. As this circuit also uses the 230V AC to 6V DC converters, it is dangerous to touch any of its parts while working. There should be no sound from the alarm on switching on the set. If there is a sound, check the line polarity. Plug in the two units in the same neutral and earth wires. It has been found that the range of this intercom is 50 to 70 metres, with a medium volume. Each unit may cost around Rs 300 to make. through them. These diodes also protect the circuit if the potential difference between N and E increases and maintains it at 3V. C.H. Swa Raghu Ram Guntur type of interchange may be possible. 2. The circuit will not respond if N and E terminals (from supply line) are interchanged. 3. Possibilities are there that the diodes may get burnt off. 4. The circuit may work with poor wiring also, but it is recommended to connect the intercom with good wiring, having very low line leakage. 5. The circuit does not completely isolate the intercom from supply, which is necessary for safety. My circuit costs a little more, but is sufficiently safe to use with the intercom. The author, Pradip Kumar Bose, replies: Regarding the letter of Mr Raghu Ram from Guntur, I would like to point out: 1. In his circuit it is assumed that only phase and earth may be interchanged by mistake. In practice, any A SIMPLE BATTERY CHARGER SUPRAVAT DAS T he circuit presented here can charge two pencil type nickel-cadmium or carbon-zinc dry battery cells with a single charger. In this charger a 154 6V-0-6V, 300mA step-down transformer provides 12V unregulated power supply. Regulator transistor Tl is used to produce 4V regulated supply to charge the cells. The charging current of this circuit is not more than 50 mA, while the charging time is approximately 20 hours. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 The circuit may be assembled easily on a piece of veroboard and enclosed in a small battery eliminator box. A small heatsink is needed for transistor Tl. Before charging a cell it is necessary to measure the charging current. If it is more than 50mA then the value of resistor R2 should be increased accordingly. A dry battery below 1V may not be charged with the help of this charger. Overcharging of cells should be avoided. Readers’ Comments: With this circuit, even below 1V rechargeable batteries can be charged nicely. Could the author please suggest the use of this circuit as an AC adaptor, so that it can perform as a dual-purpose circuit? T. Ramesh Bangalore The author, Supravat Das, replies: I agree with Mr Ramesh that this circuit can also be used as an AC adap- To perform such a function, some modifications are necessary. The circuit given alongside can be used as an AC adaptor. With the help of this battery charger, Ni-Cd batteries below 1V can be charged very well. But in case of carbon-zinc dry battery, it may not charge the batteries well. tor for radio receivers or other electronic gadgets. TEMPERATURE SENSOR FOR POWER AMPLIFIERS V. VIDYALAL, K. RAJASREE AND V. SIVANAND A part from MOSFET-driven output stages, the danger of thermal runway also exists in semiconductor based power amplifiers. This danger manifests itself when the current through a semiconductor creates so much heat as to raise its temperature above a critical level. Since the semi-conductor has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, the increase in current leads to the increase of temperature and finally to the destruction of the device. This effect can be avoided by incorporating devices with positive temperature coefficients, such as thermistors, or by suitable feedback circuits. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 However, a need often arises for an early warning (audio/visual) to prevent such a disaster. The circuit described here provides an audio as well as a visual indication when the temperature increases beyond a certain limit. IC LM311 is configured as a comparator. Its reference level is set by preset VR1. The other two arms of the bridge are resistors Rl and R2 where R2 is the ‘sense’ resistor. A 0.5-watt carbon resistor is used, instead of semiconductors, for the sake of higher reliability and ruggedness. This also makes the unit inexpensive. A 5.1V ze- ner diode (Dl) provides the constant voltage for the bridge. An inexpensive and easily available comparator (LM311) is chosen for rapid switching. When the sensor resistor R2 gets hot (due to its proximity to the semiconductor) its resistance decreases. This trips the comparator due to the difference in voltage settings at the inputs and its output goes high. This is visually displayed by LED1 and an audible note from the buzzer. IC LM311 can drive loads requiring currents up to 50 mA (max.), whereas in case of LM741 only 25 mA (max.) is possible. Therefore, relays 155 drawing less than 50 mA can be directly connected to the output. This requires costly relays, and an alternative is to use a transistor to drive the relay. Setting this up is fairly simple. Keep the sensor resistor (R2) in close proximity to some hot material whose temperature can be monitored by a ther- mometer. Adjust pot. VR1 for the buzzer to sound and the LED to light up. (This temperature should be equivalent to that from the heatsink on which the semiconductor is fixed.) Air cool the sensor and lap it to the heatsink whose temperature is to be monitored. This is only a crude method and an adjustment can also be done by fixing it to the actual heatsink whose temperature is to be monitored and presetting pot. VR1, so that the buzzer sounds and the LED lights up when temperature reaches the danger point. TELEPHONE MONITOR RAJAN GUPTA W ith this circuit connected to the telephone line, it will be possible to detect whether any unauthorised telephone set is connected to your telephone line. The heart of this circuit is a quad comparator IC (LM339). The DC voltage level on a telephone line drops from 48V to 12V when a telephone is in use, and it further drops to 8 volts when two telephone sets are connected in parallel. IC1 detects this voltage level. LED1 lights up when one telephone receiver is picked up. LED2 also lights up when another telephone is picked up. To adjust VR1 and VR2, pick up one telephone set and adjust VR1 until LED 1 glows. Now, hold the first set and pick up the second set and adjust preset VR2 until LED2 glows. Use a 9V transistor battery to power the circuit. 156 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 A BINARY FREQUENCY METER NARESH TYAGI F or an average electronics hobbyist, it is not always possible to buy a frequency meter because it is pretty expensive. Here is an alternative with one difference that this meter displays frequency in binary form, rather than decimal. But that is pre- connected in cascade form. Their outputs are connected to 24 red LEDs, which display the unknown input frequency in binary form. The binary counter typically counts in 1,2,4,8,16... sequence, i.e. 2n. So, in this case, the 24-stage binary Q9 is used to reset the counter ICs (IC1 and IC2). Transistor Tl prevents the clock input of the counter from accepting too high values. Now, for instance, if the reading of your binary frequency meter is cisely what makes it so cost-effective. However, with a little practice, it is not so difficult to understand the binary readings. At the heart of this circuit are two 12-stage binary counter ICs (CD4040), counter can count as much as 224, i.e. up to 16.7 MHz. IC 555 generates 1 Hz pulse, which is fed to the decade counter IC 4017. The output Q0 from IC 4017 is fed to a NAND gate of IC 4011 and 10001001, the frequency in decimal is given by 27+23+l=l28+8+1=137 Hz. A regulated power supply should be used with this circuit. The level of the input signal at buffer transistor Tl should not be less than 2V rms. Readers’ Comments: ‘The circuit of Binary Frequency Meter’ is very useful and interesting, but it has some limitations. For instance, it cannot be used for measurement of analogue frequencies of such waveforms as sinusoidal, trian- gular or sawtooth. The impedance at the input of transistor T1 is very low, producing loading effect on the circuit under measurement, so further amplification of the signal is needed. Use of one NAND gate (CD4011) with IC 555 is uneconomical. It is better to use a NAND gate multivibrator. These disadvantages can be overcome completely by using the following modified circuit. For measuring analogue frequency, the circuit using a schmitt trigger (IC ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 157 CD4093) is described here. Also, we can use IC CD4011, instead of IC 555 for generating 1Hz pulse, since the oscillator wired with NAND gates is very stable. D.S. Vidyasagar Akola  The circuit idea ‘A Binary Frequency Meter’ is very good, but instead of the simple LEDs can we use 7-segment displays? If yes, what will be the required modifications? Atal V. Kulkarni Beed  Can I use this circuit for counting sine wave frequencies? Can I increase the power supply to 9 or 12 volts, as CMOS ICs are used in the circuit? Can I replace VR1 with a fixed resistor, using the given power supply? What should be the exact value of the fixed resistor? Sudarshan Hegde Bangalore The author, Naresh Tyagi, replies: We can use this circuit for counting sinusoidal frequencies, provided their amplitude > 2V rms. We can use 9 or 12 volts power supply, but we will have to change the current limiting resistor R5 to 120ohm, 1 watt. Theoretically, we can calculate the value of resistance with the help of the formula: f = 1.44 (R1 + 2R2) C1 But in practice, it did not work when I tried because of the electrolytic capacitor. Tantalum capacitors are easily available. I designed the circuit, keeping the cost in mind. But a 7-segment display may be used after modifying the circuit. For this, please refer to such circuits, published earlier in EFY. CARETAKER FOR HOME APPLIANCES B.S. MALIK T his circuit is an improved version of the ‘Auto-Cut’ circuit used normally for protecting the home appliances against very high and very low voltages. Its advantages are that its internal components are also safeguarded and it uses the more reliable and cheaper silicon transistors. In the circuit, RL1 and RL2 are double-contact relays. S1 is a switch for the panel meter. Switch S2 is meant for resetting the system. X1 is a step-down, centre-tapped mains transformer. Diodes Dl and D2 form a full-wave rectifier. Capacitor Cl is for smoothing the rectified voltage. Transistor Tl is for high voltage tripping. Diodes D3 and D4 avoid back emf effect in relay coils. Capacitors C2 and C3 avoid chattering effect in relays and provide a delay time for their re-energising states. Resistors Rl and R4 provide emitter bias to transistors Tl and T2 respectively and limit current flow for safety. 158 ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 Presets VR1 and VR2, which supply base currents to the transistors, can be adjusted as per requirements. Resistor R2, zener D5 and resistor R3 provide base bias for Tl. Similarly, resistor R5, zener D6 and resistor R6 provide base bias for transistor T2. Red and green neon are used as indicators. The functioning of this circuit centres around the two relays. If line voltage goes below 170V, relay RL2 deenergises. Due to this, its RL2(a) contacts open and disconnect the load, whereas the RL2(b) contacts open and disconnect the line voltage from the primary of transformer X1. So, the control circuitry as well as the load are safe. The red neon glows to indicate the out-of-range voltage. If line voltage rises above 250V, relay RL1 energises and RLl(a)’s centre contact shift to disconnect the load. The centre contact of RL1(b) opens line voltage path to X1’s primary. So, the circuit and the load are once again safe. The red neon glows again. If RL2’s de-energising time (due to capacitor C3) is greater than that of RL1 (due to capacitor C2), then the relays may chatter. To avoid this, the value of C2 is kept larger than that of C3. To test the circuit, take a variable AC voltage source and connect it to the input. Connect an AC voltmeter to the output of the circuit. Apply 230V AC to the input and press switch S2 momentarily. Relay RL2 should operate. If it does not, adjust preset VR2. Also, ensure through the use of preset VR1 that the relay RL1 remains unaffected. The voltmeter connected at the output should indicate 230V and the green neon should glow. Now, test the circuit for out-of-range operation by varying the voltage to slightly less 170V and then slightly more than 250V, respectively. Do press S2 each time. In both cases, the red neon should glow and the output of the circuit should be zero. If relays chatter, try using a capacitor of 22μF, 25V for C2, instead of 10μF, 25V. Readers’ Comments: I was really glad to see the article on ‘Caretaker for Home Appliances’. But it really misled me. It was only a primary cut-off arrangement with two relays. The very same purpose can be achieved, using only one relay. of T2. Give supply, press S2 and observe. You can see that RL2 keeps energised in between the predetermined voltages of 170V and 250V AC. Beyond these limits, the relay stays de-energised and the primary of the transformer stays cut off till S2 is relays, whereas one relay is sufficient for the same work. A simple and economical circuit is given in the figure below. I have used only one DPDT relay successfully. High voltage setting is done by VR1 and low voltage With one SPDT relay (RL2), one may just change the connections as follows: AC input L(phase)goes to RL2(b) common contact. Contact N/O (normally open) goes to appliance. In between these contacts, connect S2 and the green neon. Between common contacts of RL2(b) and N/C (normally closed) contact, connect the red neon. Avoid RL1 and allied components. Let the neutral stay as it is. Connect collector of T1 to base pressed again. Another circuit captioned ‘Auto Protection for Refrigerator’, which was published in July ’93 issue, also uses two relays. I suggest that an auto-gadget, which is designed to control the line voltage to a motor, should have a suitable delay. Narain P. Menokee Calicut  The circuit for ‘Caretaker for Home appliances’ is very good, but it is expensive due to use of two setting by VR2. When a low voltage occurs, zener D3 will not break down and transistor T2 will be off, relay is de-energised and the gadget is ‘off’. For a high voltage condition, zener D1 will break down, transistor T1 will be ‘on’ and relay again gets de-energised. So, the gadget is isolated from the line voltage. The circuit controls gadgets from 175V to 230V AC. Jayanta Kumar Chakraborty Dumka ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 159 The author, B.S. Malik, replies: Mr Menokee has suggested the use of a single relay after some modifications in the article. And the same idea was also suggested by Mr Chakraborty. I have not tried their ideas, as I have been using my circuit since last eight years without any complaint. The ideas of these readers seem somewhat convincing theoretically, but practice may reveal the truth. However, Mr Menokee should have sent his circuit with the letter for a clear understanding. Also, he has suggested a suitable delay for controlling the line voltage to a motor of the fridge. This is done already in the published article. 40W+40W AUTO-REVERSE STEREO CASSETTE PLAYER MOHIT MISHRA T his circuit will reverse the direction of movement of the audio cassette tape automatically after the side has been fully played. This permits a continuous play of music without having to reverse the tape manually. Of course, an auto-reverse mechanism would be required. 160 The circuit comprises three stages— preamplifier, auto reverse and power amplifier. The preamplifier is built around IC LA3161. It can also be built around ICs UPC1032, UPC1186H or M5152L. The frequency response of this stage is quite good. The auto-reverse stage is built around IC UPC6304, which is a single-in-line IC. An npn transistor C2270 is also used in this stage. The power amplifier is built around two UPC 1230H ICs, which at 12V give an output of 40W at 4ohm load. Pin 9 of both the ICs and pin 4 of the preamp IC should be con- ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 nected to the supply, i.e. point A. A current of 2 to 4 amperes is given through the supply, which is regulated by the choke coil. Care should be taken of the pin configuration of ICs, since these are single-in-line ICs. For proper reception, a good auto reverse stereo head (glass ferrite) should be used. REMOTE TV HEADPHONES PRADEEP G. T he circuit described here enables one to listen to sound from a TV set without disturbing others. It uses a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter is of AM type, working in MW range, which can be kept near the TV set. Output of the audio amplifier (headphone socket) can be connected to the transmitter. Power supply to the transmitter can be derived from the TV set itself. A separate DC supply can also be used, if desired. The use of a battery gives perfectly distortion-free output. The receiver is based on 2Z414, a popular RF amplifier-cum-detector IC, meant for pocket radios. It is a compact receiver with 1.5-volt cell, housed inside a match-box sized plastic cabinet. It has a hole for the headphone socket. go to VHF range and so no disturbance will be introduced in the TV picture or sound. In case, you start hearing a programme from a radio station instead, As the transmitter uses an iron core oscillator coil, the harmonics will never the frequency of operation of the circuit can be changed. Readers’ Comments: The circuit of ‘Remote TV Headphones’ was very interesting. But I have some doubts about assembling this circuit. 1. Please give the correct configuration of IC ZN414. 2. How can I get the complete kit or PCB? Please, mention its cost, etc? 3. What is the maximum range of operation between the transmitter and the receiver? A.G. Poiya Mozhi Madras  The circuit is very interesting. We can listen to the TV, using this headphone. IC ZN414 is not available in the market. However, YS414 is available which costs about Rs 35. I request the author to give internal structure of ZN414 or YS414. While using YS414, pins 1 and 3 should be interchanged. In the receiver circuit, one end of the MW antenna coil was connected to negative terminal of the battery. This connection should be disconnected for proper functioning of the receiver. What is the function of audio output transformer in the transmitter? If we connect the secondary of the transformer in parallel to the TV speaker, then the sound from the speaker decreases. How can we avoid the use of this transformer? ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 MVS Rao Hyderabad  This circuit is very useful for me but how much does the ZN414 IC cost? I used BF194, instead of SL100. What is the rating of output transformer—3 or 6 volt? What is the range of transmitter? A.N. Babbu Rajahmundry  The circuit diagrams of the transmitter and receiver have some mistakes. In the circuit for L1, you have marked ‘See Text’. But in the text, there is no mention of L1 and its description. 161 Allan Mysore  Please clarify the following queries: 1. What is the value of L1 and from which point the coil should be tapped? Please, specify its complete construction method. 2. Specify the type of audio output transformer, used in the circuit. 3. What is the maximum output power of the receiver and the impedance of the headphones? 4. Specify the range of the system. M. Kumar Hardwar  I have made the circuit, but it failed. I used the transmitter circuit as usual, but replaced the receiver with a MW pocket radio set. I also powered the transmitter separately through a battery. While operating, I found noise in the TV. However, on adjustment, the noise disappeared. On switching the receiver on, I got a shrill sound. I selected a silent zone in MW band and the sound reduced, but I found that on placing the receiver near (within 3 metres) TV set the sound increased. However, I was able to receive the audio signal, but it was backed by some noise produced by TV set. The background noise was very irritating. Also, the sound quality of transmitter was very poor. A reader from Calcutta The author, Pradeep G., replies: I am thankful to all who have taken keen interest in my circuit idea. L1 is made of 90 turns with 36SWG copper wire over ferrite rod. The coil is tapped at 75th turn. Capacitor C4 (0.01μ) should be connected between MW antenna coil and ground. It should not be connected directly to the ground. IC YS414 can be used, instead of ZN414. Pin configuration and internal structure of IC ZN414 have been published on page 104 of Feb ’94 issue. Modulator transformer is a generalpurpose audio output transformer. Centre-tap of primary windings is not used. Transformer is 6-volt type. The circuit can be operated up to 10 metres, without any wire connection to 10 metres and without any wire connection to the TV set. Instead of TV set, a tape recorder can also be used. IC ZN414 can be obtained from Visha Electronics, Bombay for Rs 30. Audio transformer is pushpull type, which is serially used in audio receiver and ‘bird’ bells. Output power of the receiver is a few milli watts. Any type of headphones or small speaker can be used. INFRARED REMOTE CONTROL TESTER PRADIP KUMAR BOSE T he circuit described here is basically of an infrared light controlled electronic switch, which can also be used to control a remote gadget. This switch will help detect faults and check the working of a remote control transmitter. Transistor T1 works as an electronic switch, which makes the LED glow when any infrared signal is detected through the sensor IR-LED. Diodes Dl and D2 work as rectifiers to switch on the LED-driver circuit. Capacitor Cl is used to produce a constant base bias when an infrared signal is detected even for a very short period. Transistors T2 and T3 constitute an infrared signal amplifier. The gain of this pair is suitable for detection and amplification of medium and strong infrared signals. The interconnection between the two stages is made by RC coupling. Capacitor C4 is used to couple the amplifier with the detecting device. The main infrared detector in the 162 circuit is a silicon photodiode D3. It is used in reverse bias with a series resistance. The reverse current of this diode varies with the infrared wave, and this is the basic idea of this circuit. The variable signal is then amplified and detected to light up the LED. The circuit works on 9V supply for which a battery is recommended. It draws very little current in idle condition. After assembling the circuit properly, take any remote control transmitter of any TV or VCR and focus its signal on D3. The LED should glow and remain in the same state even when the signal is removed. In case it doesn’t glow, check the voltages at different locations. If necessary, use a convex lens and place D3 on its focus. Now, it should work. The gadget will work from a distance of 15 cms ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 to 30 cms. If the LED glows with normal light, an infrared transmitter filter should be used to cover D3. A red glass may be used, instead. To drive high voltage load, a relay driver can be used in place of the LED. Readers’ Comments: I have made the project successfully. It is working well. I found a range of about sixty centimeter without connecting any lens or filter. H.B. Tiwana Bangalore  I successfully assembled the circuit and it is working well. However, the range is very low! Sudhir sinha Bidhan Nagar 1. The range of the tester is comparatively low for testing purpose only. The range can be increased by adding IR amplifier. 2. The circuit can also be used as a remote control. The author, P.K. Bose, replies: The following was observed while making the prototype: SOFT RADIO/ CASSETTE SELECTOR NAVIN GAUTAM M ost radio-cassette players have a mechanical radio/cassette selector switch. Here is a simple elec- T4, one can change the state of multivibrator. For switching of audio signal to multivibrator via transistors T5 and T6. Transistors T7 and T8 provide volt- tronic circuit, which selects radio/cassette electronically with a soft finger touch. The circuit is simple and self- explanatory. Transistors Tl and T2 are arranged as a bistable multivibrator. By touching the base of transistor T3 or radio or cassette, CMOS bilateral switch CD4066 is used. The four independent switches contained within the IC are so arranged that the IC works as a doublepole double-throw (DPDT) switch. This switch is controlled by the ages to radio and its amplifier circuit, when the switch is in radio position. LED 1 and LED2 are used to indicate the position of switch. Breakdown voltage for zener diode D3 can be selected, as per requirement of the radio. ELECTRONICS PROJECTS-15 163