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GEOGRAPHICAL ABSTRACTS: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Edited by the Elsevier BD Editorial Team F.K. Cooper N.T. Davey N.M. Dunwell L.E. Evans J.H. Harris J.C. Hodson N.E. Jode S.E. Long J.W. Sperry C.J. Towers L.E. Walker Elsevier BD Helpdesk ELSEVIER Bibliographic Databases (BD) The Old Bakery 111 Queens Road Norwich, NR1 3PL United Kingdom Tel: +44 1603 626327 Fax: +44 1603 667934 E-mail: ebd-marketing@elsevier .com Website: www.elsevier.com/geobase Copyright E 2006 Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier B.V., Radarweg 29, 1043 NX Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 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Electronically processed and printed by Scan Laser B.V., Zaandam, The Netherlands RECORD FORMAT Chapter heading PALAEONTOLOGY Sub-chapter heading Palaeobotany Title of article in English Item number 11726 Santa Lucia superiore (Toirano, Liguria): Ligurian vegetation history during the Lower Pleniglacial (French) Non-English title (Santa Lucia superiore (Toirano, Ligurie): Reconstitution locale de la végétation ligure durant le Pléniglaciaire ancien) Author name(s) Kaniewski D., Renault-Miskovsky J., Tozzi C. and de Lumley H. Journal title Geobios 2005 39/3 (353-364) Page numbers of the article in the original journal Year of publication, volume number and issue number Abstract in English Article language Pollen analysis of Santa Lucia superiore cave (Italy) reports at local scale the lowland Ligurian vegetation during the Lower Pleniglacial (75 to 57 Kyr BP). The pollen profile shows two AP extensions during a steppe-landscape episode in Liguria. The dry and cold phases caused the establishment of a steppe-landscape (NAP 92%) with Artemisia, Ephedra, Poaceae and Chenopodiaceae, similar to those mentioned in the Latium during the Pleniglacial. The increase of moisture generated a first arboreal extension (Pinus, Betula, Corylus, Ulmus), which engendered the formation of an open-forest landscape (AP 43%). The second arboreal extension (AP 55%) was due to an increase of moisture and higher temperatures, which allowed the development of Mediterranean trees and shrubs (Quercus ilex, Olea, Phillyrea). This warming up occurred probably simultaneously with a secondary transgression during the glacial sea-level change. The upper part of the profile shows an open vegetation, which indicates the return of a steppe-landscape. Pollen data, replaced in the multidisciplinary studies of the site, are well correlated with the fauna and sediment data. E 2005 Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved. GEOGRAPHICAL ABSTRACTS: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY CONTENTS Page SYNOPTIC GEOGRAPHY Global change Pollution Biogeochemical cycles Modelling and numerical methods International programmes 265 265 - LANDFORMS Weathering and related landforms Fluvial landforms Coastal landforms Volcanic landforms Arid landforms Regional physiography Neotectonics and structural control Landforms of other planets Slopes Soil mechanics Karst Anthropogenic landforms 267 267 270 271 271 272 273 274 276 277 278 THE QUATERNARY Chronology Palaeoclimatology Oceans Tropics and sub-tropics Mid-latitude and extra-glacial Glacial landforms and sediments The Holocene Sea level Periglacial Glaciology 278 280 289 293 293 294 295 297 297 SEDIMENTOLOGY Methods, equipment and programs Sediments and sedimentary processes - physical properties Sediments and sedimentary processes - transport Sediments and sedimentary processes - deposition Sediments and sedimentary processes - diagenesis Sedimentary geochemistry Sedimentary environments - terrestrial Sedimentary environments - coastal and shallow marine Sedimentary environments - oceanic Applied sedimentology 302 302 305 312 313 315 317 318 318 SOILS Regional and survey Methods Genesis and formation Physical properties Soil water Mineralogy Chemistry Organic matter Biota Contamination and remediation Erosion and conservation 320 321 322 324 326 329 336 341 347 354 HYDROLOGY Precipitation assessment Precipitation quality Interception, throughfall and stemflow Evaporation and transpiration 359 360 363 364 365 continued on next page Runoff, streamflow and basins Channel hydraulics and sediment transport Lakes and reservoirs Wetlands and estuaries Surface water quality runoff and soil water rivers and streams lakes and reservoirs Groundwater processes vadose zone phreatic zone Groundwater quality vadose zone phreatic zone Glacial hydrology Land use, forestry and agriculture Water resources and management METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY Instrumentation Radiation Atmospheric electricity Optics Regional weather patterns Synoptic meteorology Boundary layer meteorology Air-sea interaction Dynamic meteorology large scale mesoscale Convection and cloud microphysics Rainfall processes Weather and climate forecasting Climate change Atmospheric chemistry Aerosols Atmospheric pollution 367 383 388 389 391 395 399 407 409 412 414 417 422 423 426 427 429 434 436 437 441 443 444 449 455 456 461 463 467 468 472 477 484 495 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING Remote sensing primary data capture secondary data capture geodesy numerical and image analysis GIS methodology error, accuracy, quality, legislation software and systems Mapping Map curatorship and history Cartography Applications atmosphere lithosphere biosphere hydrosphere human 518 520 521 526 528 GENERAL TEXTS 529 508 509 509 512 516 516 516 517 517 265 SYNOPTIC GEOGRAPHY Global change 1401 Salt lakes in Australia: Present problems and prognosis for the future Timms B.V. Hydrobiologia 2005 552/1 (1-15) Australia is a land of salt lakes and despite low human population density, many lakes are adversely impacted by a range of factors. Secondary salinisation is the most pernicious force degrading lakes, especially in south-west Western Australia where up to 30% of the landscape is predicted to be affected. Mining also impinges on many salt lakes in this state, mainly through the dewatering of saline groundwater. Exploitation of groundwater for irrigation caused some lakes in Victoria, Australia, to dry, especially the significant Red Rock Complex. Global climate change will result in new water balances in endorheic lakes, with most having less water, particularly the seasonal lakes of southern Australia. This has already happened in Lake Corangamite, Victoria, but the prime reason is diversion of inflowing floodwater. Consequently, the lake has retreated and become salinised compromising its status as a Ramsar site. Various other lakes suffer from enhanced sedimentation, have introduced biota or their catchments are being disturbed to their detriment. Enlightened management should be able to maintain some important lakes in an acceptable condition, but, for most others, the future is bleak. © Springer 2005. 1402 Assessing the future global impacts of ozone on vegetation Ashmore M.R. Plant, Cell and Environment 2005 28/8 (949-964) Ozone is a major secondary air pollutant, the current concentrations of which have been shown to have significant adverse effects on crop yields, forest growth and species composition. In North America and Europe, emissions of ozone precursors are decreasing but in other regions of the world, especially Asia, where much less is known about its impacts, they are increasing rapidly. There is also evidence of an increase in global background ozone concentrations, which will lead to significant changes in global ozone exposure over this century, during which direct and indirect effects of other changes in the global atmosphere will also modify plant responses to ozone. This paper considers how far our current understanding of the mechanisms of ozone impacts, and the tools currently used for ozone risk assessment, are capable of evaluating the consequences of these changing global patterns of exposure to ozone. Risk assessment based on relationships between external concentration and plant response is inadequate for these new challenges. New models linking stomatal flux, and detoxification and repair processes, to carbon assimilation and allocation provide a more mechanistic basis for future risk assessments. However, there are a range of more complex secondary effects of ozone that are not considered in current risk assessment, and there is an urgent need to develop more holistic approaches linking the effects of ozone, climate, and nutrient and water availability, on individual plants, species interactions and ecosystem function. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1403 The cryosphere and global environmental change: Some geomorphic perspectives Slaymaker O. Chikei/Transactions, Japanese Geomorphological Union 2005 26/4 (359-370) A consideration of the global environmental changes affected by the cryosphere. The components of the terrestrial cryosphere (glaciers, snow, permafrost and lake and river ice) are analysed independently and also in the context of their influence on, and response to human activity in, large river basins tributary to the Arctic Ocean. Some of the geomorphic concepts that are thought to be important in interpreting these cryospheric changes are: thresholds, systems, complex response, resistance, panarchy, collapse and Yatsu’s idea that "anything goes ". Biogeochemical cycles 1404 Effect of potassium phosphate fertilization on production and emission of methane and its 13 C-stable isotope composition in rice microcosms Conrad R. and Klose M. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2099-2108) Rice fields are an important source for atmospheric CH4 , but the effects of fertilization are not well known. We studied the turnover of CH 4 in rice soil microcosms without and with addition of potassium phosphate. Height and tiller number of rice plants were higher in the fertilized than in the unfertilized microcosms. Emission rates of CH4 were also higher, but porewater concentrations of CH4 were lower. The 13 C values of the emitted CH4 and of the CH 4 in the porewater were both 2-6% higher in the fertilized microcosms than in the control. Potassium phosphate did not affect rate and isotopic signature of CH4 production in anoxic soil slurries. On the other hand, roots retrieved from fertilized microcosms at the end of incubation exhibited slightly higher CH4 production rates and slightly higher CH4 - 13 C values compared to roots from unfertilized plants. Addition of potassium phosphate to excised rice roots generally inhibited CH4 production and resulted in increasingly lower 13 C values of the produced CH4 . Fractionation of 13 C during plant ventilation (i.e. 13 C in pore water CH4 versus CH4 emitted) was larger in the fertilized microcosms than in the control. Besides plant ventilation, this difference may also have been caused by CH4 oxidation in the rhizosphere. However, calculation from the isotopic data showed that less than 27% of the produced CH4 was oxidized. Collectively, our results indicate that potassium phosphate fertilization stimulated CH4 emission by enhancing root methanogenesis, plant ventilation and/or CH4 oxidation, resulting in residence times of CH4 in the porewater in the order of hours. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1405 Enhanced iron reduction by iron supplement: A strategy to reduce methane emission from paddies J¨ackel U., Russo S. and Schnell S. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2150-2154) As an option for mitigating methane emissions from rice paddies the effects of ferrihydrite application to an experimental field plot at the beginning of the growth season was studied. Methane emissions during the vegetation period of rice were significantly lower (50%) in the fertilized plot compared to the non-supplemented control plot. Although toxic effects of iron are known to occur with wetland plants including rice, our field experiment showed no deterioration of agrophysiological data. Grain yield, harvest index, and iron content of grains were not different in the two plots. Therefore, we propose that iron application is a suitable strategy to reduce methane emission from rice paddies. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1406 Microbial responses and nitrous oxide emissions during wetting and drying of organically and conventionally managed soil under tomatoes Burger M., Jackson L.E., Lundquist E.J. et al. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (109-118) The types and amounts of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) inputs, as well as irrigation management are likely to influence gaseous emissions and microbial ecology of agricultural soil. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and nitrous oxide (N2 O) efflux, with and without acetylene inhibition, inorganic N, and microbial biomass C were measured after irrigation or simulated rainfall in two agricultural fields under tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum). The two fields, located in the California Central Valley, had either a history of high organic matter (OM) inputs ("organic" management) or one of low OM and inorganic fertilizer inputs ("conventional" management). In microcosms, where short-term microbial responses to wetting and drying were studied, the highest CO2 efflux took place at about 60% water-filled pore space (WFPS). At this moisture level, phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) indicative of microbial nutrient availability were elevated and a PLFA stress indicator was depressed, suggesting peak microbial activity. The highest N 2 O efflux in the organically managed soil (0.94 mg N2 O-N m-2 h-1 ) occurred after manure and legume cover crop 266 SYNOPTIC GEOGRAPHY incorporation, and in the conventionally managed soil (2.12 mg N2 O-N m-2 h-1 ) after inorganic N fertilizer inputs. Elevated N2 O emissions occurred at a WFPS >60% and lasted <2 days after wetting, probably because the top layer (0-150 mm) of this silt loam soil dried quickly. Therefore, in these cropping systems, irrigation management might control the duration of elevated N2 O efflux, even when C and inorganic N availability are high, whereas inorganic N concentrations should be kept low during times when soil moisture cannot be controlled. 1407 Methane release through resuspension of littoral sediment Bussmann I. Biogeochemistry 2005 74/3 (283-302) Sediment in the littoral zone of lakes is frequently disturbed by wave action or bioturbation, resulting in sediment resuspension. In undisturbed sediment, methanotrophic bacteria efficiently reduce the diffusive flux of methane into the water column. In a microcosm study, the resuspension of littoral sediment was simulated in sediment cores for a winter (n = 3) and a summer situation (n = 3). The erosion of surface sediment resulted in a large flux of methane into the overlying water (207 176 mol h -1 m-2 in winter and 73 18 mol h-1 m-2 in summer). Only a minor part (16 7%) of the methane released was oxidized by methanotrophic bacteria, whereas the major part escaped into the water column. Only 6-16% of the littoral zone has to be resuspended to reach the same flux as from undisturbed littoral sediment. For the daily flux, a sediment resuspension has to last 1-4 h to reach the undisturbed daily flux. The study reveals the important role of sediment resuspension in the littoral methane cycle as an intense but variable source of methane of largely unknown magnitude. © Springer 2005. 1408 Short-term effects of clearfelling on soil CO2 , CH4 , and N2 O fluxes in a Sitka spruce plantation Zerva A. and Mencuccini M. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2025-2036) We examined the effects of forest clearfelling on the fluxes of soil CO2 , CH4 , and N2 O in a Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) plantation on an organic-rich peaty gley soil, in Northern England. Soil CO2 , CH4 , N2 O as well as environmental factors such as soil temperature, soil water content, and depth to the water table were recorded in two mature stands for one growing season, at the end of which one of the two stands was felled and one was left as control. Monitoring of the same parameters continued thereafter for a second growing season. For the first 10 months after clearfelling, there was a significant decrease in soil CO2 efflux, with an average efflux rate of 4.0 g m-2 d-1 in the mature stand (40-year) and 2.7 g m -2 d-1 in clearfelled site (CF). Clearfelling turned the soil from a sink (-0.37 mg m-2 d-1 ) for CH4 to a net source (2.01 mg m-2 d-1 ). For the same period, soil N2 O fluxes averaged 0.57 mg m-2 d-1 in the CF and 0.23 mg m-2 d-1 in the 40-year stand. Clearfelling affected environmental factors and lead to higher daily soil temperatures during the summer period, while it caused an increase in the soil water content and a rise in the water table depth. Despite clearfelling, CO2 remained the dominant greenhouse gas in terms of its greenhouse warming potential. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1409 Pan-European 13 C values of air and organic matter from forest ecosystems Hemming D., Yakir D., Ambus P. et al. Global Change Biology 2005 11/7 (1065-1093) We present carbon stable isotope, 13 C, results from air and organic matter samples collected during 98 individual field campaigns across a network of Carboeuroflux forest sites in 2001 (14 sites) and 2002 (16 sites). Using these data, we tested the hypothesis that 13 C values derived from large-scale atmospheric measurements and models, which are routinely used to partition carbon fluxes between land and ocean, and potentially between respiration and photosynthesis on land, are consistent with directly measured ecosystem-scale 13 C values. In this framework, we also tested the potential of 13 C in canopy air and plant organic matter to record regional-scale ecophysiological patterns. Our network estimates for the mean 13 C of ecosystem respired CO2 and the related ‘discrimination’ of ecosystem respiration, 1.9‰ and 17.8 2.0‰ er and er respectively, were -25.6 in 2001 and -26.6 1.5‰ and 19.0 1.6‰ in 2002. The results were in close agreement with 13 C values derived from regional-scale atmospheric measurement programs for 2001, but less so in 2002, which had an unusual precipitation pattern. This suggests that regional-scale atmospheric sampling programs generally capture ecosystem 13 C signals over Europe, but may be limited in capturing some of the interannual variations. In 2001, but less so in 2002, there were discernable longitudinal and seasonal trends in er From west to east, across the network, there was a general enrichment in 13 C (
3‰ and
l‰ for the 2 years, respectively) consistent with increasing Gorczynski continentality index for warmer and drier conditions. In 2001 only, seasonal 13 C enrichment between July and September, followed by depletion in November (from about -26.0‰ to -24,5‰ to 30.0‰), was also observed. In 2001, July and August er values across the network were significantly related to average daytime vapor pressure deficit (VPD), relative humidity (RH), and, to a lesser degree, air temperature (Ta ), but not significantly with monthly average precipitation (Pm ). In contrast, in 2002 (a much wetter peak season), er was significantly related with Ta , but not significantly with VPD and RH. The important role of plant physiological processes on er in 2001 was emphasized by a relatively rapid turnover (between 1 and 6 days) of assimilated carbon inferred from time-lag analyses of er vs. meteorological parameters. However, this was not evident in 2002. These analyses also noted corresponding diurnal cycles of er and meteorological parameters in 2001, indicating a rapid transmission of daytime meteorology, via physiological responses, to the er signal during this season. Organic matter 13 C results showed progressive 13 C enrichment from leaves, through stems and roots to soil organic matter, which may be explained by 13 C fractionation during respiration. This enrichment was species dependent and was prominent in angiosperms but not in gymnosperms. 13 C values of organic matter of any of the plant components did not well represent short-term er values during the seasonal cycle, and could not be used to partition ecosystem respiration into autotrophic and heterotrophic components. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1410 Statistical analysis of the major variables controlling methane emission from rice fields Yan X., Yagi K., Akiyama H. and Akimoto H. Global Change Biology 2005 11/7 (1131-1141) Rice cultivation is an important anthropogenic source of atmospheric methane (CH4 ), the emission of which is affected by management practices. Many field measurements have been conducted in major rice-producing countries in Asia. We compiled a database of CH4 emissions from rice fields in Asia from peer-reviewed journals. We developed a statistical model to relate CH4 flux in the rice-growing season to soil properties, water regime in the rice-growing season, water status in the previous season, organic amendment and climate. The statistical results showed that all these variables significantly affected CH4 flux, and explained 68% of the variability. Organic amendment and water regime in the rice-growing season were the top two controlling variables; climate was the least critical variable. The average CH4 fluxes from rice fields with single and multiple drainages were 60% and 52% of that from continuously flooded rice fields. The flux from fields that were flooded in the previous season was 2.8 times that from fields previously drained for a long season and 1.9 times that from fields previously drained for a short season. In contrast to the previously reported optimum soil pH of around neutrality, soils with pH of 5.0-5.5 gave the maximum CH4 emission. The model results demonstrate that application of rice straw at 6tha-1 before rice transplanting can increase CH4 emission by 2.1 times; when applied in the previous season, however, it increases CH4 emission by only 0.8 times. Default emission factors and scaling factors for different water regimes and organic amendments derived from this work can be used to develop national or regional emission inventories. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1411 Soil CN ratio as a scalar parameter to predict nitrous oxide emissions Klemedtsson L., Von Arnold K., Weslien P. and Gundersen P. Global Change Biology 2005 11/7 (1142-1147) Forested histosols have been found in some cases to be major, and in other cases minor, sources of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide LANDFORMS (N2 O). In order to estimate the total national or global emissions of N2 O from histosols, scaling or mapping parameters that can separate low- and high-emitting sites are needed, and should be included in soil databases. Based on interannual measurements of N2 O emissions from drained forested histosols in Sweden, we found a strong negative relationship between N 2 O emissions and soil CN ratios (r2adj = 0.96, mean annual N2 O emission = (-bCNratio) ). ae The same equation could be used to estimate the N2 O emissions from Finnish and German sites based on CN ratios in published data. We envisage that the correlation between N2 O emissions and CN ratios could be used to scale N2 O emissions from histosols determined at sampled sites to national levels. However, at low CN ratios (i.e. below 15-20) other parameters such as climate, pH and groundwater tables increase in importance as regulating factors affecting N2 O emissions. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. LANDFORMS Weathering and related landforms 1412 Climatic control on clay mineral formation: Evidence from weathering profiles developed on either side of the Western Ghats Deepthy R. and Balakrishnan S. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth and Planetary Sciences 2005 114/5 (545-556) Many physico-chemical variables like rock-type, climate, topography and exposure age affect weathering environments. In the present study, an attempt is made to understand how the nature of clay minerals formed due to weathering differs in tropical regions receiving high and low rainfall. Clay mineralogy of weathering profiles in west coast of India, which receives about 3 m rainfall through two monsoons and those from the inland rain-shadow zones (< 200 cm rainfall) are studied using X-ray diffraction technique. In the west coast, 1:1 clays (kaolinite) and Fe-Al oxides (gibbsite/goethite) are dominant clay minerals in the,weathering profiles while 2:1 clay minerals are absent or found only in trace amounts. Weathering profiles in the rain shadow region have more complex clay mineralogy and are dominated by 2:1 clays and kaolinite, Fe-Al oxides axe either less or absent in clay fraction. The kaolinite-smectite interstratified mineral in Banasandra profiles are formed due to transformation of smectites to kaolinite, which is indicative of a humid paleoclimate. In tropical regions receiving high rainfall the clay mineral assemblage remains the same irrespective of the parent rock type. Rainfall and availability of water apart from temperature, are the most important factors that determine kinetics of chemical weathering. Mineral alteration reactions proceed through different pathways in water rich and water poor environments. © Printed in India. Fluvial landforms 1413 Geomorphology and American dams: The scientific, social, and economic context Graf W.L. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (3-26) American geomorphologic research related to dams is embedded in a complicated context of science, policy, economics, and culture. Research into the downstream effects of large dams has progressed to the point of theory-building, but generalization and theory-building are from this research because (1) it is highly focused on a few locations, (2) it concerns mostly very large dams rather than a representative sample of sizes, (3) the available record of effects is too short to inform us on long-term changes, (4) the reversibility of changes imposed by dam installation and operation is unknown, and (5) coordinated funding for the needed research is scarce. In the scientific context, present research is embedded in a history of geomorphology in government service, with indistinct boundaries between "basic and applied" research. The federal policy that most strongly influences present geomorphological investigations connected with dams is related to 267 habitat for endangered species, because the biological aspects of ecosystems are directly dependent on the substrate formed by the sediments and landforms that are influenced by dams. The economic context for research includes large amounts of public funds for river restoration, along with substantial private investments in dams; and geomorphology is central to these expensive issues. The cultural context for research is highly contentious and dominated by advocacy procedures that include intense scrutiny of any geomorphologic research related to dams. Advocates are likely to use the products of geomorphological research to make cases for their own positions. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1414 Dams and geomorphology: Research progress and future directions Petts G.E. and Gurnell A.M. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (2747) Dams impose changes of flow and sediment transfer that drive changes of channel form along the downstream regulated river. These changes have been described for more than 50 years but process-form relationships have only been advanced with the establishment of a conceptual framework during the 1970s, and then the extension of monitoring data and advancement of remote sensing technologies, particularly over the past 20 years. This paper reviews these developments and identifies three influential themes: (i) channel dynamics, (ii) the role of riparian vegetation, and (iii) channel change as the driver of ecological change. Changes can be rapid in semi-arid regions but elsewhere relaxation periods may extend to millenia. In these latter cases regime or steady-state models should be replaced by models of transient states applied to the reach scale in order to respond to the needs of river managers over decadal timescales. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1415 The geomorphic influences of beaver dams and failures of beaver dams Butler D.R. and Malanson G.P. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (48-60) Uncounted millions of beaver ponds and dams existed in North America prior to European contact and colonization. These ponds acted as sediment traps that contained tens to hundreds of billions of cubic meters of sediment that would otherwise have passed through the fluvial system. Removal of beavers by overtrapping in the 16th-19th centuries severely reduced their number and the number of ponds and dams. Dam removal altered the fluvial landscape of North America, inducing sediment evacuation and entrenchment in concert with widespread reduction in the wetlands environments. Partial recovery of beaver populations in the 20th century has allowed reoccupation of the entirety of the pre-contact range, but at densities of only onetenth the numbers. Nevertheless, modern beaver ponds also trap large volumes of sediment in the high hundred millions to low billions of cubic meters range. Failure of beaver dams is a more common phenomenon than often as sumed in the literature. During the past 20 years, numerous cases of dam failure have been documented that resulted in outburst floods. These floods have been responsible for 13 deaths and numerous injuries, including significant impacts on railway lines. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1416 Effects of Jackson Lake Dam on the Snake River and its floodplain, Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming, USA Marston R.A., Mills J.D., Wrazien D.R. et al. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (79-98) In 1906, the Bureau of Reclamation created Jackson Lake Dam on the Snake River in what later became Grand Teton National Park. The geomorphic, hydrologic and vegetation adjustments downstream of the dam have yet to be documented. After a larger reservoir was completed further downstream in 1957, the reservoir release schedule from Jackson Lake Dam was changed in a manner that lowered the magnitude and frequency of floods. The stability of the Snake River exhibited a complex response to the change in flow regime. Close to major tributaries, the Snake River increased in total sinuosity and rates of lateral channel migration. Away from the influence of tributaries, the river experienced fewer avulsions and a decrease in sinuosity. Vegetation 268 LANDFORMS maps were constructed from 1945 and 1989 aerial photography and field surveys. Using these data, we determined how vegetation is directly related to the number of years since each portion of the floodplain was last occupied by the channel. The vegetation has changed from a flood-pulse dominated mosaic to a more terrestrial-like pattern of succession. Changes in the Snake River and its floodplain have direct implications on bald eagle habitat, moose habitat, fish habitat, safety of rafting and canoeing, and biodiversity at the community and species levels. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1417 Floodplain-river ecosystems: Fragmentation and water resources development Thoms M.C., Southwell M. and McGinness H.M. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (126-138) Floodplain-river ecosystems are natural fragmented systems because of periodic hydrological connections. The integrity of these ecosystems is thought to be dependent, in part, upon exchanges of energy and matter between patches, such as the main river channel, adjacent floodplain surface and other morphological features, during periods of connection. Flow regulation and its associated infrastructure change the natural character of fragmentation in floodplain-river ecosystems, and have important consequences for their overall productivity. This paper considers the influence of water resources development on the character of fragmentation in a large lowland river in SE Australia. Largescale water resources development in the Macintyre River, Australia, has significantly altered the spatial and temporal patterns of hydrological connections. The construction of weirs and other embankments on the lower Macintyre River floodplain prevents water movement through a series of anabranch channels thereby reducing the availability of these floodplain patches by 55%. In addition, because of flow regulation, hydrological connections to these channels occur up to 22% less often. Data are presented showing the impacts of these changes on the potential supply of dissolved organic carbon from the anabranch channels during periods of inundation over a 98-year period. Reductions of up to 98% of potential dissolved organic carbon supply from some anabranch channels were noted. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1418 Statistical analysis of lateral migration of the Rio Grande, New Mexico Richard G.A., Julien P.Y. and Baird D.C. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (139-155) The lateral migration rates of alluvial rivers are affected by changes in water and sediment regimes. The Rio Grande downstream from Cochiti Dam exhibits spatial and temporal variability in lateral movement rates documented since 1918. A tremendous database exists that documents planform, bed material size, channel geometry, and water and sediment regimes. A statistical analysis reveals that migration rates primarily decreased with decreasing flow energy (R2 > 0.50, p < 0.0001). The addition of a second parameter describing total channel width increased the explained variance to > 60%. The findings show that lateral movement increases with increasing flow energy and with degree of braiding. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1419 Equilibrium or indeterminate? Where sediment budgets fail: Sediment mass balance and adjustment of channel form, Green River downstream from Flaming Gorge Dam, Utah and Colorado Grams P.E. and Schmidt J.C. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (156181) This study examines bed and bank adjustment in the 105-km reach of the Green River immediately downstream from Flaming Gorge Dam by the use of historical aerial and oblique photographs, analysis of current and abandoned stream-gaging records, and field observations. Although this segment has been previously characterized as sediment deficient, these data show that sediment is accumulating in all reaches and that the bed has not degraded at any location where historical data are available. Adjustment is occurring through a combination of deposition of post-dam sediment and stabilization of pre-dam deposits, resulting in a 10-30% reduction in average width of the channel. All post-dam surfaces are colonized by woody riparian vegetation. The style of channel adjustment varies between geomorphically defined reaches. In canyons dominated by debris fans and gravelbedded restricted meandering reaches, gravel bars have become inactive and accumulated fine sediment. In the sand-bedded meandering reaches, existing islands have increased in size and new mid-channel islands have formed. In all of these types of reaches, post-dam deposits line the banks and sediment has accumulated in side-channels that previously separated islands from the bank. These findings demonstrate that sediment budgets that show a balance between inputs and outputs cannot necessarily be interpreted to indicate channel equilibrium. A sediment mass balance for 150-km reach between the dam and the first long-term gage indicates approximate balance of inputs and outputs for the pre- and post-dam periods. When uncertainty in budget components is considered, the mass balance is indeterminate. Although the Green River may have been in approximate equilibrium in the pre-dam period, we have shown that channel width is decreasing in the post-dam period. The post-dam deposits constitute a small but a significant component of the sediment budget upstream from the first major tributary. Sediment is supplied to this reach by small tributaries and, to a lesser extent, erosion of pre-dam alluvium. Downstream from the study area, the volume of the post-dam deposits is tiny relative to the volume of sediment input from the first major tributary. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1420 Potential sedimentation impacts related to dam removal: Icicle Creek, Washington, U.S.A Lorang M.S. and Aggett G. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (182201) A series of small dams were built in Icicle Creek in 1937 to facilitate the operations of Leavenworth National Fish Hatchery. However, several of those dams have been abandoned spurring recent discussions among local watershed conservation groups, as well as state and federal agencies, about removing the dams and the potential impact to the lower reaches of Icicle Creek due to elevated sedimentation. The objective of this study was to measure the total volume of sediment trapped behind the Icicle Creek dams and estimate the potential sedimentation impacts for the lower portion of Icicle Creek should the dams be removed. Another objective was to assess the ability of the river to flush the sediments and naturally restore the system to as close to its predam condition as possible. A flow-competence approach was used to assess the restoration potential of the river to do the work of flushing sediments and reestablishing the predam stream channel characteristics. A sediment probe, a total station, a GPS and aerial photographs were used to map out sediment deposits and measure their depths to determine sediment volumes. Grain size distributions from bed sediments, bars, islands and stream banks were used to assess potential downstream sedimentation impacts. The total volume of sediment trapped behind the dams was estimated at 36,000 m3 ( 4000 m3 ). The river has sufficient stream power to flush these sediments over 90% of its natural discharge regime. Controlled flushing of the trapped sediments over several years poses very little threat to the water quality and spawning habitats in the lower Icicle Creek scaled against natural flux rates. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1421 The evolution of gravel bed channels after dam removal: Case study of the Anaconda and Union City Dam removals Wildman L.A.S. and MacBroom J.G. Geomorphology 2005 71/12 (245-262) The Anaconda and Union City Dams on the Naugatuck River in Connecticut were removed in February and October 1999. A detailed study of the sites prior to removal was undertaken including sediment testing and predictions of upstream channel formation post-dam removal. The 3.35-m-high timber crib/rock fill spillway of the Anaconda Dam partially breached during a storm prior to the dam’s scheduled removal allowing a portion of the impounded sediment to move down through the river system. This event changed the removal plans and the remainder of the spillway was removed under an emergency order in the course of 4 days. The Union City Dam, a 2.44-m-high timber crib/rock fill dam capped with concrete and stone, was removed on schedule. A portion of the impounded sediment was removed by mechanical means during the deconstruction of the structure. LANDFORMS The evolution of the two upstream channels post-project provided unique challenges and valuable insights as to what kind of channel transition can be expected in gravel bed river systems after a low head dam has been removed. This paper describes the initial engineering analysis and design, the subsequent removal of the two dams, and compares observations on the transition of the upstream channels following dam removal to the initial engineering predictions and other models. The relatively steep gravel bed channels evolved in a predictable manner, except where anthropogenic barriers (sanitary sewer, rock weir) interrupted. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1422 Riverine landscape and geomorphology: Ecological implications and river management strategy Lehotsk´y M. and Greˇskov´a A. Ekologia Bratislava 2004 23/SUPPL. 1 (179-190) Traditionally, geographers and landscape ecologists have focused their attention on terrestrial systems (in Slovakia LANDEP, landscape potencial approach are examples) and rivers have been considered either as elements of landscape pattern as biocorridors or as units that are linked to the terrestrial landscape by flows across boundaries. We present the methodology of riverine landscape with accent to its geomorphic base. The concept of river connectivity and river continuum, hierarchy, flood-pulse and related telescoping concepts as well as channel sensitivity and natural capital value concepts are discussed. 1423 Case study: Modeling the lateral mobility of the Rio Grande below Cochiti dam, New Mexico Richard G.A., Julien P.Y. and Baird D.C. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2005 131/11 (931-941) The Cochiti reach of the Rio Grande served as a case study to test the hypothesis that the lateral mobility of an alluvial river decreases as the river approaches equilibrium. The lateral mobility of the river was measured using a geographic information system from digitized aerial photographs of the nonvegetated active channel between 1918 and 2001. Reach-averaged lateral mobility was quantified in terms of width change, lateral migration, and total lateral movement. By 2001, the width of the Cochiti Reach was close to the expected equilibrium width indicating that the river had adjusted to the incoming water and sediment load. An exponential equation based on deviation from equilibrium width described 95-96% of the variance in channel width, 7890% of variance in migration rates, and 92% of the variance in total lateral movement between 1918 and 1992. For validation of the model, the 2001 width and migration rates were predicted with errors as low as 19 and 8%, respectively. The exponential width model was also appliedto four other rivers that exhibited narrowing trends following dam construction and explained 8289% of the variance in width change on those rivers. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering © ASCE. 1424 Regional patterns of salt lake morphology in the lower Yarra Yarra drainage system of Western Australia Boggs D.A., Boggs G.S., Eliot I. and Knott B. Journal of Arid Environments 2006 64/1 (97-115) This paper examines the spatial variation of salt lake morphology in the lower Yarra Yarra drainage system of Western Australia. Shape, size (length and area), orientation and density of 4500 salt lakes were measured. Two main morphological groups were distinguished: small (<10 ha), elliptical to circular playas with a NNW-SSE orientation; and large (>30 ha), elongated playas. Intra-system variability in morphologic characteristics was notable. Regional patterns in lake size, shape and density distribution were markedly different between the west and east sides of the system. The boundary between the two sides coincides approximately with rainfall distribution. The Morawa sub-division in the west of the region was morphologically different from the remainder of the lower lacustrine system in that it had a predominance of small, elliptical playas and lacked a major playa. It was postulated that lake segmentation processes have been enhanced in this part of the system through a combination of local climate variation, the near-parallel orientation of the thalweg of the drainage system axis relative to prevailing winds, with possible topographical relief and geological influences. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 269 1425 The Oxaya anticline (northern Chile): A buckle enhanced by river incision? Zeilinger G., Schlunegger F. and Simpson G. Terra Nova 2005 17/4 (368-375) A prominent structure in the Western Escarpment of the Andes of northern Chile is the Oxaya anticline, dissected at the culmination by >1500 m deep valleys. The distribution of fault and fold structures indicates that the anticline could represent a simple buckle. Buckling thus appears to have accommodated crustal shortening in the plate overriding the subducting plate, between the trench and the Western Cordillera. Cross-cutting relationships between structures and dated strata indicated that the time interval of enhanced buckling coincides with the period when rates of valley formation were enhanced. We thus propose that the formation of this anticline was enhanced by fluvial incision, which is consistent with the results of published theoretical models. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1426 Recession rates of waterfalls in and upstream of the Tateno canyon, Aso volcano (Japanese) Hayakawa Y.S., Yokoyama S. and Matsukura Y. Chikei/Transactions, Japanese Geomorphological Union 2005 26/4 (439-449) Recession rates of two waterfalls, Ayugaeri Falls and Sugaru Falls, which are associated with the gorge formation of in the Tateno Canyon in the western part of the Aso caldera, are examined on the basis of the empirical equation after Hayakawa and Matsukura (2003). The waterfalls are postulated to have originated at a location out of the caldera as a waterfall which was formed around the front of the Akase lava erupted from the inside of the caldera. The initial waterfall receded about 2.8 km upstream forming the gorge to the present site of the confluence of the Shirakawa River and the Kurokawa River in the caldera. At the confluence, the waterfall bifurcated into two waterfalls which continued recession along the Shirakawa River and the Kurokawa River to the present locations of the Ayugaeri and Sugaru falls. The recession rates estimated from the equation are 0.086 m/y for Ayugaeri Falls and 0. 143 m/y for Sugaru Falls. The calculated time taken for the recession from the confluence to the present sites of the individual waterfalls is nearly equal: ca. 13,000 y, indicating that the bifurcation of the waterfalls occurred about 13,000 years ago. Rough estimation suggests that the time for the initial waterfall to recede the distance of 2.8 km is 14,00028,000 y, The total time of the waterfall recession from the start to the present location is thus 27,000-41,000 y, which is consistent with the age of the Akase lava flow (ca. 30,000 y). 1427 Gandak fan - A macro quaternary feature of middle Ganga plain, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar Prasad S. and Khan E.A. Journal of the Geological Society of India 2005 65/5 (597-608) Gandak fan, is a large lobate feature trending in NW-SE direction, restricted between the fluvial regimes of Little Gandak in the west and Burhi Gandak in the east, in parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh and north Bihar. It is characterised by distinct geomorphology, manifested by clusters of tals, palaeochannels, oxbow lakes and spill over channels left out by a past history of river migration and flash floods of Gandak and its predecessors. The terrain is characterised by wide spread drapes of newer alluvium sediments locally known as Bhat Alluvium forming a calcareous, fine sandy to silty soil. Granulometric properties of the sand sequence associated with this unit indicate dominance of very fine grained sand with median value of 3.0 phi. The clay mineral study of this soil unit indicates preponderance of calcite mineral (30%) besides illite, chlorite and muscovite. Based on the analysis and synthesis of data, an attempt has been made to interpret the morphology of Gandak fan and the genesis of widespread occurrences of Bhat Alluvium of this region. The model envisaged for the formation of the fan dwells on possible cataclasmic neotectonic events related to Gandak Tear and other structures in the vicinity. The neotectonic event triggered widespread river migration/avulsion and cascades of mud flows released from breach and spill over of some large lacustrine bodies formed earlier by damming of the river course in the Jhawani Valley in upstream of Gandak catchment area in Nepal. In addition, the geological and geomorphological set up of Gandak Fan has also 270 LANDFORMS relevance to environmental scenario of the area especially to the perpetual floods in large tracts of north Bihar. It is also surmised th at the cascades of mudflows related in the formation of fan and rampant floods in the area might be the causative factors for burial of many important temples and monasteries of Buddhist period, such as Kushinagar, Vaishali, Lauria, etc. © Geol. Soc. India. Coastal landforms 1428 Phytolith assemblages as indicators of coastal environmental changes and hurricane overwash deposition Lu H.- Y. and Liu K.- B. Holocene 2005 15/7 (965-972) We demonstrate that phytolith assemblages are a useful proxy for reconstructing coastal environmental changes and for validating the overwash origin of sand layers in palaeotempestology studies. Phytolith analysis was conducted on 50 topsoil or surface sediment samples collected from a variety of coastal plant communities or depositional environments in the southeastern USA. The data suggest that different coastal subenvironments can be distinguished by their modern phytolith assemblages. For example, coastal marsh samples contain a diverse phytolith assemblage dominated by smooth-elongate and square morpho-types and maritime forest samples are dominated by phytoliths from palms and broadleaf dicotyledonous plants. Remarkably, the phytolith assemblages from sand dunes are characterized by high percentages of two-horned-tower, flat-tower, spool/horned-tower and short-saddle types. Phytolith analysis of three prehistoric sand layers in a sediment core from Western Lake, northwestern Florida, shows that they contain a phytolith assemblage similar to those characteristic of sand dunes and interdune meadows. These observations are confirmed by the results of principal components analysis and discriminant analysis on the modern and fossil phytolith data sets. Our study results support the interpretation that the sand layers in Western Lake were indeed formed by the erosion of sand dunes during overwash processes caused by landfalling catastrophic hurricanes. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1429 Persistence of storm-induced morphology on a modal low-energy beach: A case study from NW-Iberian Peninsula Costas S., Alejo I., Vila- Concejo A. and Nombela M.A. Marine Geology 2005 224/1-4 (43-56) The morphology of low-energy beaches is inherited from highenergy events showing a non equilibrium state with the prevailing conditions. An example of a sheltered, low-energy beach (Rodas Beach, NW-Iberian Peninsula) is examined in this paper. The evolution of six beach profiles was analysed during three years in order to investigate the response of this beach under fair-weather and storm conditions. The beach presented significant morphological differences alongshore due to its geographical location with respect to the wave approach. These differences determined the sediment transfer pattern (longshore or cross-shore sediment transport) from the emerged beach towards the adjacent inner shoreface zone. Significant morphological changes at each profile seem to be related to the incidence of sea waves along the beach superimposed on persistent swell during winter. Morphological changes were recorded under high-energy storms, during winter, whereas the recovery to prestorm conditions occurred under prevailing fair weather conditions, during summer. The traditional beach classification parameter Relative Tidal Range (RTR), which takes into account the effect of the tide range, was found unsuitable to properly classify such a mesotidal low-energy beach. Therefore, a new parameter, the Relative Tidal Range Maximum (RTRmax) was introduced, which is a modification of the commonly used RTR. RTRmax uses the highest wave breaking height, observed during high-energy storm conditions, instead of the modal wave breaking height. By using this parameter, the studied beach could be properly classified into the traditional beach classification models taking into account the tide range. Since low-energy beaches generally show a morphology that is inherited from higher energy conditions than the prevailing conditions, it is expected that the RTRmax will be applicable for the classification of other low-energy sheltered beaches. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1430 Barrier formation on an actively prograding delta system: The Red River Delta, Vietnam Van Maren D.S. Marine Geology 2005 224/1-4 (123-143) An extensive barrier-spit system 20 to 30 km long developed on the delta front platform of the Ba lat Delta within a relatively short period (10-20 years). However, it was not evident whether the formation was related to river floods, typhoons or calm weather conditions, or to cross-shore or alongshore sediment transport mechanisms. Therefore a process-based numerical model that simulates sediment transport and morphologic changes by waves, tides, wind, and river flow, is used to analyze the processes that govern this barrier formation. The mechanism that initiates the barrier formation is concluded to be onshore transport by wave asymmetry of sediment previously transported seaward in the buoyant river plume. The main mechanism that counteracts the barrier formation is probably destruction of the barrier by river flow. During the subsequent transformation from a subaqueous barrier into a sub-aerial barrier-spit system, overwashes and alongshore sediment transport become increasingly important. This spit system therefore appears to be dominated by alongshore processes, even though its initial formation is more strongly regulated by cross-shore processes. The importance of cross-shore processes results in a minor contribution of typhoons to the initial formation of these barriers. Typhoons are not very important to destruction of barriers as well, because wave energy is gradually dissipated over the gentle offshore profile, which in turn results from river plume sedimentation. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1431 Fetch limited barrier islands of Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay Lewis D.A., Cooper J.A.G. and Pilkey O.H. Southeastern Geology 2005 44/1 (1-17) Barrier islands within bays, lagoons, estuaries and other protected waters have never been the subject of systematic research on a large scale. Within both the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, barrier islands are numerous and widely distributed. Totaling more than 300 in number, these fetch limited barrier islands exhibit a range of morphologies uncommon along open ocean shorelines. We group the barrier islands in the two bays into three primary categories based on their morphology and location. In general, they are much shorter (
km), narrower (<25m), and lower (1-2m) than their open ocean analogs, yet they behave in much the same way in their response to oceanographic processes. The greatest difference between ocean and bay barriers is the strong control of evolutionary processes by vegetation, usually salt marsh, in the bays. 1432 The impact of Hurricane Georges (September 28, 1998) across Dauphin Island, Alabama Froede Jr. C.R. Southeastern Geology 2005 44/1 (45-51) On the morning of September 28, 1998, Hurricane Georges (a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale) made landfall between the towns of Ocean Springs and Biloxi, Mississippi. Passing well to the west of Dauphin Island, the storm still impacted the island with wind speeds up to 129 km/hr (a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale). This resulted in substantial changes along the island’s gulf side. The eastern end of the island experienced a storm surge along with accompanying storm waves that easily overtopped the swash zone berm crest. Storm waves washed tens of meters landward and flattened the beach profile. Much of the western end of the island was completely overwashed by storm waves. As of early 2005, natural shoreline processes have not restored the pre-storm beach profile or returned the swash zone to its former position. Tropical storms and hurricanes that impact the island reveal its vulnerability and dependence on regular sand nourishment. Hurricane Georges exposed the fragile nature and precarious setting of Dauphin Island in the Gulf of Mexico. LANDFORMS 1433 Contribution of simulations on historical bathymetries to the understanding of evolutions of estuarine sand banks (French) (Apports de la mod´elisation sur bathym´etries historiques dans la compr´ehension des e´ volutions des bancs de sable estuariens) Bertin X. and Chaumillon E. Comptes Rendus - Geoscience 2005 337/15 (1375-1383) Formation and evolution of estuarine sand ridges are some of the less well known among the different classes of sand banks. Simulation of tides and related sand bedload transport on historical bathymetries brings new insights about the secular evolution of two estuarine sand ridges (the Saint-Georges and the ‘Longe de Boyard’ sand banks, Atlantic coast of France). Two different mechanisms are involved in order to explain the evolutions of these banks, suggesting the category of estuarine sand banks to be less homogenous than it is proposed in the last classifications of sand banks. © 2005 Acad´emie des sciences. Publi´e par Elservier SAS. Tous droits r´eserv´es. Arid landforms 1434 Preliminary assessment of sand dune stability along a bioclimatic gradient, North-Central and Northwestern Oklahoma Cordova C.E., Porter J.C., Lepper K. et al. Great Plains Research 2005 15/2 (227-249) Sandhills of eolian origin and currently active dunes in Oklahoma are located mainly on the northern side of the main rivers. Their longitudinal distribution spans a gradient of annual precipitation ranging from 914 mm in the east to 403 mm in the west. Vegetation types along this gradient include cross-timbers woodlands in the east and sand-sage and short grasses in the west. The information presented here is a preliminary assessment of sand dune dynamics and morphology, soils, and vegetation as the basis for an ongoing study on past and present processes of sand dune stability. For this purpose, six areas along the east-west precipitation gradient were selected to evaluate potential sources of information. Pedostratigraphic data were used to reconstruct prehistoric landscape-change events and sequential aerial photographs were used to reconstruct modern processes affecting sand dune stability in the context of climate change and human agency. © Copyright by the Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. 1435 Aeolian sand depositional records from Western Nebraska: Landscape response to droughts in the past 1500 years Forman S.L., Marn L., Pierson J. et al. Holocene 2005 15/7 (973-981) The Great Plains is dominated by presently stabilized dune fields that are indicators of extreme drought in the late Holocene. This study focused on deciphering the timing of reactivation of dunes in western Nebraska. Stratigraphy adjacent to dune-dammed lakes reveals aeolian sand separated by palaeosols, indicating mobilization of aeolian sand followed by landscape stability. The chronology of aeolian-sand depositional events is constrained using the luminescence-based, single aliquot regeneration method, providing resolution to relate dune movement to tree-ring and palaeolimnologic records of drought. There are at least a six aeolian depositional events in the past 1500 years, with apparent mean ages of 1390 130, 670 70, 470 40, 240 40, 140 20 and 70 10 yr. All study sites show evidence for aeolian accumulation in the twentieth century, potentially reflecting the 1930s drought. Significant aeolian activity is coincident with the tree-ring-identified sixteenth-century megadrought, indicating widespread landscape impacts. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1436 Late Pleistocene eolian history of the Liwa region, Arabian Peninsula Stokes S. and Bray H.E. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 2005 117/11-12 (1466-1480) The Liwa region of the United Arab Emirates is one of the most distinctive geomorphological features of the Rub Al Khali desert of southern Arabia. Characterized by a sharp crescentic boundary 271 coincident with a N-S elevation drop of
65 m with the transverse ridges in Al Qˆafa to the north, Liwa is an area of some of the world’s largest megabarchan dunes. Deep drilling of continuous cores has provided an opportunity to observe the internal structure and age of these two ergs. Subsurface stratigraphy is complex, reflecting rapid facies transitions between dune and interdune sub-environments. Most of the cored sediment is dominated by cross-bedded and structureless sand units of inferred eolian (transverse dune) depositional origin. A total of 56 optical ages for sand-sized quartz grains extracted from these cores provide a chronological framework for deposition of the late Quaternary ergs. A marine isotope stage (MIS) 5 erg is identified north of the Liwa crescent in the Al Qˆafa region, which reaches vertical thicknesses >100 m. A MIS 1 erg in the form of megabarchan dunes is recorded south of the Liwa crescent. This was deposited on a pre-MIS 5 land surface, since ca. 6 ka, over a period of just a few thousand years. Contemporary bypassing of eolian sands via superimposed dunes in both Al Qˆafa and Liwa appears to be in equilibrium with the current wind regime. A consideration of a variety of factors that control the availability, mobilization, and preservation of eolian sediments and resulting bedforms leads us to infer that the system is not sediment-supply or transport limited. Instead, the system is preservation limited, being controlled by a correlated combination of sea level and precipitation. Both of these factors are strongly linked to global climate variations in the eccentricity (ca. 100 ka) band. Paradoxically, the bulk of the preserved record of eolian activity in the southern Arabian Peninsula occurs within relatively humid interglacial phases rather than arid intervals. Evidence of eolian deposition during arid phases may not for the most part be preserved in large areas of the sand sea. Observed contrasts in the preserved record of eolian activity between Al Qˆafa and Liwa, and the Wahiba Sand Sea, may in part relate to contrasting eolian bedform morphology. © 2005 Geological Society of America. Regional physiography 1437 Palaeo-environment reconstruction from the geomorphological context of four archaeological sites on the East-Lyonnais plain (Rhˆone, France) (French) (Reconstitution pal´eoenvironnementale a` partir du contexte g´eomorphologique de quatre sites arch´eologiques de la plaine de l’est Lyonnais (Rhˆone, France)) Franc O. Quaternaire 2005 16/2 (95-105) The East-Lyonnais plain, where glaciers have spread debris to form either morainic hills covered with loess or fluvioglacial terraces, has been inhabited by Man from the Mesolithic period to Antiquity. On the hills, where we can see some undulations, an interesting stratigraphy is developed with pedogenesis, colluviums and anthropological impact on the environment. The signatures of these processes are analysed by means of sedimentologic and micromorphologic surveys, methods used as arguments to intepret this kind of stratigraphy. A palaeo-environment reconstruction, supported by radio-carbon and archaelogical dating, is thus proposed for four sites on two of the morainic hills. In conclusion, the thickness of the endorheic depression infill, at different periods, seems to depend on man-made pressure rather than climatic considerations. 1438 Geomorphological and geological studies for Bangladesh: A review (Japanese) Takagi T., Oguchi T., Zaiki M. and Matsumoto J. Chikei/Transactions, Japanese Geomorphological Union 2005 26/4 (405-422) Rapid geomorphological changes mainly due to fluvial processes have been uccurring in Bangladesh despite its very flat topography. This observation reflects its location in the downstream areas of the two large rivers: Ganges and Brahmaputra, with their upstream areas being subjected to abundant rainfall. Fluvial systems in Bangladesh are quite complex, because the meandering Ganges and the braided Brahmaputra merges in the center of the country, and southern plains are prone to tide-related processes. Despite such interesting geomorphological settings, detailed scientific studies on landforms and sediments in Bangladesh have 272 LANDFORMS only been activated since the 1990s, because of political chaos in the earlier decades and a limited number of researchers within the country. It is necessary to extend recent studies to better understand the geomorphology of the country. This paper reviews the history and contents of geomorphological and geological studies for Bangladesh, to facilitate future progress of relevant research. Although this paper intends to cover a wide range of topics, special attention is directed toward fluvial geomorphology in relation to frequent large floods, which significantly affect people’s life in Bangladesh. Neotectonics and structural control 1439 Late Quaternary systematic stream offsets caused by repeated large seismic events along the Kunlun fault, northern Tibet Fu B., Awata Y., Du J. and He W. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (278-292) The Kunlun fault is one of the largest strike-slip faults in northern Tibet, China. In this paper, we focus upon the Kusai LakeKunlun Pass segment of the fault to understand the geomorphic development of offset streams caused by repeated large seismic events, based on tectono-geomorphic analysis of high-resolution satellite remote sensing images combined with field studies. The results indicate that systematic left-lateral stream offsets appear at various scales across the fault zone: Lateral offsets of small gullies caused by the 2001 Mw 7.8 Kunlun earthquake vary typically from 3 m to 6 m, meanwhile streams with cumulative offsets of 10 m, 25-30 m, 50-70 m, 250-300 m and 750-1400 m have resulted from repeated large seismic events during the late Quaternary. An average slip rate of 10 1 mm/year has been estimated from the lateral stream offsets and 14 C ages of alluvial fan surfaces incised by the streams. A three-dimensional model showing tectono-geomorphic features along a left-lateral strikeslip fault is also presented. The Kusai Lake-Kunlun Pass segment provides an opportunity to understand the relationship between geomorphic features produced by individual large seismic events and long-term geomorphic development caused by repeated large seismic events along a major strike-slip fault. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1440 Regional relief characteristics and denudation pattern of the western Southern Alps, New Zealand Korup O., Schmidt J. and McSaveney M.J. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (402-423) The Southern Alps of New Zealand are the topographic expression of active oblique continental convergence of the Australian and Pacific plates. Despite inferred high rates of tectonic and climatic forcing, the pattern of differential uplift and erosion remains uncertain. We use a 25-m DEM to conduct a regional-scale relief analysis of a 250-km long strip of the western Southern Alps (WSA). We present a preliminary map of regional erosion and denudation by overlaying mean basin relief, a modelled stream-power erosion index, river incision rates, historic landslide denudation rates, and landslide density. The interplay between strong tectonic and climatic forcing has led to relief production that locally attains
2 km in major catchments, with mean values of 0.65-0.68 km. Interpolation between elevations of major catchment divides indicates potential removal of l01 103 km3 , or a mean basin relief of 0.51-0.85 km in the larger catchments. Local relief and inferred river incision rates into bedrock are highest about 50-67% of the distance between the Alpine fault and the main divide. The mean regional relief variability is 0.5 km. Local relief, valley cross-sectional area, and catchment width correlate moderately with catchment area, and also reach maximum values between the range front and the divide. Hypsometric integrals show scale dependence, and together with hypsometric curves, are insufficient to clearly differentiate between glacial and fluvial dominated basins. Mean slope angle in the WSA ( = 30°) is lower where major longitudinal valleys and extensive ice cover occur, and may be an insensitive measure of regional relief. Modal slope angle is strikingly uniform throughout the WSA ( = 38-40°), and may record adjustment to runoff and landsliding. Both  and  show non-linear relationships with elevation, which we attribute to dominant geomorphic process domains, such as fluvial processes in lowaltitude valley trains, surface runoff and frequent landsliding on montane hillslopes, "relief dampening" by glaciers, and rock fall/avalanching on steep main-divide slopes. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1441 Magmatic and tectonic history of Iceland’s western rift zone at Lake Thingvallavatn Bull J.M., Minshull T.A., Mitchell N.C. et al. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 2005 117/11-12 (1451-1465) High rates of Holocene sedimentation in a lake spanning the Thingvellir rift zone of western Iceland provide an unusual opportunity to study the interaction of tectonic and magmatic processes on time scales of thousands of years. Lake Thingvallavatn is oriented SW-NE, parallel to the trend of normal faults and fissures, which extend northeast from Hengill, a central volcano system. Thingvallavatn’s lake sediments provide a continuous high-fidelity record of tectono-magmatic processes. Chirp subbottom profiler and sidescan records, together with sediment core information, enabled us to improve constraints on lake stratigraphy since the emplacement of a postglacial lava at 9.1 0.3 ka. This lava, together with three younger horizons, enabled detailed study of the main tectonic and magmatic events. A major Hengill volcanic event, which controlled the development of the present-day lake morphology, occurred at 1.9 ka, with the eruption of a scoria cone within the lake (Sandey). During this event, the Nesjahraun lava was erupted into the southern part of the lake, the Sandey scoria cone was formed, and major faulting and subsidence occurred in the northern part of the lake, resulting in the formation of an asymmetrical rift. Within the southern part of the lake, a deformed sequence of sediments aged 2.9-1.5 ka, between undeformed younger and older sediments, indicates that liquefaction phenomena are associated with the emplacement of the Nesjahraun lava. Analysis of fault displacement reveals that the total throw summed over all faults across the width of the rift zone is approximately constant (110-130 m) along the long axis of the rift. We estimate an extension rate on the faults of 3.3-8.2 mm yr-1 since 9.1 ka, assuming fault dips of 60-75°, which represents 17%-43% of the total plate boundary extension estimated from global plate motion inversion. We speculate that the remaining extension must either be taken up elsewhere in Iceland, for example in the eastern rift zone or along the South Iceland seismic zone, or that extension estimated over the last 9 k.y. underestimates the long-term extension rate due to incomplete sampling of the episodic magmatic component. © 2005 Geological Society of America. 1442 Recognition of past earthquakes along the Sparta fault (Peloponnesus, southern Greece) during the Holocene, by combining results of different dating techniques Papanastassiou D., Gaki- Papanastassiou K. and Maroukian H. Journal of Geodynamics 2005 40/2-3 (189-199) Sparta fault is an impressive landform, located on the eastern front of Taygetos mountain, southern Greece. Detailed morphotectonic observations on this fault suggest that it should be active at least since Early Quaternary. However, according to the current seismological knowledge, this region is characterized by very low seismicity. The only reported earthquake to have occurred in this area is that of 464 b. c., a destructive event that devastated the whole city of Sparta. In order to get information on the occurrence of past earthquakes during the Holocene, results of different independent dating works that have performed along the Sparta fault were used. These researchers confirm the existence not only of the 464 B.C. earthquake but also of several more that occurred at ca. 3900 b. c., 2500 B.C. and 2000 B.C., 550 A.D. and 1000 A.D. The events that occurred at 2500 and 464 B.C. should correspond to major events of magnitude of the order of 7, which ruptured the entire length of the fault, while these at 3900 B.C., 2000 B.C., 550 A.D. and 1000 A.D., to smaller events of magnitude 6-6.5. The return periods of strong earthquakes along the Sparta fault is estimated to be around 2000 years, but within these periods events of smaller magnitude that ruptured segments of the fault have also occurred. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. LANDFORMS 1443 Neotectonic map of Syria and some aspects of Late Cenozoic evolution of the northwestern boundary zone of the Arabian plate Rukieh M., Trifonov V.G., Dodonov A.E. et al. Journal of Geodynamics 2005 40/2-3 (235-256) The neotectonic map of Syria, 1:500,000, was compiled by the authors in 2003-2004. The map shows tectonic features formed or continued to develop during the Neogene and Quaternary in Syria and adjacent territories, including the Mediterranean realm. The neotectonic structure of the region was formed as a result of three phases of deformation. During the Early Miocene first phase, the Arabian plate moved along the Dead Sea-Jordan segments of the Levant (Dead Sea) transform fault zone, Roum fault and its continuation in the continental slope of the Mediterranean. The chain of the coastal anticlines in the "Arabian" side of the transform zone and the Lattaqie oblique (sinistral-thrust) boundary fault zone in the north were formed under the NNW-trending compression. The Lattaqie zone continued by the Cyprus arc in the west and by the Taurus (Bitlis) thrust in the east and further by the Main Thrust of the Zagros. After "quiet" (for Syria) epoch of the Middle Miocene when the Arabian plate moved to the NE, during the Late Miocene second phase of deformation, the Arabian plate moved again to the NNW along the same transform boundary. But a part of the Late Miocene plate motion (up to 20 km) resulted by shortening in the Anti-Leban-Palmyride foldthrust belt that separated the Aleppo block from the main part of the Arabian plate. During the Pliocene-Quaternary third phase of deformation, the recent structural pattern of the Levant zone was formed in Lebanon and the northwestern Syria. At the same time, the Serghaya and smaller sinistral faults branched out the Levant zone and the system of the W-E-trending convex to the south dextral faults ruptured the Palmyrides and the stable part of the Arabian plate. The total Pliocene-Quaternary sinistral offset on the young Levant zone segments and the associated faults has reached 35-40 km, like on the Dead Sea-Jordan segments of the Levant fault zone. The faults, demonstrating the PlioceneQuaternary activity are still active now and represent the main seismic zones in Syria. Offsets on them are mostly a cumulative effect of strong earthquakes. © 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. 1444 Paleoseismology in Venezuela: Objectives, methods, applications, limitations and perspectives Audemard M. F.A. Tectonophysics 2005 408/1-4 (29-61) The privileged location of Venezuela along an active interplate deformation belt, despite of being a "so-called" developing country, has led to a long paleoseismic tradition as attested by 45 trench assessments since 1968. Since then, a first 2-trench study was carried out by the American Woodward-Clyde company across the Oca fault at Sinamaica. Since 1980, all further paleoseismic studies have been performed by FUNVISIS and the Uribante-Caparo hydroelectric project (southern M´erida Andes) became their first assessment where 22 huge trenches were bulldozer-dug. Except for these Compa˜na An´onima de Administraci´on y Fomento El´ectrico (CADAFE) financed trenches and two others, all other assessments were for Petr´oleos de Venezuela S. A. -PDVSA-. In this paper, geographic and geologic factors, as well as logistic limitations, conditioning success in paleoseismic studies by trenching, shall be discussed based on the Venezuelan experience developed over the years. The scientific contribution of this approach refer to: confirmation of Holocene fault activity, slip-per-event and average slip rate of a given fault (or segment), seismic potential (repeat of maximum credible earthquakes) of known faults, fault segmentation, fault interaction as consequence of stress loading by stick-slip on contiguous faults, time-space distribution of seismic activity along a given tectonic feature, seismotectonic association of historical earthquakes and landscape evolution on the short term and its implications on the long-term evolution (poorly discussed since this is really part of the field of Neotectonics). In recent years (since 1999), a new approach has been introduced in Venezuela consisting in complementing the seismic history derived from trenching studies with the evaluation of seismically induced perturbations in the continuous Quaternary sedimentary record of (either active or fossil) lakes. The future of this discipline in Venezuela heads to more trenching and lake coring in order to gather more data on the previously mentioned aspects. Other paleoseismic approaches have been developed very little in Venezuela since either climate 273 or the geodynamic setting do not favor their application. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1445 Some considerations concerning seismic geomorphology and paleoseismology Dramis F. and Blumetti A.M. Tectonophysics 2005 408/1-4 (177191) Seismic geomorphology studies landforms which developed in connection with earthquakes. Among them, two different end members may be distinguished: 1) seismo-tectonic landforms, including surface faults and fractures, land uplift and subsidence at different scales, surface bulges, elongate ridges, and any other permanent ground deformations directly related to tectonic stress, and 2) seismo-gravitational landforms, such as landslides, deepseated gravitational slope deformations, sinkholes, and fissures due to sediment compaction or liquefaction and sand blows, connected with both seismic shaking and gravitational stress. A clear-cut distinction between the two categories of landforms is not always easy to make (and in many instances not really useful), while there are, in many cases, ground effects that might be (and should be) considered as simultaneous combinations of seismo-tectonic and seismo-gravitational processes. This applies especially to surface fracturing and faulting which could be the combined result of tectonic stress, stress produced by seismic shaking, and gravitational stress. The objective of this paper is to review selected case histories mainly from Italy and the Mediterranean region, in order to show the importance of a comprehensive study of earthquake-generated landforms for understanding the seismicity level of the area under investigation. We argue that in earthquake prone areas, seismic landforms often constitute typical patterns (seismic landscapes) whose recognition, mapping and paleoseismological analysis may help in the evaluation of seismic hazards. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Landforms of other planets 1446 Stratigraphy and sedimentology of a dry to wet eolian depositional system, Burns formation, Meridiani Planum, Mars Grotzinger J.P., Arvidson R.E., Bell III J.F. et al. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005 240/1 (11-72) Outcrop exposures of sedimentary rocks at the Opportunity landing site (Meridiani Planum) form a set of genetically related strata defined here informally as the Burns formation. This formation can be subdivided into lower, middle, and upper units which, respectively, represent eolian dune, eolian sand sheet, and mixed eolian sand sheet and interdune facies associations. Collectively, these three units are at least 7 m thick and define a "wetting-upward" succession which records a progressive increase in the influence of groundwater and, ultimately, surface water in controlling primary depositional processes. The Burns lower unit is interpreted as a dry dune field (though grain composition indicates an evaporitic source), whose preserved record of large-scale cross-bedded sandstones indicates either superimposed bedforms of variable size or reactivation of leeside slip faces by episodic (possibly seasonal) changes in wind direction. The boundary between the lower and middle units is a significant eolian deflation surface. This surface is interpreted to record eolian erosion down to the capillary fringe of the water table, where increased resistance to wind-induced erosion was promoted by increased sediment cohesiveness in the capillary fringe. The overlying Burns middle unit is characterized by finescale planar-laminated to low-angle-stratified sandstones. These sandstones accumulated during lateral migration of eolian impact ripples over the flat to gently undulating sand sheet surface. In terrestrial settings, sand sheets may form an intermediate environment between dune fields and interdune or playa surfaces. The contact between the middle and upper units of the Burns formation is interpreted as a diagenetic front, where recrystallization in the phreatic or capillary zones may have occurred. The upper unit of the Burns formation contains a mixture of sand sheet facies and interdune facies. Interdune facies include wavy bedding, irregular lamination with convolute bedding and 274 LANDFORMS possible small tepee or salt-ridge structures, and cm-scale festoon cross-lamination indicative of shallow subaqueous flows marked by current velocities of a few tens of cm/s. Most likely, these currents were gravity-driven, possibly unchannelized flows resulting from the flooding of interdune/ playa surfaces. However, evidence for lacustrine sedimentation, including mudstones or in situ bottom-growth evaporites, has not been observed so far at Eagle and Endurance craters. Mineralogical and elemental data indicate that the eolian sandstones of the lower and middle units, as well as the subaqueous and eolian deposits of the Burns upper unit, were derived from an evaporitic source. This indirectly points to a temporally equivalent playa where lacustrine evaporites or ground-water-generated efflorescent crusts were deflated to provide a source of sand-sized particles that were entrained to form eolian dunes and sand sheets. This process is responsible for the development of sulfate eolianites at White Sands, New Mexico, and could have provided a prolific flux of sulfate sediment at Meridiani. Though evidence for surface water in the Burns formation is mostly limited to the upper unit, the associated sulfate eolianites provide strong evidence for the critical role of groundwater in controlling sediment production and stratigraphic architecture throughout the formation. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Slopes 1447 Slope movements as a disturbance agent increasing heterogeneity and biodiversity of landscape in Eastern Moravia Kirchner K. and Lacina J. Ekologia Bratislava 2004 23/SUPPL. 1 (94-103) The paper is devoted to the characterisation of complex relations between vegetation cover and slope movements, especially sliding, in the Vsetn region in the eastern Moravia. The area is a part of highland flysch relief of the Outer Western Carpathians, where the extreme rainfall of July 1997 activated a lot of slope deformations. It was recognised on the basis of biogeographic (geobiocoenologic) and geomorphic investigations of 20 study sites that landslides originate in various potential as well as actual vegetation types. The process of sliding alters the ecological conditions of the site which results to the change of the geobiocoen type; slope movements as a disturbance agent increase the landscape heterogeneity and biodiversity. 1448 An attempt to refine rockfall hazard zoning based on the kinetic energy, frequency and fragmentation degree Jaboyedoff M., Dudt J.P. and Labiouse V. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 2005 5/5 (621-632) Rockfall hazard zoning is usually achieved using a qualitative estimate of hazard, and not an absolute scale. In Switzerland, danger maps, which correspond to a hazard zoning depending on the intensity of the considered phenomenon (e.g. kinetic energy for rockfalls), are replacing hazard maps. Basically, the danger grows with the mean frequency and with the intensity of the rockfall. This principle based on intensity thresholds may also be applied to other intensity threshold values than those used in Switzerland for rockfall hazard zoning method, i.e. danger mapping. In this paper, we explore the effect of slope geometry and roc kfall frequency on the rockfall hazard zoning. First, the transition from 2D zoning to 3D zoning based on rockfall trajectory simulation is examined; then, its dependency on slope geometry is emphasized. The spatial extent of hazard zones is examined, showing that limits may vary widely depending on the rockfall frequency. This approach is especially dedicated to highly populated regions, because the hazard zoning has to be very fine in order to delineate the greatest possible territory containing acceptable risks. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1449 The Influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on rainfall triggering of landslides near Lisbon Trigo R.M., Zˆezere J.L., Rodrigues M.L. and Trigo I.F. Natural Hazards 2005 36/3 (331-354) The majority of landsliding episodes in the area north of Lisbon are associated with rainfall events of short (less than 5 days) medium (5-20 days) or long duration (more than 20 days). The precipitation regime in Portugal is highly irregular, with large differences between wet and dry years. We have assessed the impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) on both the winter precipitation and the timing and magnitude of associated landslide events. Results show that the large inter-annual variability of winter precipitation is largely modulated by the NAO mode. The precipitation composite corresponding to high NAO index presents a considerable lower median value (47 mm/month) than the corresponding low NAO index class (134 mm/month). The entire precipitation distribution associated with the low NAO index composite encompasses a wider range of values than the corresponding high NAO index composite. This non-linear behavior is reflected in the probability of occurrence of a very wet month (precipitation above the 90% percentile) that is just 1% for the positive NAO class and 23% for low NAO index months. Results for the low NAO class are crucial because these months are more likely associated with long-lasting rainfall episodes responsible for large landslide events. This is confirmed by the application of a 3-month moving average to both NAO index and precipitation time series. This procedure allowed the identification of many months with landslide activity as being characterized by negative average values of the NAO index and high values of average precipitation (above 100 mm/month). Finally, using daily data we have computed the return periods associated with the entire set of landslide episodes and, based on these results, obtained a strong linear relationship between critical cumulative rainfall and the corresponding critical rainfall event duration. © Springer 2005. 1450 Case history of landslide movement during the Northridge earthquake Pradel D., Smith P.M., Stewart J.P. and Raad G. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 2005 131/11 (1360-1369) We document a case history of Northridge earthquake induced movement of a coherent landslide mass comprised principally of weathered, previously sheared siltstone. Information on the residual shear strength of the material through which the sliding occurred is available both from backanalysis of a static (rainfall-induced) failure on the same slope and laboratory test data. Postearthquake field reconnaissance data establishes the seismic slope displacements near the slope crest. A yield coefficient is estimated for the slope based on residual shear strengths and measured groundwater levels at the time of the Northridge earthquake. This yield coefficient is used with four horizontal equivalent acceleration time histories (that approximate the seismic demand within the slide mass) in Newmark sliding block displacement analyses. The calculated displacements range from approximately 20 to 90 mm, which compares well with observed displacements at the slide scarp of approximately 50 mm. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering © ASCE. 1451 Reliability analysis of unsaturated soil slopes Sivakumar Babu G.L. and Murthy D.S.N. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 2005 131/11 (14231428) Many soil slopes are unsaturated in their initial state, and suction contributes to initial stability. Stability of these slopes decreases as suction decreases with time due to rainfall infiltration and water redistribution. Many of the parameters in the assessment of stability are highly variable. In this technical note, sensitivity/reliability analysis of design variables for a typical unsaturated soil slope is conducted. Sensitivity analysis shows that suction parameters have significant influence on the stability. Reliability computations performed for the slope considered show that failure zones are better captured by the reliability index than the conventional factor of safety. The study also shows that variation of saturated hydraulic conductivity significantly influences slope reliability. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering © ASCE. 1452 On the use of Saint Venant equations to simulate the spreading of a granular mass Mangeney- Castelnau A., Bouchut F., Vilotte J.P. et al. Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth 2005 110/9 (1-17) LANDFORMS Cliff collapse is an active geomorphological process acting at the surface of the Earth and telluric planets. Recent laboratory studies have investigated the collapse of an initially cylindrical granular mass along a rough horizontal plane for different initial aspect ratios a = Hi /Ri , where Hi and Ri are the initial height and radius, respectively. A numerical simulation of these experiments is performed using a minimal depth-integrated model based on a long-wave approximation. A dimensional analysis of the equations shows that such a model exhibits the scaling laws observed experimentally. Generic solutions are independent of gravity and depend only on the initial aspect ratio a and an effective friction angle. In terms of dynamics, the numerical simulations are consistent with the experiments for a  1. The experimentally observed saturation of the final height of the deposit, when normalized with respect to the initial radius of the cylinder, is accurately reproduced numerically. Analysis of the results sheds light on the correlation between the area overrun by the granular mass and its initial potential energy. The extent of the deposit, the final height, and the arrest time of the front can be directly estimated from the "generic solution" of the model for terrestrial and extraterrestrial avalanches. The effective friction, a parameter classically used to describe the mobility of gravitational flows, is shown to depend on the initial aspect ratio a. This dependence should be taken into account when interpreting the high mobility of large volume events. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1453 Classifying and assessing the geologic contribution to rockfall hazard Vandewater C.J., Dunne W.M., Mauldon M. et al. Environmental and Engineering Geoscience 2005 11/2 (141-154) Rockfalls from roadcuts are a major hazard and pose problems for transportation agencies across the country. In the context of rockfall hazard management, however, no consensus exists about the role of geology in assessing rockfall hazard. This study investigates the geologic contribution to rockfall hazard through application of rockfall hazard rating systems to roadcuts in Tennessee and through additional data collection to reveal correlations between hazard characteristics and geologic attributes. The geologic character of 80 roadcuts in central and eastern Tennessee was evaluated using the Tennessee Rockfall Hazard Rating System (RHRS), which is a revision of the National Highway Institute (NHI) RHRS. Scores for both RHRSs were compared to evaluate whether the improved reproducibility of scoring for the Tennessee RHRS yielded unintended losses of scoring accuracy and sensitivity. Additional geologic attribute data beyond those used in the RHRS system were collected to determine with logistic regression analysis whether relationships among the geologic attributes, rockfall type, and block size exist. Results indicate the revised geologic component of Tennessee’s RHRS is more informative and permits description of a wider spectrum of geologic conditions than does the NHI version. Logistic regression analysis indicates rockfall type correlates to lithologic variation and the number of discontinuity sets; and block size correlates to structurally controlled rockfall, lithologic variation, mechanical layer thickness, and number of discontinuity sets. Consequently, roadcuts containing potential rockfall modes with two or more discontinuity sets, no lithologic variation, and mechanical thicknesses that exceed 1.0 m are expected to have greater Geologic Character scores. 1454 Risk-based definition of zones for land-use planning in snow avalanche terrain McClung D.M. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 2005 42/4 (1030-1038) For avalanche applications, the definition of zones for land-use planning typically involves estimates of both return period and impact pressures as functions of position in the runout zone. Since return period is related to expected avalanche frequency and impact pressure is related to consequences if structures are bit, zone specifications imply a risk-based approach. In this paper, the schemes for definition of zones from three countries (Switzerland, Canada, and Austria) are presented and compared from a mathematical, risk-based framework. The comparison reveals that the Swiss standard is the least conservative and the Austrian standard is the most conservative. © 2005 NRC Canada. 275 1455 Geological and morphological study of the Jiufengershan landslide triggered by the Chi-Chi Taiwan earthquake Chang K.- J., Taboada A. and Chan Y.- C. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (293-309) The Jiufengershan rock and soil avalanche is one of the largest landslides triggered by the Chi-Chi earthquake Taiwan 1999. The landslide destabilized the western limb of the Taanshan syncline along a weak stratigraphic layer. It involved a flatiron remnant, which was almost entirely mobilized during the earthquake. The avalanche was slowed down by NS trending ridges located downstream along the Jiutsaihu creek. The landslide affected a 60 m thick and 1.5 km long sedimentary pile composed of shales and sandstones, which dip
22°SE toward a transverse valley. The triggering mechanism and the sliding process were analyzed by means of geological and morphological data from aerial photographs and observed in the field. A high-resolution airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) image taken 2.5 years after the landslide allows the identification of morphological structures along the sliding surface and the landslide accumulation. The sliding surface shows several deformation structures such as fault scarps and folds. These structures are interpreted in terms of basal shear stresses created during the avalanche. Three major joint sets were identified at the sliding surface. The isopach map of the landslide was calculated from the comparison between elevation models before and after the earthquake. The coseismic volume of mobilized material and landslide deposit data are 42  106 m3 and 50  106 m3 , respectively. The geometry of the landslide accumulation in the field has an irregular star shape. The morphology of the deposit area shows a sequence of smooth reliefs and depressions that contrast with the neighboring ridges. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1456 The 1786 earthquake-triggered landslide dam and subsequent dam-break flood on the Dadu river, southwestern China Chanson H. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (437-440) Forensic studies of past hydraulic structure failures are rare despite their critical relevance to modern hydraulic design, and the writers (Dai et al., 2005) must be congratulated for their outstanding study. Herein the discussion is focused on two aspects of the conclusion. It is believed that dam overtopping was the primary cause of the Dadu river landslide dam failure, although aftershocks may have further weakened the embankment. Using physically based equations supported by recent physical model data, the maximum outflow may be estimated to be about 6000 m3 /s. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1457 The statistical relationship between unconfined compressive strengths and the frequency distributions of slope gradients - A case study in northern Hungary P¨usp¨oki Z., Szab´o S., Demeter G. et al. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (424-436) This paper focuses on the question of whether there is a deterministic connection between the slope gradient and unconfined compression strength (UCS) as a lithological factor and on describing the nature of this connection. Moreover, the authors determined the sensitive statistical parameters in the statistical surface analyses. The surface analyses were carried out in an area extending over 1500 km2 in northern Hungary and containing parts of the uplifted Palaeozoic and Mesozoic basement and the semi-consolidated material of the Palaeogene and Neogene molasse sediments. The 67 geological formations of the area were grouped into 10 petrophysical categories characterised by unconfined compressive strength as a petrophysical parameter. The geological database was the digitalized geological map of North Hungarian Region (1 : 100 000). The digital topographic database was based on 10 m contour lines of 1 : 50 000 maps, the digital elevation model was generated by kriging interpolation. Three topographic models were created with resolutions of 25  25, 50  50 and 100  100 m per pixels. Evident correlation can be shown between the UCS and the relative frequency of the slope gradient. The adequate regression procedure is the power regression for low slope category values while logarithmic regression is applicable at high slope angles. Based on the characteristic of the relationship and the value of r2 , slope category intervals can be identified the relative frequency of which is proven to be determined by the UCS. These intervals are found to be between 276 LANDFORMS 4-10%, 10-16%, 16-22%, 22-44% and over 44%. Using the determination equations of slope gradient between 4-10% and over 44%, the UCS of the bedrock can be calculated approximately as the average value of the two calculated results. So the quotient of the frequency of these two category intervals can be regarded as an important morphometric index for a given bedrock. From the aspect of petrophysical characteristics, the rock with UCS between 6 and 86 MPa were proven to be deterministic for the slope development i.e. in the determination of the slope category frequencies. Applying the relative frequency of slope gradients a relative erosion resistance of the petrophysical categories can be calculated. Considering the determination coefficients, among the statistical parameters of the distribution of slope category values the standard deviation, mode, mean and median proved to be determined by the UCS of the bedrock. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1458 Analysis of dynamic factors of debris landslide by means of the model of quantitative theory - Using the Xintan landslide, China, as an example Keqiang H., Jibao Y. and Sijing W. Environmental Geology 2005 48/6 (676-681) If prediction of a debris landslide is to be completed, the first problem is how to determine and correlate the dynamic factors. The special composition and complicated geological conditions of debris landslides have many dynamic factors influencing displacement and stability. Correlations are generally very complicated. The relationship and sequence of factors is too complex to be completed by traditional mathematical model. In order to solve the problem above, a systematical study of the quantitative and qualitative dynamic factors using a model of the quantitative theory was performed based on the displacements of Xintan landslide, China. Rainfall was found to be the most important dynamic factor among the six factors controlling displacements. Relative importance sequence and correlation was also established. All prediction results agree with the mechanism and displacement pattern of the Xintan landslide. Optimized measures of prevention and control for debris landslides can be completed with correlation of the dynamic factors by means of the quantitative theory model. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1459 Distribution of landslides adjacent to the northern side of the Yarlu Tsangpo Grand Canyon in Tibet, China Shang Y., Park H.- D., Yang Z. and Yang J. Environmental Geology 2005 48/6 (721-741) This paper presents results of recent studies on distribution and category of landslides in one section of the Sichuan-Tibet Highway, adjacent to the northern side of the Yarlu Tsangpo Grand Canyon, Tibet, Southwestern China. In the tectonic setting predominated by compression and strike-slipping, active faults are dominant and result in the genesis of the great alpine relief together with fluvial incision and unloading. In this section, with a distance of about 290 km between Ranwu and Lulang, 34 landslides occurred. Among them, the 12 large and super-large landslides comprise the most dangerous part of the highway system to road users over the past 50 years. The landslides usually occurred in slopes comprised of moraine with a large thickness, fluvio-pluvial and lacustrine deposits and fractured rocks. Based on the examination of the physical geography, structural geology, Quaternary geology, stratigraphy and petrography, this paper presents the temporal-spatial distribution of landslides along the section and classification of them into three types with respect to mechanism and composites of landslides. Type 1. Landslide initiated at high elevation and transformed into a distal debris flow damming the river with a long reoccurrence interval Type 2. Landslide at stream banks, in different ranks of mass movements in dissecting layers of moraines Type 3. Landslide of fractured rock mass with quick translation movements. Each of the three types is presented by distinctive case examples. Type 1 is Yigong Landslide; type 2 includes Dongjiu Landslide group, 102 Landslide group, Suotong Landslide group, Songzong Landslide; and the type 3 is Layue Landslide. A binary landslide, which is seldom seen in nature and which occurred in the outlet of one creek under the integrative function of fluvial incision and road cut, is also presented. These are distributed in different parts of the area with characterized structural geology, topography and composites (gneiss and Quaternary deposits) with accumulative quantity between Suotong and Dongjiu. The most occurred with frequent and rapid translation, shallow shearing planes, various influential factors and unique triggering factors, and a variable period of reoccurrence with a tendency of increasing magnitude. In this region, six influential factors greatly contribute to their occurrence: (a) intensive neotectonic movements, (b) ongoing alpine canyon relief, (c) earthquakes, (d) heavy precipitation, (e) stream erosion, and (f) human activities, to a certain extent. Mostly, the latter four factors play major roles in triggering landslide occurrence. The earthquake causes the rock and soil to fracture and deform, and tends to be unstable, or cause earth-induced landslides. The heavy rainfall in monsoon seasons which saturates the soil and lower the shearing strength is mostly responsible for the occurrence of landslides. The stream erosion disturbs slope toes causing progressive failure. Road construction and deforestation decrease the natural slope stability. Comments and suggestions on the physical measures for remediation of landslides and safety of highways are also made. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1460 Location of critical three-dimensional non-spherical failure surface by NURBS functions and ellipsoid with applications to highway slopes Cheng Y.M., Liu H.T., Wei W.B. and Au S.K. Computers and Geotechnics 2005 32/6 (387-399) At present, location of critical three-dimensional failure surfaces is mainly limited to spherical shape due to the various difficulties in performing global optimization for general non-spherical failure surface. Non-spherical failure surface is however the most general and critical shape that should be considered in slope stability analysis. This paper introduces a practical way in using NURBS surface and ellipsoidal surface to simulate a three-dimensional sliding surface. Numerical examples have indicated that the present proposal is effective in application and the critical failure surfaces as determined for 2 specially designed problems are also reasonable. The authors have also applied the optimization search to a curved highway slope and have obtained the relation between curvature of slope and the minimum factors of safety of slope. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Soil mechanics 1461 Engineering-related slope failure in permafrost regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Niu F., Cheng G., Ni W. and Jin D. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 42/3 (215-225) Thaw slumping existing on two slopes in permafrost region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is studied with their geological features, deformations and ground temperature in this paper. The failure shows as collapse and slide of active layer along the massive ground-ice surface. The field-monitored data show that the retrogressively extending area, soil-body sliding velocity and the water content of the soils in the failed area strikingly change with the air temperature and slope facing aspect. On the southfacing slope, the values of all of these items are higher than that on the north-facing slope. The mean annual ground temperature in the failed area on the south-facing slope is evidently higher than that in the undisturbed natural ground and that in the northfacing slope. In addition, the input of heat into the permafrost below the sliding mass on the south-facing slope is more than the output. Therefore the permafrost in the slope processes degradation when landslide occurs. The genesis of this kind of slope failure is closely related to ice-rich frozen soils and activities of engineering cut. Based on static balance analysis, the stability estimating method for such landslide is presented considering the seepage of ice-melting ground water in the paper. At last, the engineering measures of preventing thaw slumping are proposed too. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1462 Numerical analysis of a landslide in soils with strainsoftening behaviour Troncone A. Geotechnique 2005 55/8 (585-596) The results of an analysis concerning a landslide of great dimensions, which occurred at Senise (Southern Italy) on 26 July 1986, are presented. The landslide was of a translational type, and the LANDFORMS failure developed within a thin clayey silt layer interbedded by a slightly cemented sand formation. Both these soils experienced a pronounced strain-softening behaviour during laboratory tests. From the analyses performed using the traditional limit equilibrium approach, it has been found that the average operational resistance along the sliding surface was less than that of the peak and greater than the residual resistance deduced from the laboratory tests. As a consequence, it has been postulated that a progressive failure had occurred. Such a failure process can be appropriately studied using methods that are capable of simulating the formation and development of shear zones, where strain is localised. From a computational point of view this presents many difficulties, because the numerical procedures currently used are very often affected by a lack of convergence, and the solution may depend strongly on the mesh adopted. In order to overcome these numerical drawbacks, in the present study use is made of both an elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model and a non-local elasto-viscoplastic model implemented in a finite element code. The Mohr-Coulomb plastic law is adopted, and the strain-softening behaviour of the soil is simulated by reducing the strength parameters with the accumulated deviatoric plastic strains. The results of the analysis show that a progressive failure occurred owing to deep excavations carried out at the toe of the slope. In addition, the soil mass involved in the sliding and the location of the failure surface deduced from the numerical simulation are found to be very similar to those observe. Karst 1463 Modeling the influence of epikarst evolution on karst aquifer genesis: A time-variant recharge boundary condition for joint karst-epikarst development Bauer S., Liedl R. and Sauter M. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-12) [1] The epikarst, a zone of increased weathering near the land surface, determines the distribution of recharge to a karst aquifer in both space and time. It links climatic and near-surface geological conditions with the karstification of a limestone aquifer, defining both the hydraulic and the chemical boundary conditions for the development of the karst system. Realistic modeling of the epikarst is therefore a prerequisite for the simulation of karst aquifer genesis. A conceptual model of the joint karstepikarst evolution is presented in this paper. An epikarst module is developed and implemented in a numerical continuum-discrete conduit flow model for karst genesis, which accounts for the joint evolution of the epikarst and the main karstic conduit network under unconfined conditions. The influence of epikarst genesis on the evolution of the underlying karst aquifer is investigated in four scenarios. It is found that only the interaction of epikarst and initial heterogeneity in the underlying carbonate rock leads to the development of a dendritic cave system. If no heterogeneity in the initial conduit network or in the recharge distribution is included, maze-type caves develop. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1464 Solution-collapse breccias of the Minkinfjellet and Wordiekammen Formations, Central Spitsbergen, Svalbard: A large gypsum palaeokarst system Eliassen A. and Talbot M.R. Sedimentology 2005 52/4 (775-794) Large volumes of carbonate breccia occur in the late syn-rift and early post-rift deposits of the Billefjorden Trough, Central Spitsbergen. Breccias are developed throughout the Moscovian Minkinfjellet Formation and in basal parts of the Kazimovian Wordiekammen Formation. Breccias can be divided into two categories: (i) thick, cross-cutting breccia-bodies up to 200 m thick that are associated with breccia pipes and large V-structures, and (ii) horizontal stratabound breccia beds interbedded with undeformed carbonate and siliciclastic rocks. The thick breccias occur in the central part of the basin, whereas the stratabound breccia beds have a much wider areal extent towards the basin margins. The breccias were formed by gravitational collapse into cavities formed by dissolution of gypsum and anhydrite beds in the Minkinfjellet Formation. Several dissolution fronts have been discovered, demonstrating the genetic relationship between dissolution of gypsum and brecciation. Textures and structures 277 typical of collapse breccias such as inverse grading, a sharp flat base, breccia pipes (collapse dolines) and V-structures (cave roof collapse) are also observed. The breccias are cemented by calcite cements of pre-compaction, shallow burial origin. Primary fluid inclusions in the calcite are dominantly single phase containing fresh water (final melting points are ca 0°C), suggesting that breccia diagenesis occurred in meteoric waters. Cathodoluminescence (CL) zoning of the cements shows a consistent pattern of three cement stages, but the abundance of each stage varies stratigraphically and laterally. 18 O values of breccia cements are more negative relative to marine limestones and meteoric cements developed in unbrecciated Minkinfjellet limestones. There is a clear relationship between 18 O values and the abundance of the different cement generations detected by CL. Paragenetically, later cements have lower 18 O values recording increased temperatures during their precipitation. Carbon isotope values of the cements are primarily rock-buffered although a weak trend towards more negative values with increasing burial depth is observed. The timing of gypsum dissolution and brecciation was most likely related to major intervals of exposure of the carbonate platform during Gzhelian and/or Asselian/Sakmarian times. These intervals of exposure occurred shortly after deposition of the brecciated units and before deep burial of the sediments. © 2005 International Association of Sedimentologists. 1465 Gypsum karst and its evolution east of Hafik (Sivas, Turkey) ¨ Doˇgan U. and Ozel S. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (373-388) Sivas and its surroundings is the most important gypsum karst terrain in Turkey with a massive Lower Miocene gypsum formation 750 m thick. The region east of Hafik has a wide variety of well developed karstic features such as karrens, dissolution dolines, collapse dolines, blind valleys, karstic springs, swallow holes, caves, unroofed caves, natural bridges, gorges and poljes. The karstification started in the Early Pliocene. The piezometric level to the east of Hafik has lowered at least 200 m since the Early Pliocene and 90-100 m since the Early Pleistocene. There is a youthful karst (doline karst) on the Higher Plateau (1520-1600 m) and a mature karst on Lower Plateau (1315-1420 m). The mature karst evolved in two stages, first stage where excessively karstic paleovalleys, uvalas and collapse dolines appear and the second stage where poljes, collapse dolines and degraded collapse dolines dominated. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1466 Land subsidence and caprock dolines caused by subsurface gypsum dissolution and the effect of subsidence on the fluvial system in the Upper Tigris Basin (between BismilBatman, Turkey) Doˇgan U. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (389-401) Karstification-based land subsidence was found in the Upper Tigris Basin with dimensions not seen anywhere else in Turkey. The area of land subsidence, where there are secondary and tertiary subsidence developments, reaches 140 km2 . Subsidence depth ranges between 40 and 70 m. The subsidence was formed as a result of subsurface gypsum dissolution in Lower Miocene formation. Although there are limestones together with gypsum and Eocene limestone below them in the area, a subsidence with such a large area is indicative of karstification in the gypsum. The stratigraphical cross-sections taken from the wells and the water analyses also verify this fact. The Lower Miocene gypsum, which shows confined aquifer features, was completely dissolved by the aggressive waters injected from the top and discharged through by Zellek Fault. This resulted in the development of subsidence and formation of caprock dolines on loosely textured Upper Miocene-Pliocene cover formations. The Tigris River runs through the subsidence area between Batman and Bismil. There are four terrace levels as T1 (40 m), T2 (30 m), T3 (10 m) and T4 (4-5 m) in the Tigris River valley. It was also found that there were some movements of the levels of the terraces in the valley by subsidence. The subsidence developed gradually throughout the Quaternary; however no terrace was formed purely because of subsidence. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 278 THE QUATERNARY 1467 Analysis of karst hydrodynamics through comparison of dissolved and suspended solids’ transport (French) (Fonctionnnement hydrodynamique des syst`emes karstique par comparaison du transport du mat´eriel dissous et particulaire) Valdes D., Dupont J.- P., Massei N. et al. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 2005 337/15 (1365-1374) In karst systems, rain events often result in a decrease of the conductivity (a tracer of dissolved phase transport) and an increase in turbidity (a tracer of suspended solids transport) at wells and springs. This study shows that the comparison of suspended solids and solute transport by the coupled approach of T - C curves (Turbidity-Conductivity) and autocorrelations gives evidence of the transport processes in the karst network and allows understanding the karst hydrodynamics. © 2005 Acad´emie des sciences. Published by Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved. Anthropogenic landforms 1468 Methods for the characterization of areas sensitive to desertification: An application to the Calabrian territory (Italy) Coscarelli R., Minervino I. and Sorriso- Valvo M. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (23-30) Desertification, as it has been defined by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), represents the whole phenomena of land degradation, resulting from many causes. Southern European countries are considered as areas of new expansion of desertification, caused by inadequate agricultural practices, overgrazing, and deforestation, which increase anthrophic pressure. During the last few years, in the context of several international research projects, methodologies were proposed, based on various parameters. These are grouped in uniform classes and weighted by the attribution of scores in order to assess the so-called "quality indexes". By computation of the previous indexes, "desertification indicators" are defined. This work reviews the most-used methodologies and presents an application of the methodology proposed in the European MEDALUS project to an area of the Calabrian territory (southern Italy), relative to the physical aspects. 1469 Landscape change and sandy desertification in arid areas: A case study in the Zhangye Region of Gansu Province, China Luo F., Qi S.Z. and Xiao H.L. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (90-97) The Zhangye Region of Gansu Province is an important agricultural base in arid northwestern China. During the twentieth century, especially in the last five decades, the region has experienced sandy desertification. To document the status and causes of this deterioration, satellite images, meteorological and socioeconomic data to assess landscape change from 1993 to 2002 were interpreted and analyzed. The results show that during the intervening 9-year period the area of sandy lands has increased by 642.2 km2 , which consist of aeolian sand dune (357.1 km2 ) and potential sandy land (216.3 km 2 ). Although the development and reversion of sandy desertification co-exist, the sandy desertification in this area seems serious and is attributable to the irrational use of water and land. © Springer-Verlag 2005. THE QUATERNARY Chronology 1470 Lower Azilian at Cueva Oscura de Ania (Las Regueras, Asturias, Spain) (French) (L’Azilien ancien de Cueva Oscura de Ania (Las Regueras, Asturias, Espagne)) ´ Ad´an Alvarez G.E., Garca S´anchez E. and Quesada L´opez J.M. Anthropologie 2005 109/3 (499-519) Recent definition of the Cantabrian Lower Azilian has turned the Late Upper Magdalenian/Azilian transition into one of the most interesting archaeological ages in the area. This period is considered representing the earliest Azilian groups in Asturias. Critic review of Cueva Oscura de Ania record, in the center of Asturias, has allowed us to give full details of the Lower Azilian archaeological characteristics. Cueva Oscura de Ania archaeological collection shows archaic traits, close to those from Cueva de Los Azules and Cueva de La Riera, two eastern asturian sites. These likenesses suggest a high stylistic and technical uniformity in distant areas during a critical period, when Palaeolithic groups changed their subsistence strategies. Cueva Oscura de Ania archaeological and polinic records suggest that this deposit was built at the beginning of the paleoclimatic phase known as Aller¨od/ Cantabrian VIII (12 000-10 800 BP), when numerous cantabrian sites suffered high erosion processes. All these circumstances convert Cueva Oscura de Ania in a fundamental site to get a best knowledge of the origin and development of the Cantabrian Azilian. The study of its bone collection allows us outline new hypothesis about this archaeological period. © 2005 Publi´e par Elsevier SAS. 1471 Norwegian conifer chronologies constructed to date historical timber Thun T. Dendrochronologia 2005 23/2 (63-74) Tree-ring chronologies have been constructed for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) from central Norway (Trøndelag), west Norway and south-east Norway back to 552, 765 and 871, respectively. The purpose was to enable the dendrochronological dating of medieval and post-medieval timber constructions and other wooden artefacts, and this proved to be possible. Absolute dates of floating chronologies based on medieval building material from urban excavations in Trondheim, Bergen and Oslo were also obtained. In northern Norway, samples taken from recently living Scots pines in Troms have enabled the construction of a chronology back to 1294. Chronologies based on samples taken from timber constructions built of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) have been constructed for central Norway (Trøndelag) and outer Oslofjord back to 1351 and 1466, respectively. Historical events have influenced the availability of building timber. Although much material is available from the early and post-medieval periods, hardly any constructions have been found dating from an approximately 60-year period after the Black Death in 13491350. The various regional chronologies based on Scots pine have a matching tree-ring pattern with high t values and sign tests at a 99.9% level of significance. The match between Norwegian chronologies and chronologies constructed in Sweden also give high t values and sign tests at a 99.9% level of significance. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1472 Radiocarbon evidence for annual growth rings in the deep-sea octocoral Primnoa resedaeformis Sherwood O.A., Scott D.B., Risk M.J. and Guilderson T.P. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2005 301/- (129-134) The deep-sea gorgonian octocoral Primnoa resedaeformis is distributed throughout the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans at depths of 65 to 3200 m. It has a 2-part skeleton of calcite and gorgonin. Towards the inside of the axial skeleton gorgonin and calcite are deposited in concentric growth rings, similar to tree rings. Colonies were collected from the NE Channel (NW Atlantic Ocean, southwest of Nova Scotia, Canada) from depths of 250 to 475 m. Radiocarbon was measured in individual rings isolated from sections of each colony, after dissolution of calcite. Each 14 C measurement was paired with a ring age determined by 3 amateur ring counters. The precision of ring counts averaged better than 2 yr. Accurate reconstruction of 20th century bomb-radiocarbon showed that (1) the growth rings are formed annually, (2) the gorgonin is derived from surface particulate organic matter (POM) and (3) useful environmental data are recorded in the organic endoskeletons of deep-sea octocorals. These results support the use of P. resedaeformis as a long-term, high resolution monitor of ocean surface conditions, particularly in temperate and boreal environments where proxy data are lacking. © Inter-Research 2005. THE QUATERNARY 1473 Characteristics and sources of tephra layers in the EPICA-Dome C ice record (East Antarctica): Implications for past atmospheric circulation and ice core stratigraphic correlations Narcisi B., Petit J.R., Delmonte B. et al. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005 239/3-4 (253-265) Thirteen discrete air-fall tephra layers were identified in the last 200,000-yr section of the EPICA-Dome C ice record drilled in the East Antarctic plateau (75°06
S, 123°21
E). Quantitative grain size, glass particle morphology, and the grain-discrete major element composition of the glass fraction of these layers were investigated. Through comparison with literature data on the rock composition of Quaternary volcanic centres located within and around Antarctica, five tephra layers were attributed to South Sandwich volcanoes in the South Atlantic Ocean, two to South Shetland volcanoes (northern Antarctic Peninsula), two to Andean volcanoes, and four to Antarctic (Marie Byrd Land and Melbourne) provinces. The abundance of layers originating in the southern part of the Atlantic confirms that westerly atmospheric circulation spiralling towards East Antarctica prevailed over the last 200 ka. Moreover, the record of events from Antarctic centres suggests that atmospheric trajectories from West to East Antarctica can also be significant. A few ash layers are geochemically distinct and appear equivalent to levels from Vostok and Dome Fuji deep ice records, located ca. 600 km and ca. 2000 km, respectively, from Dome C on the Antarctic plateau. These layers provide unambiguous markers for future correlation with other Antarctic ice cores and circumpolar marine climatic records. They also provide reliable constraints to get a common timescale by glaciological modelling, and represent a first step towards absolute ice core dating. © 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V. 1474 First dating of protohistorical forest clearings on the Vosges grasslands (Rossberg, Haut-Rhin, France). A pedoanthracological study (French) (Premi`eres datations directes de d´efrichements protohistoriques sur les chaumes secondaires des Vosges (Rossberg, Haut-Rhin). Approche p´edoanthracologique) Schwartz D., Thinon M., Goepp S. et al. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 2005 337/14 (1250-1256) The age of the upland grasslands of the Vosges Mountains is still not well known. On the basis of the study of historical archives, it was assumed that the forest clearings, which led to grasslands establishment, were done by the monks who colonized the Vosges valleys between the 7th and the 8th centuries. Our pedo-anthracological study raises questions about this hypothesis, based on the discovery of Juniperus communis charcoal in soils from the 2nd or 1st century BC. This plant specie is characteristic of grasslands developing into fallows. The occurrence of Juniperus communis charcoals indicates that upland grasslands did exist at least 800 years earlier than it was expected before our study, i.e. at least since the late Iron Age. © 2005 Acad´emie des sciences. Publi´e par Elsevier SAS. Tous droits r´eserv´es. 1475 The age of the Paludi Formation: A major constraint to the beginning of the Apulia-verging orogenic transport in the northern sector of the Calabria-Peloritani Arc Bonardi G., De Capoa P., Di Staso A. et al. Terra Nova 2005 17/4 (331-337) A stratigraphic revision of the Paludi Formation, cropping out in Northern Calabria on the north-eastern side of Sila Massif, has confirmed that it has been deposited between two main tectonic phases. Actually the formation is involved only by top to the north-east thrusts, different from those separating the crystalline and ophiolitic nappes of Northern Calabria, and rests unconformably on the Sila Unit, the uppermost nappe of the tectonic stack. In the frame of the interpretation of Northern Calabria as a fragment of the Alps, the Paludi Formation play the role of a deposit post-dating the eo-alpine tectonic phases and pre-dating the Apenninic orogenic transport. Therefore the Aquitanian age of the formation, obtained by nannofloras analyses, can be considered the minimum age to the Apuliaverging orogenic transport, witnessed by top to north-east thrusts. It fairly corresponds to the age referred to the Lucanian ocean closure. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 279 1476 Pleistocene geomorphology and geochronology of eastern Grand Canyon: Linkages of landscape components during climate changes Anders M.D., Pederson J.L., Rittenour T.M. et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (2428-2448) We report new mapping, soils, survey, and geochronologic (luminescence, U-series, and cosmogenic-nuclide) data from Pleistocene deposits in the arid setting of eastern Grand Canyon. The result is a stratigraphic framework of inset fill gravels and associated terraces that provide a record of the responses of hillslopes, tributary streams, and the Colorado River to the last
400 kyr of glacial-interglacial climate change. The best-preserved last 80 kyr of this record indicates a stratigraphic-chronologic disconnect between both deposition and incision along the Colorado River versus along the trunks of local tributaries. For example, the Colorado River finished aggrading and had already begun incising before the main pulse of aggradation in the trunks of local catchments during Marine Isotope Stage 3, and then tributary incision followed during the millennial-scale fluctuations of the last glacial epoch, potentially concurrent with mainstem aggradation. The mainstem record appears to broadly correlate with regional paleoclimate and upstream geomorphic records and thus may be responding to climatic-hydrologic changes in its mountain headwaters, with aggradation beginning during full-glacial times and continuing into subsequent interglacials. The contrasting lag time in responses of the dryland catchments within Grand Canyon may be largely a function of the weathering-limited nature of hillslope sediment supply. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1477 Development of an OSL chronology for Late Pleistocene channel belts in the lower Mississippi valley, USA Rittenour T.M., Goble R.J. and Blum M.D. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (2539-2554) The broad alluvial valley of the lower Mississippi River contains large channel belts for which age control has been limited by the lack of organic material for radiocarbon dating and deposit ages greater than the limit of radiocarbon. In order to produce a detailed chronology of fluvial evolution, samples for optical dating were collected from Late Pleistocene channel-belt deposits. Quartz sand was analyzed using the coarse-grained, singlealiquot regenerative-dose (SAR) technique. Samples showed little evidence of partial bleaching, and optical ages are for the most part consistent with the available radiocarbon and relative age constraints. Optical ages range from 85 to 11 ka and, along with geomorphic and stratigraphic relationships, indicate that the Mississippi River was meandering during the end of the last interglacial (85-83 ka) and switched to a braided regime by 64-50 ka during initial marine oxygen isotope stage (OIS) 4/3 glaciation of the upper Mississippi drainage basin. The Mississippi River switched back to a meandering regime after formation of the youngest braid belt at 11 ka. The 69 optical ages presented here provide the first detailed chronology of lower Mississippi valley braid-belt and Pleistocene meander-belt formation, and provide an example of the utility of optical dating in fluvial settings where material for radiocarbon dating is scarce. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1478 Isotopic fractionation during leaching of impure carbonates and their effect on uranium series dating Alcaraz Pelegrina J.M. and Martnez- Aguirre A. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (2584-2593) Experiments were designed to evaluate the behaviour of detritus during the leaching of impure carbonates by applying the U-Th isochron technique. We used one natural detritus and a pure, well-dated CaCO3 , alone and in artificial mixtures. One set of experiments was designed to study the effects of sample pretreatment on the detritus and a second set to examine the effect of acid attacks on both the carbonate and the detritus fractions in a mixture of constant proportions. For both sets of data, the extracted fraction from the detritus was calculated for 238 U, 234 U, 230 Th and 232 Th and their constancy established. These conditions are necessary to apply the L/L method [Schwarcz, H.P., Latham, A.G., 1989. Dirty calcites. 1.-Uranium-series dating of contaminated calcite using leachates alone. Chemical Geology (Isotopes Geoscience Section) 80, 35-43] for U/Th dat- 280 THE QUATERNARY ing. Finally, the L/L method was applied to the artificial impure carbonate and the resulting age is found in agreement with the age of the pure carbonate sample. We concluded that conditions of the L/L method to be applied for ageing impure carbonates hold. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1479 In situ U-series dating by laser-ablation multi-collector ICPMS: New prospects for Quaternary geochronology Eggins S.M., Gr¨un R., McCulloch M.T. et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (2523-2538) The capabilities and potential applications of in situ dating of Quaternary materials using laser ablation-MC-ICPMS are explored. 234 U/ 238 U and 230 Th/234 U can be measured with precision sufficient for dating at a spatial resolution of 100 m or better in samples that contain as a little as 1 ppm uranium. Moreover, U and Th concentrations and U-series isotope ratios can be continuously profiled to determine changes in age that occur with sample growth (e.g. in speleothems). These capabilities additionally permit the dating of bones, teeth and possibly molluscs, which are subject to post-mortem open-system behaviour of U-series isotopes, and can be employed to elucidate processes of U-series migration during weathering and diagenesis. A drawback of laser ablation-MC-ICPMS is that it cannot in general provide U-series age estimates with the high precision and accuracy of conventional TIMS or solution MC-ICPMS methods. However, sample preparation is straightforward, the amount of sample consumed negligible, and it can be used to rapidly characterise or screen and select samples from which more precise and accurate dates can be obtained using conventional methods. Given further instrumental developments and the establishment of suitable matrix-matched standards for carbonates and other materials, we foresee that laser ablation-MC-ICPMS will play an increasingly important role in Quaternary dating research. 1480 A middle Pleistocene mollusc fauna from a borehole in Northern Oberrheingrabens (Bohrung Mannheim-Lindenhof) (German) (Eine mittelpleistoz¨ane Molluskenfauna aus dem Oberen Zwischenhorizont des n¨ordlichen Oberrheingrabens (Bohrung Mannheim-Lindenhof)) R¨ahle W. Mainzer Geowissenschaftliche Mitteilungen 2005 -/33 (9-20) Upper layer sediments from the so-called "Oberer Zwischenhorizont" obtained from boreholes in the Mannheim area of the Upper Rhine Graben yielded quite a diverse mollusc fauna dating from a Middle Pleistocene interglacial. The occurence of extinct taxa like Parafossarulus crassitesta and Clausilia rugosa antiquitatis is biostratigraphically important and so are the finds of molars of an early representative of the vole Arvicola terrestris. Judging from these fossil remains the age of the investigated section is unlikely to be younger than Cromer-Interglacial IV (OIS 13), yet not older than Cromer-Interglacial III (OIS 15). An Upper Pleistocene age (Eemian) should, no doubt, be excluded. 1481 ESR dating of glacial tills and glaciations in the Urumqi River headwaters, Tianshan Mountains, China Zhao J., Zhou S., He Y. et al. Quaternary International 2005 144/1 (61-67) Electron spin resonance (ESR) dating of the Shangwangfeng, the Xiawangfeng, and the Gaowangfeng tills in the headwaters of the Urumqi River was carried out using Ge centers in quartz grains. The Shangwangfeng till is dated at 35 3.5 ka BP. Three dates from the lower portion of the Xiawangfeng till are 171.1 17, 176 18, and 184.7 18 ka BP, respectively, and the age of the Gaowangfeng till is 459.7 46 ka BP. Considering the available ages (i.e. 14 C, TL and ESR) and the principles of geomorphology and stratigraphy, the Shangwangfeng till is determined to be deposited in marine isotopic stage 2-3 (MIS2-3). The upper part of the Xiawangfeng till was formed in MIS4 and the lower part was deposited in MIS6. The Gaowangfang till is the oldest at the head of the Urumqi River, corresponding to MIS12. The age of the Gaowangfang till also demonstrates that the Tianshan Mountains lay at a suitable altitude for a glacial climate at that time, when the glaciers on this segment of the mountain began to develop. © 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Palaeoclimatology 1482 Pervasive and long-term forcing of Holocene river instability and flooding in Great Britain by centennial-scale climate change Macklin M.G., Johnstone E. and Lewin J. Holocene 2005 15/7 (937-943) This paper presents the first probability-based record of flooding in Europe that spans the entire Holocene. An analysis of 506 14 C dated fluvial units collected across the whole of Great Britain provides a novel and robust methodology for improving flood risk assessment by geographically and temporally extending the record of extreme flood events. Sixteen episodes of increased flooding occurrence are identified, 12 of which (at c. 11 160, 5730, 4840, 4520, 3540, 2730, 2550, 2280, 1950, 1290, 660, 570, cal. BP) are recorded in most regions, whereas four phases (at c. 6820, 5540, 1650, 860 cal. BP) affected some parts of Great Britain more than others. In all regions large variations in flood frequency and magnitude occurred before forest clearance and indicate an underlying climatic control. During the mid-Holocene there is evidence for a hydroclimatic ‘system switch’, which in terms of catchment hydrology in Great Britain was marked by two sudden increases in both the frequency and severity of floods at c. 5000 cal. BP and, most notably, at c. 3000 cal. BP. The marked non-stationary behaviour of the British flood series at these times reflects a regional hydrologic response to large-scale ocean-atmospheric circulation changes superimposed on a pattern reflecting both long-term land-use change and the preferential preservation of later fluvial units. Centennial-scale variations in the occurrence of extreme flood events in Great Britain appear to be a sensitive indicator of past and present climate change in the North Atlantic region. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1483 Holocene climate evolution in the high-latitude Southern Hemisphere simulated by a coupled atmosphere-sea iceocean-vegetation model Renssen H., Goosse H., Fichefet T. et al. Holocene 2005 15/7 (951-964) The Holocene climate is simulated in a 9000-yr-long transient experiment performed with the ECBilt-CLIO-VECODE coupled atmosphere-sea ice-ocean-vegetation model. This experiment is forced with annually varying orbital parameters and atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and CH 4 . The objective is to study the impact of these long-term forcings on the surface temperature evolution during different seasons in the high-latitude Southern Hemisphere. We find in summer a thermal optimum in the midHolocene (6-3 ka BP), with temperatures locally 3°C above the preindustrial mean. In autumn the temperatures experienced a long-term increase, particularly during the first few thousand years. The opposite trend was simulated for winter and spring, with a relatively warm Southern Ocean at 9 ka BP in winter (up to 3.5°C above the preindustrial mean) and a warm continent in spring (+3°C), followed by a gradual cooling towards the present. These long-term temperature trends can be explained by a combination of (1) a delayed response to orbital forcing, with temperatures lagging insolation by 1 to 2 months owing to the thermal inertia of the system, and (2) the long memory of the Southern Ocean. This long memory is related to the storage of the warm late winter-spring anomaly below the shallower summer mixed layer until next winter. Sea ice plays an important role as an amplifying factor through the ice-albedo and ice-insulation feedbacks. Our experiments can help to improve our understanding of the Holocene signal in proxies. For instance, the results suggest that, in contrast to recent propositions, teleconnections to the Northern Hemisphere appear not necessarily to explain the history of Southern Hemisphere temperature changes during the Holocene. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1484 Ice caves as an indicator of winter climate evolution: A case study from the Jura Mountains Luetscher M., Jeannin P.- Y. and Haeberli W. Holocene 2005 15/7 (982-993) Subsurface ice fillings were first described in the Jura Mountains at the end of the sixteenth century. In order to assess the impact THE QUATERNARY of climate change on low-altitude cave ice a detailed inventory has been drawn up and more than 50 objects have been identified. Comparisons between older cave maps, photographic documents and present-day observations outline a negative trend in ice mass balances, a trend that increased at the end of the 1980s. As most of these ice caves act as cold air traps, this negative mass balance is mainly attributed to higher winter temperatures and to reduced snow precipitation at low altitudes. The equilibrium line altitude of ice caves is believed to have increased several hundred metres between AD 1978 and 2004. Photographic comparisons and proxy records in some of the caves studied provide evidence of a rapid mass turnover. Ice ages range between less than a few decades and a millennium. Climatic records in these ice fillings will therefore present only short time series compared with other cave sediments. However, indications of former ice fillings have been found in different caves of the Jura Mountains and outline their potential role as palaeoclimatic markers. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1485 Vegetation and fire history since the Late Pleistocene from the Trinity Mountains, northwestern California, USA Daniels M.L., Anderson R.S. and Whitlock C. Holocene 2005 15/7 (1062-1071) A 267-cm sediment core spanning the past c. 15 200 cal. yr was recovered from Mumbo Lake, in the Trinity Mountains of northwestern California’s Klamath Region. Plant macrofossils and pollen detail local and extra-local vegetation history, while high-resolution charcoal analysis provides details on local fire history. For the first c. 3000 years, climate was colder and drier than present, and supported an open, subalpine parkland vegetation, with low fire frequencies and fuel biomass. From c. 12 100 to 9800 cal. yr BP increasing moisture and soil development led to a woodland community with three new pine species invading the basin. Fire frequencies remained low, but individual fires may have been more intense because of increased fuel loads. Between c. 9800 and 7200 cal. yr BP, climate warmed and dried considerably, allowing for the expansion of oak and other chaparral species. Fire frequencies increased in the early Holocene, but low charcoal accumulation rates suggest a frequent, relatively low-intensity fire regime. From c. 7200 to 3800 cal. yr BP, the climate became cooler and moister again. Many conifer species appeared for the first time, although chaparral species maintained a strong presence. The fire record shows a dramatic increase in charcoal accumulation rates as well as an increase in fire frequency. From c. 3800 cal. yr BP to present, more conifer species enter the record, and abundance of chaparral species gradually diminishes to present levels. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1486 Standardized precipitation index reconstructed from Turkish tree-ring widths Touchan R., Funkhouser G., Hughes M.K. and Erkan N. Climatic Change 2005 72/3 (339-353) May-July Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) for the land area of most of Turkey and some adjoining regions are reconstructed from tree rings for the period 1251-1998. The reconstruction was developed from principal components analysis (PCA) of four Juniperus excelsa chronologies from southwestern and southcentral Turkey and is based on reliable and replicable statistical relationships between climate and tree ring growth. The SPI reconstruction shows climate variability on both interannual and interdecadal time scales. The longest period of consecutive drought years in the reconstruction (SPI threshold -1) is 2 yr. These occur in 1607-1608, 1675-1676, and 1907-1908. There are five wet events (SPI threshold +1) of two consecutive years each (1330-1331, 1428-1429, 1503-1504, 1629-1630, and 19131914). A 5-yr moving average of the reconstructed SPI shows that two sustained drought periods occurred from the mid to late 1300s and the early to mid 1900s. Both episodes are characterized by low variability. © Springer 2005. 1487 Vegetation changes during the past 1300 years in western equatorial Africa: A high-resolution pollen record from Lake Kamal´et´e, Lop´e Reserve, Central Gabon Ngomanda A., Chepstow- Lusty A., Makaya M. et al. Holocene 2005 15/7 (1021-1031) Vegetation changes during the past 1300 years are reconstructed 281 in western equatorial Africa using a high-resolution pollen record from Lake Kamal´et´e. This small marshy basin (c. 5-7 ha) is located in forest-savanna mosaic in Lop´e Reserve (0°43’S, 11°46’E), central Gabon. The Kamal´et´e pollen data show the persistence over the past 1300 years of a relatively stable forestsavanna mosaic, associated with significant changes of the forest component. Three successive stages of forest dynamics occurred. First, at 1325 cal. BP, moist semi-evergreen rainforest existed around the catchment of Lake Kamal´et´e. However, it appears from the consistent presence of > 70% Gramineae pollen that the site was always primarily in savanna. Secondly, from c. 1240 to 550 cal BP, a noticeable increase in shade-intolerant plant species indicate openings in the rainforest canopy. The persistence of gap-colonizer species, such as Macaranga, Tetrorchidium and Musanga for several centuries in the rainforest, is explained by recurring canopy disturbance associated with shifts in available moisture. These hydrological changes may be related to a succession of longer and more severe dry seasons than observed today. Thirdly, at 550 cal BP, mature forest was re-established, corresponding to progressive savanna colonization by forest pioneer species such as Aucoumea klaineana, Lophira alata and Fagara macrophylla. This new phase of forest expansion coincided with a marked lithological change, indicating an increase in lake-level. It is concluded that the major vegetation changes observed are due to climatic variability, and anthropogenic action had limited influence. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1488 Complex speleothem growth processes revealed by trace element mapping and scanning electron microscopy of annual layers Treble P.C., Chappell J. and Shelley J.M.G. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005 69/20 (4855-4863) Closely-spaced transects measured by excimer laser ablation inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ELA-ICPMS) at 5 and 32 m spatial resolution are used to generate trace element composition maps (Ba, Sr, Mg, U, Na, P and Al) from MND-S1, a previously studied modern stalagmite from southwest Australia (Treble et al., 2003 1). Rainfall at the site is highly seasonal, and trace elements in MND-S1 show strong seasonal variation. Trace element maps show that Ba, Sr, U and Na concentrations coherently follow annual growth layers identified from Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images. The SEM images also reveal that stalagmite growth did not proceed uniformly: growth layers vary in thickness and locally pinch out. Highly preferential crystal growth, determined by nucleation sites left by the previous year’s growth, may be responsible for this uneven growth layering. Differential crystal growth apparently causes variability of trace element concentrations along each annual layer, although additional disequilibrium processes affect Mg, which is less distinctly banded than Ba, Sr, U and Na. Uneven and discontinuous growth layers influence the number of annual cycles, their wavelengths and seasonal amplitudes measured in any one transect. This has clear implications for studies that use annual trace element cycles as chronological markers, growth rate or seasonality proxies. Copyright © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. 1489 Palaeoclimatology and palaeohydrography of the glacial stages on Celtic and Armorican margins over the last 360 000 yrs Mojtahid M., Eynaud F., Zaragosi S. et al. Marine Geology 2005 224/1-4 (57-82) Core MD03-2692 was retrieved in a water-depth of 4064 m on the Celtic margin (Bay of Biscay) during the SEDICAR cruise onboard the RV Marion Dufresne II. It covers the last 360 ka in a total length of 39 m. Multidisciplinary analyses have been applied to this sequence with the aim of studying the palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental signals of the last few climatic cycles. The analyses undertaken include: (1) non-destructive logging with: physical properties (magnetic susceptibility, sediment colour), X-ray radiography and measurement of the major elements by X-ray-fluorescence, (2) analyses of planktonic and benthic foraminifera, lithic grains and stable isotopic measurements (oxygen and carbon). We have focused on the long-term evolution of glacial stages (with special attention to terminations and Heinrich events). The results obtained confirm the close correlation between deep-sea sedimentation recorded on the Celtic 282 THE QUATERNARY margin and changes in the terrestrial environment of the adjacent continent. Heinrich layers have been identified in MIS 2, 3, 6 and 8. We note the occurrence of laminated facies within deglacial sequences deposited during Termination I and MIS 6. These facies are closely linked to disintegration phases of the British-Irish Ice Sheet (BIS). The laminations contain lower ice-rafted detritus (IRD) concentrations than the equivalent Heinrich layers and are linked to abrupt changes in sea-surface palaeotemperatures. We suggest that the laminations are formed by an annual cycle of meltwater and iceberg release from the disintegrating BIS generating cascading plumes of dense turbid meltwater coeval with IRD release. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1490 Last interglacial atmospheric CO2 changes from stomatal index data and their relation to climate variations Rundgren M., Bj¨orck S. and Hammarlund D. Global and Planetary Change 2005 49/1-2 (47-62) A high-resolution atmospheric CO2 reconstruction based on stomatal index data obtained from Betula and Quercus leaf fragments extracted from the Danish Hollerup lake sediment section provides a unique insight into last interglacial CO2 dynamics. According to pollen stratigraphic correlations the CO2 record covers the first c. 7400 years of the Eemian, as palaeobotanically defined in northwestern Europe. The first c. 3000 years of the reconstruction are characterised by centennial to millennial CO2 variability in the interval 250-290 ppmv, while the remaining part of the record is generally more stable with slightly higher values (290-300 ppmv). According to pollen stratigraphic correlations this shift in CO 2 dynamics is coincident with the end of the early Eemian climatic optimum in northwestern Europe. Pollen data from this region indicate that early Eemian CO2 instability may be linked to vegetation succession following deglaciation in Europe, but vegetation dynamics on other northern continents were probably also important. In addition, palaeoceanographic records from the Nordic seas indicate an influence of oceanic processes on the reconstructed Eemian CO2 evolution. A 300-year period of rapid CO2 oscillations immediately before the establishment of stable conditions is synchronous with a dry and cool event previously inferred from proxy data from the same sediment sequence, suggesting that this was a climatic event of regional or global significance. The presented CO2 reconstruction is in general agreement with previous ice core and stomatal-based CO2 data, although a larger variability compared with Vostok ice core data is evident. This may be explained partly by the different resolution of the two records and the inherent smoothing of ice core gas records. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1491 Mid-Holocene strengthening of the Southern Westerlies in South America - Sedimentological evidences from Lago Cardiel, Argentina (49°S) Gilli A., Ariztegui D., Anselmetti F.S. et al. Global and Planetary Change 2005 49/1-2 (75-93) The paleoclimatic evolution of southern South America is characterized to a large extent by the behavior (strength and latitudinal position) of the storm tracks of the Southern Westerlies. Our study site, Lago Cardiel (49°S), lies within the modern influence of the Southern Westerlies and, therefore, is ideally located to track the past migrations of these storm tracks. With a coring strategy taking into account the lateral differences in sedimentation and an excellent core-to-core correlation using tephra layers, a composite sedimentological record of almost 25 m was established covering the last
16,000 cal yr. Sedimentological and petrophysical analysis of the cores revealed the establishment of a dominant lake current since 6800 cal yr BP leading to a drift deposition, which is especially well-expressed in the sedimentary record by an increase in magnetic susceptibility values. As this pattern of currents is most likely induced by wind activity, we propose that the observed increase in magnetic susceptibility documents an intensification of the westerly storm tracks. This intensification occurred slightly earlier than previously suggested based on palynological evidence. The strengthening in the Southern Westerlies during the mid-Holocene is most likely caused by an increase in the temperature gradient as a result of enhanced influence and/or southward migration of the Southeast Pacific anticyclone and a larger Antarctic sea-ice extent. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1492 Late Pleistocene vegetation of the basin of Phlious, NE-Peloponnese, Greece Urban B. and Fuchs M. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 2005 137/1-2 (15-29) Results of sedimentological and palynological analyses and 14 C dating of organic lake sediments of a transect through the basin of Phlious, west-southwest of Corinth (NE-Peloponnese, Greece) are presented. They provide a record of five moist and temperate phases, rich in predominantly deciduous Quercus and Pinus with minor representation of other deciduous and evergreen trees including evergreen oak and shrubs, interrupted by five drier and cooler episodes including Heinrich event (HE) 5, during a period of relatively high but fluctuating lake levels within Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3). The youngest interstadial of the Pleistocene pollen sequence is correlated with GRIP Greenland Interstadial 9 (GI9) with a calibrated age of around 40,000 years BP (14 C 34,440 yrs BP). In the uppermost part of the Pleistocene sequence the occurrence of HE 4 is rather probable. This initial Pleistocene record from southern Greece is compared with those from central Greece to provide a regional synthesis of vegetation and climatic variation during this part of the last glacial period. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1493 Pre-industrial metal anomalies in ice cores: A simplified reassessment of windborne soil dust contribution and volcanic activity during the last glaciation Oyarzun R., Lillo J., S´anchez- Hern´andez J.C. and Higueras P. International Geology Review 2005 47/11 (1120-1130) A major issue regarding pre-industrial accumulation of heavy metals such as Cu, Ph, Zn, or Hg in ice cores relates to the source(s) of the metals. We investigate the two possibilities that have been generally advocated for the origin of metal anomalies: (1) increased amounts of windborne dust during particularly cold periods; and (2) volcanic activity. We analyze the time span 35,000-14,000 yrs BP, which is characterized by extreme temperature deviations ( T;-2.1° to -9.8°C). Our findings show no definitive relationships between climate, dust, and metal contents, at least during the colder episodes. Thus, although dust deposition undoubtedly adds metals to the ice, it not clear whether climate can fully account for a direct relationship between these variables. In order to study the volcanic hypothesis, we analyze the case under a double perspective: (1) large explosive episodes related to acid magmatism; and (2) quieter mafic volcanic activity. Although the first one can introduce huge volumes of metal-rich aerosols to the stratosphere during single, catastrophic events, the latter is more continuous, accumulative, and far richer in sulfur. However, inasmuch as metals build volatile species with sulfur and halides, the chloride-rich character of the acid volcanism could easily compensate for its deficiency in sulfur. Thus, we suggest that the volcanic activity, via quiescent degassing and eruptive episodes, may account for an important part of the heavy metal contents present in the ice cores. Copyright © 2005 by V. H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved. 1494 Oxygen isotopic evidence for greater seasonality in Holocene shells of Donax variabilis from Florida Jones D.S., Quitmyer I.R. and Andrus C.F.T. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2005 228/1-2 (96-108) Donax variabilis, the variable coquina clam, has been a common inhabitant of exposed sandy beach intertidal and shallow subtidal zones in the southeastern United States throughout the Pleistocene and Holocene. It is ideally suited for paleotemperature studies because it is restricted to environments of well-mixed, normal-marine seawater with a fairly uniform isotopic composition. As a result, oxygen isotopic variability in D. variabilis shells is largely explained by temperature variation. Although D. variabilis is small and short-lived, its shell represents an important paleoclimate archive because of its unique habitat preference. High-resolution sampling of individual D. variabilis shells and comparison of oxygen isotopic temperature profiles with historical seawater temperatures from the northeastern Florida coast indicate rapid shell growth over a brief life span of three to five or six months. Analysis of two modern shells reveals a close correspondence between isotopically determined water temperatures and historical water temperatures during the springsummer growing season. Paleotemperature profiles from four THE QUATERNARY archaeological shells, however, suggest a longer growth interval spanning summer-autumn. Two Preceramic Archaic Period shells (ca. 4240 and 5570 14 C yr BP) and two Orange Period Archaic shells (ca. 3600 and 3760 14 C yr BP), from four different archaeological sites, yield paleotemperatures that average 3.5°C higher than present summer-autumn water temperatures. These warm paleotemperatures highlight seasonality differences associated with the mid-Holocene Hypsithermal climatic interval in this region. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1495 Climate records from a bivalved Methuselah (Arctica islandica, Mollusca; Iceland) Sch¨one B.R., Fiebig J., Pfeiffer M. et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2005 228/1-2 (130-148) We measured annual shell growth rates of a 374-year-old (radiometrically confirmed) bivalve mollusk specimen of Arctica islandica (Linnaeus). This bivalve represents the oldest ever reported individual animal. In addition, we analyzed 1051 individual powder samples from ontogenetic years two to 40 (= 80% of the entire shell height) for isotope analyses. Oxygen and carbon isotopes exhibit clear intra-annual cycles. The highest measured carbon isotope values (on average + 2.73‰) occurred during summer, i.e., during maximum primary productivity. The 18 Oaragonite -derived temperature time-series cover the period of AD 1496-1533. Temperatures calculated from oxygen isotopes ranged from 4.5 to 9.3°C and exhibit a mean value of 6.2°C. The latter coincides well with the 1854-2003 mean value of 6.81°C for sea-surface temperature between February and September (= growing season of A. islandica). Neither oxygen nor carbon isotopes exhibit age-related, unidirectional trends. However, 13 Caragonite and 18 Oaragonite values fluctuated at decadal periods of four, six and eight to nine years (NAO-type periods) as well as 12-14 years which may represent teleconnections to cycles in the tropical Atlantic. Annual shell growth is positively correlated to intra-annual 18 O aragonite minima, i.e., warm summer temperatures (R2 = 0.34), and to intra-annual 13 Caragonite minima (higher food supply; R2 = 0.42). Using a linear multiregression model, 65% of the variation in annual shell growth can be explained by summer temperature and food supply. The formation of extremely narrow annual increments coincides with major volcanic eruptions (e.g., Tambora 1815). A period of extremely variable growth occurred during the culmination of the Little Ice Age in Iceland between ca. AD 1550 and 1620. Shell growth during AD 1765-1780, however, was characterized by very little year-toyear variability, probably as the result of extremely mild climate near the end of the Little Ice Age. This study demonstrates that shells of A. islandica provide subseasonal to multidecadal, precisely dated multi-proxies of environmental variables from marine, mid to high latitudes. Such data can be used to validate and complement climate models and further assess human impact on climate and ecosystems. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1496 Preserving low-frequency climate signals in growth records of geoduck clams (Panopea abrupta) Strom A., Francis R.C., Mantua N.J. et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2005 228/1-2 (167-178) The capacity of geoduck clams (Panopea abrupta) to preserve detailed records of climatic change in their shells is limited primarily by longevity. Unlike the multi-centennial growth records commonly available from trees, shells rarely yield more than 160 years of data; consequently low-frequency signals may be lost when band width series are processed. Here we investigate use of ‘Regional Curve Standardization’ (RCS) to preserve decadal to centennial-scale growth trends in the relatively short segment lengths available from individual clams. Advantages of this method over the more common ‘exponential’ treatment are first explored through simulation experiments using sine waves embedded in geoduck growth curves. Both standardization methods are then used to remove biological trends from growth records of geoduck shells sampled near Protection Island, in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The resulting chronologies are compared in terms of their spectral properties, their correlations with historical air temperature records and their agreement with historical observations of the marine environment. Simulation experiments illustrated the potential benefits of using the RCS growth model to standardize shell growth series, but empirical results were 283 inconclusive. The RCS chronology exhibited enhanced spectral power at periods exceeding the length of growth segments, and provided stronger correlation with coastal air-temperature records, especially during the earliest portion of the chronology. Over the full period of comparison, however, the correlation coefficients were essentially identical. Observational data from the mid to late 1800s appears to support the RCS results. Northward range expansions of several marine fish species coincide with a period of conspicuously high values in the RCS chronology, and suggest that the coastal ocean was unusually warm along western North America from the 1850s through the 1870s. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1497 Oxygen isotope composition of modern and archaeological otoliths from the estuarine hardhead catfish (Ariopsis felis) and their potential to record low-latitude climate change Surge D. and Walker K.J. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2005 228/1-2 (179-191) Shells and otoliths (fish "ear bones") from archaeological deposits of Pine Island, southwest Florida, provide valuable archives of ecological patterns, climate change, and associated human responses. Many remains from these deposits that can be used for climate reconstruction are from estuarine animals. The challenge in using oxygen isotope composition of their carbonate hard parts lies in deconvoluting the effects of temperature and salinity (mixing of fresh- and saltwater, each having different isotopic compositions). Otoliths of the hardhead catfish (Ariopsis felis, Linneaus, 1766) may provide a record of winter temperature without the complication of salinity variation because this fish spends winter months in waters of marine to near-marine salinities. Hence, 18 OWATER can be constrained when employing published temperature equations. Here, we present geochemical data from modern and archaeological otoliths to evaluate whether they preserve winter temperature. A modern catfish was caught near Pine Island Sound and the otoliths (lapilli) removed. Archaeological otoliths from the 2nd/3rd century AD, falling within the Roman Optimum (RO), and the 13th/14th century AD, falling within the Little Ice Age (LIA), were obtained from the Florida Museum’s collections. Oxygen isotope compositions were converted to temperature using published temperature equations and assuming + 1‰ for Gulf water. Isotopic compositions for the modern otolith range from -3.55‰ to + 0.29‰, the LIA otolith ranges from -3.92‰ to + 0.52‰, and the RO otolith ranges from -1.80‰ to + 0.84‰. All three otoliths record winter temperature (
20°C) similar to modern conditions. Calculated summer temperatures for the modern and LIA otoliths (
40°C) are overestimated and reflect the combined influence of temperature and salinity when catfish inhabit brackish estuarine waters during their reproductive season. In contrast, summer temperature estimates for the RO otolith are similar to modern conditions indicating estuarine water during the summer was close to + 1‰. This result suggests that seasonal rainfall patterns during the time period represented by the RO otolith were different than today, such that the summer wet season was not prevalent. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1498 Denitrification under glacial and interglacial conditions: A physical approach Meissner K.J., Galbraith E.D. and V¨olker C. Paleoceanography 2005 20/3 (1-13) Recent analysis of sedimentary 15 N records over the last 200,000 years has shown an expansion of water column denitrification zones during warmer periods and a shrinkage of these oxygenpoor regions during glacial periods. Two different mechanisms could be responsible for driving the changes in the denitrification records: variations in local productivity leading to a change in remineralization rates and/or changes in the ocean circulation and ocean temperature resulting in variations of the physical supply of dissolved oxygen. Here we focus on the "supply" mechanism by using a fully coupled atmosphere-ocean-sea ice-land surface scheme model (the University of Victoria Earth System Climate Model) to examine oxygen supply under varying physical conditions while maintaining an invariant biological oxygen utilization scheme. We show that circulation changes can be the cause for the observed changes in dissolved oxygen in the glacial ocean. Lower temperatures and enhanced formation of Antarctic Intermediate Water and North Pacific Intermediate Wa- 284 THE QUATERNARY ter during glacial periods increase the physical supply of oxygen and therefore decrease water column denitrification. In our Last Glacial Maximum simulations the change in water characteristics in the eastern tropical Pacific is important enough to reduce denitrification by 46% to 65% compared to present-day conditions, depending on the wind fields used as boundary conditions. The consequences of our findings could be substantial for the near future. With a warming climate, denitrification zones could expand, leading to changes in the biological pump and the flux of N2 O into the atmosphere. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1499 Palaeoenvironmental changes in southern Patagonia during the last millennium recorded in lake sediments from Laguna Azul (Argentina) Mayr C., Fey M., Haberzettl T. et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2005 228/3-4 (203-227) Marked environmental changes in the southern Patagonian steppe during the last 1100 years are detected by a multi-proxy study of radiocarbon-dated sediment cores from the crater lake Laguna Azul (52°05
S, 69°35
W). A prominent shift in carbon isotope records occurred between AD 1670 and AD 1890 induced by a change to cooler climate conditions with a concurrent lake level rise. A second perturbation of the lake ecosystem started with a fire event around AD 1830. The fire event triggered increased soil erosion initiating a change of the diatom assemblages. This shift in diatom assemblages may have been enhanced by shrinkage of littoral habitats and higher nutrient supply in the course of permanent European settlement at the end of the 19th century. The introduction of neophytes by European sheep farmers is confirmed by the permanent occurrence of Rumex pollen in the sediment record since the beginning of the 20th century. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1500 The loess record from the section at Kurtak in Middle Siberia Frechen M., Zander A., Zykina V. and Boenigk W. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2005 228/3-4 (228-244) Loess, loess-like sediments and the intercalated palaeosols along the bluffs of the river Yenisei provide a detailed Upper Pleistocene climate archive for the southern part of Middle Siberia. The section at Kurtak is one of the most detailed loess/palaeosol sequences in Middle Siberia. Two major periods of sediment accumulation were recorded in the sequence: the stratigraphically oldest one post-dating the last interglacial palaeosol and pre-dating the Kurtak Pedocomplex (oxygen isotope stage (OIS) 3); the younger one post-dating the Kurtak Pedocomplex and predating the Holocene soil. Three major phases of soil formation occurred during the Upper Pleistocene. The Kameny Log Pedocomplex (OIS 5e) consists of at least two pedogenetic episodes, a lower clayey chernozem forming during a more humid and warmer climate than today, and an upper chernozem representing a drier climate than today, the latter one including a well-pronounced carbonate-rich horizon. The Sukhoy Log Pedocomplex consists of a chernozem-like palaeosol and two kastanozjems (OIS 5ca) and the Kurtak pedocomplex (OIS 3) with two chernozemlike palaeosols and up to three humic-rich layers. Additionally, weakly developed gleyed horizons are considered to represent palaeohydrological groundwater high levels. The results indicate a synchronous evolution of climate and environment change in both the more oceanic driven climate of West and Central Europe and Middle Siberia, as evidenced by luminescence dating results. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1501 Temperature variations since the mid-18th century for western Nepal, as reconstructed from tree-ring width and density of Abies spectabilis Sano M., Furuta F., Kobayashi O. and Sweda T. Dendrochronologia 2005 23/2 (83-92) The climate of western Nepal was reconstructed for the past 249 years using ring width and wood density of Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Spach from western Nepal. A total of 46 increment core samples were collected from 23 individual trees growing in an open A. spectabilis stand near timberline of 3850 m a.s.l. in Humla District, western Nepal. The core samples were subjected to densitometric analysis to obtain chronologies of ring width and three kinds of intra-annual bulk densities, i.e., min- imum, maximum, and mean. Response analysis of tree-ring parameters with climate records revealed that the ring width was correlated negatively with March-May (pre-monsoon) temperature and positively with March-May precipitation, while the minimum density was correlated positively with March-July temperature and negatively with March-May precipitation. On the other hand, the maximum and mean densities were positively correlated with August-September and March-September temperatures, respectively. These results indicate that the ring width and minimum density are primarily controlled by the pre-monsoon temperature and precipitation, while the latewood density by the late monsoon temperature. Finally based on these results of the response analysis, a transfer function was established, with which March-September temperature was reconstructed for the past 249 years, which shows a warming trend from 1750s until approximately 1790, followed by cooling until 1810, then by a gradual warming trend extending to 1950, and a notable cold period continuing up to the present. No evidence of a consistent warming trend over the last century or two commonly appearing in higher latitudes was found in the present reconstruction, but possible factor behind the widespread glacial retreat in the Nepal Himalayas was discussed. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1502 Sediment sources and East Asian monsoon intensity over the last 450 ky. Mineralogical and geochemical investigations on South China Sea sediments Boulay S., Colin C., Trentesaux A. et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2005 228/3-4 (260-277) A coupled approach based on clay mineral assemblages and isotopic data (Sr and Nd) of sediment from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1145 has been used to trace the sources of sediment feeding the northern part of the South China Sea, and to investigate the evolution of East Asian monsoon intensity over the last 450 ky. Clay mineral assemblages are dominated by illite and smectite, with lesser abundance of chlorite and kaolinite. 87 Sr / 86 Sr and  (0) isotopic data, combined with the smectite Nd / (illite + chlorite) ratio, indicate that the Pearl River is the main contributor for detrital material to the northern margin of the SCS, with variable continental input of volcanic material derived from the erosion of the Luzon Arc. These inputs follow the lowlatitude solar insolation with a 23 ky periodicity, as recorded by a periodic change of the clay mineralogy. For the first time, this study presents a SCS deep-sea sediment high-resolution record of climatic changes in the last 450 ky, showing that smectite / (illite + chlorite) variations are mainly related to changes in the East Asian summer monsoon intensity. Because the mineralogical record is independent of other external forcing phenomena such as global glacial/interglacial oscillations, the smectite / (illite + chlorite) ratio has been used here as a proxy to reconstruct past changes of the South-East Asian summer monsoon intensity. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1503 Did tree-Betula, Pinus and Picea survive the last glaciation along the west coast of Norway? A review of the evidence, in light of Kullman (2002) Birks H.H., Larsen E. and Birks H.J.B. Journal of Biogeography 2005 32/8 (1461-1471) Aim: We discuss the hypotheses proposed by Kullman [Geo¨ Oko 21 (2000) 141; Nordic Journal of Botany 21 (2001) 39; Journal of Biogeography 29 (2002) 1117] on the basis of radiocarbon-dated megafossils of late-glacial age from the central Swedish mountains that boreal trees survived the glaciation along the south-west coast of Norway and subsequently migrated eastward early in the late-glacial to early deglaciated parts of the central Swedish Scandes mountains. Methods: We assess these hypotheses on the basis of glacial geological evidence and four lines of palaeoecological evidence, namely macro fossil records of the tree species, vegetation and climate reconstructions from plant evidence, independent climate reconstructions from other proxies for the late-glacial environment of south-west Norway, and the patterns of post-glacial spread of the tree species. Location: South and west Norway, central Swedish Scandes mountains (J¨amtland). Results and conclusions: South-west Norway and the adjacent continental shelf were under ice at the last-glacial maximum (LGM). The late-glacial vegetation of south-west THE QUATERNARY Norway was treeless and summer temperatures were below the thermal limits for Betula pubescens Ehrh., Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L.) Karst. Instead of spreading immediately after the onset of Holocene warming, as might have been expected if local populations were surviving, B. pubescens showed a lag of local arrival of 600 to > 1000 years, Pinus lagged by 1500 to > 2000 years, and Picea only reached southern Norway c. 1500 years ago and has not colonized most of south-west Norway west of the watershed. Glacial geological evidence shows the presence of an ice sheet in the Scandes at the LGM and in the Younger Dryas, which was cold-based near or at the area where the late-glacial-dated megafossils were recovered by Kullman. We conclude that the samples dated by Kullman (2002) should be evaluated carefully for possible sources of contamination. All the available evidence shows that the biogeographical hypotheses, based on these radiocarbon dates taken at face value, of late-glacial tree survival at the Norwegian coast and subsequent eastwards spread to the mountains, are unsupportable. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1504 Temperatures of the habitat of quaternary mollusks from Azerbaijan as determined from the Ca/Mg ratio Aliyev S.A. and Sari A. Geochemistry International 2005 43/9 (920-927) This study focuses on the characterization of calcium and magnesium distribution in the shells of Quaternary mollusks from Azerbaijan and paleotemperature estimates from the Ca/Mg ratio. Using the obtained paleotemperature values, three stages of temperature maximum were distinguished in the Quaternary period: Holocene (19.9-24.3°C), early Khvalyn (19.6-24.4°C), and early Khazar (19.3-22.2°C); and two stages of cooling: late Khvalyn (13.5-15.7°C) and late Khazar (15.9-17.2°C), corresponding to the glacial and interglacial epochs of the late Pleistocene. The obtained temperatures of the marine habitat and sedimentation in the Caspian Sea (from the Ca/Mg ratio) were compared with temperature data for the eastern Mediterranean Sea determined by various methods. The reported calcium-magnesium paleotemperatures are in agreement with the paleotemperature estimates obtained by the investigation of the species composition of various systematic groups of planktonic foraminifera and 18 O in the Late Quaternary basins of the eastern Mediterranean Sea (including the Sea of Marmara). These data provide an adequate record of variations in the temperature conditions of the habitat of Caspian mollusks of Azerbaijan in Quaternary time. Copyright © 2005 by MAIK "Nauka/ Interperiodica" (Russia). 1505 Lateglacial palaeoenvironments and palaeoclimates from Conty and Houdancourt, northern France, reconstructed from Beetle remains Ponel P., Coope R., Antoine P. et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (2449-2465) Two Lateglacial insect sequences are described (a) from Conty, in the Selle valley and (b) from Houdancourt in the Oise valley, both in northern France. These investigations are part of a multidisciplinary investigation involving archaeology, sedimentology, geomorphology, geochronology and palaeontology (pollen, macroscopic plant remains, vertebrates, molluscs and insect fossils). The sequences of insect assemblages date from the latter part of the Bølling to the end of the Allerød periods. Environmental analysis of these faunas shows that rivers with riffles and pools meandered across flood plains. The river was extensively fringed with reedy vegetation. The only trees growing close to the river were of Salix and/or Populus. All the insect assemblages indicate that the thermal climates during the Bølling and Allerød periods were similar to one another and during both periods were very nearly as warm as that of the present day. No insect fossils were recovered from the sediments attributed to the Older Dryas interval though other evidence from these sites suggests that this event was decidedly colder than those immediately preceding and succeeding it. Comparisons are made between Lateglacial climatic patterns in northern France with those elsewhere in Europe. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 285 1506 A review of Late Pleistocene and Holocene biogeography of highland Mediterranean pines (Pinus type sylvestris) in Portugal, based on wood charcoal Figueiral I. and Carcaillet C. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (2466-2476) The historical biogeography of highland Mediterranean pines is explored based on Late Pleistocene and Holocene charcoal from Portugal (Iberian Peninsula, SW Europe). The earliest presence of Pinus type sylvestris (including P. nigra, P. sylvestris and P. uncinata) is recorded in archaeological layers dated at ca 23,900 BP, during the Full Glacial. The abundance of remains identified as Pinus type sylvestris suggests that this was a frequent taxon, at least at middle altitudes. Significant occurrences were recorded up until ca 11,000 BP, at the end of the Lateglacial warming period. From the early Holocene onwards the presence of Pinus type sylvestris is recorded only sporadically, but at least up to 2000 years ago. The competition with other tree and shrub species favoured by the Holocene warming may have triggered the decline of highland pines in Portugal. Eventual anthropogenic impact is also considered as playing a role in its regional decline, such as increasing fire frequency resulting from amplified land use since the Neolithic. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1507 Shallow-marine sediment cores record climate variability and earthquake activity off Lisbon (Portugal) for the last 2000 years Abrantes F., Lebreiro S., Rodrigues T. et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (2477-2494) Sea Surface Temperature (SST), river discharge and biological productivity have been reconstructed from a multi-proxy study of a high-temporal-resolution sedimentary sequence recovered from the Tagus deposition center off Lisbon (Portugal) for the last 2000 years. SST shows 2°C variability on a century scale that allows the identification of the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) and the Little Ice Age (LIA). High Iron (Fe) and fine-sediment deposition accompanied by high n-alkane concentrations and presence of freshwater diatoms during the LIA (1300-1900 AD) (Science 292 (2001) 662) suggest augmented river discharge, whereas higher total-alkenone concentrations point to increased river-induced productivity. During the MWP (550-1300 AD) (Science 292 (2001) 662) larger mean-grain size and low values of magnetic susceptibility, and concentrations of Fe, n-alkanes, and n-alcohols are interpreted to reflect decreased runoff. At the same time, increased benthic and planktonic foraminifera abundances and presence of upwelling related diatoms point to increased oceanic productivity. On the basis of the excellent match found between the negative phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index and the intensified Tagus River discharge observed for the last century, it is hypothesized that the increased influx of terrigenous material during the LIA reflects a negative NAO-like state or the occurrence of frequent extreme NAO minima. During the milder few centuries of the MWP, stronger coastal upwelling conditions are attributed to a persistent, positive NAO-like state or the frequent occurrence of extreme NAO maxima. The peak in magnetic susceptibility, centered at 90 cm composite core depth (ccd), is interpreted as the result of the well-known 1755 AD Lisbon earthquake. The Lisbon earthquake and accompanying tsunami are estimated to have caused the loss of 39 cm of sediment (355 years of record - most of the LIA) and the instantaneous deposition of a 19-cm sediment bed. © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1508 Moving front or population expansion: How did Picea abies (L.) Karst. become frequent in central Sweden? Giesecke T. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (24952509) The Holocene increase in Picea abies around four central Swedish lakes was analysed using extended pollen counts over the sections comprising the tail of frequent, but discontinuous, occurrences and the beginning of the continuous curve. Simple landscape scenarios were simulated to test possible mechanisms of the spread and population expansion of P. abies in Scandinavia. Predicted patterns of pollen accumulation rates from the landscape scenarios were compared to patterns observed at the four sites to explore how the observed curves could have come about. Simulations of a moving front scenario indicate that pollen accumulation 286 THE QUATERNARY rates should rise faster than the exponential and logistic increase observed at the four sites. Exponential increase of pollen values at the sites is most likely due to locally increasing populations. However, the geography of expanding populations may influence the shape of the curve. Empirical and model results are discussed to gain new insights into the pattern and processes of the spread of P abies in central Sweden. Propagule pressure and self-fertilisation are considered as possible explanations of why small outpost populations that may have existed before the regional expansion of P. abies did not expand earlier. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1509 The dynamics of chironomid assemblages and vegetation during the Late Quaternary at Laguna Facil, Chonos Archipelago, southern Chile Massaferro J., Brooks S.J. and Haberle S.G. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (2510-2522) We compare high-resolution pollen and chironomid records from the last 15,000 yr in Laguna Facil, southern Chile. Major vegetation and chironomid changes are recorded between ca 14,900 and 14,700 cal. yr BP. During the Lateglacial, changes in the chironomid stratigraphy lag behind changes in the pollen stratigraphy suggesting that the chironomids are responding to changes in the tree canopy or in soil chemistry brought about by vegetational development. At about 7200 cal. yr BP there is a change in the chironomid stratigraphy in advance of changes in the vegetation. This suggests that the response is to regional climatic change. The relatively close correlation of the chironomid and pollen stratigraphies with changes in charcoal concentrations also implicates the importance of fire and/or vulcanism in influencing the dynamics of forest and limnological systems. There is no clear evidence of cooling during the Younger Dryas chronozone in Laguna Facil. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1510 Synchrony of Southern Hemisphere Late Pleistocene arid episodes: A review of luminescence chronologies from arid aeolian landscapes south of the Equator Munyikwa K. Quaternary Science Reviews 2005 24/23-24 (25552583) Luminescence-dating chronologies that have been reported in various studies of Late Pleistocene arid-land aeolian sequences from Australia, southern Africa and South America are reviewed with the objective of determining whether any pan-hemispheric synchroneity existed in the timing of landscape responses to Late Quaternary climate changes south of the equator. The results broadly show that contemporaneous regional arid-land aeolian activity occurred in Australia and southern Africa during the periods ca 65-41 and 36-9 ka. The relatively limited luminescence data from the South American subcontinent also point to recurrent arid-land aeolian deposition between 63 and 8 ka, with increasing frequency in the period ca 32-8 ka. Records from all three continents suggest a period of reduced aeolian activity between 41 and 36 ka. Overall, the data are indicative of extensive landscape instability of the low to mid-latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere during the last glacial period, particularly at the Last Glacial Maximum, which accords with mainstream opinions. Aeolian activity during the Holocene has generally been localised. The rigour with which comparisons can be made between the different studies, however, is constrained by variations in practices between laboratories and changes that have occurred to luminescence dating procedures over the years. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1511 Climatic and environmental changes at southeastern coast of Lake Biwa over past 3000 years, inferred from borehole temperature data Goto S., Hamamoto H. and Yamano M. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 2005 152/4 (314-325) In order to infer past climatic change in central Japan, we measured temperatures in a borehole at the Karasuma site, on the southeastern coast of Lake Biwa, and reconstructed sediment surface temperature history during the last 3000 years. The reconstructed temperature history shows apparent Medieval Warm Period, Little Ice Age, and contemporary temperature warming. However, the large amplitude of the temperature changes up to 4-5 K cannot be explained by past climatic change only, sug- gesting that there was some other cause of the larger amplitude temperature changes. The onsets of temperature decrease in the late 12th century A. D. and temperature increase in the mid 17th century A. D. appear to coincide with occurrences of two destructive earthquakes (1185 and 1662 A. D.) that caused water level changes of Lake Biwa. It suggests that the reconstructed sediment surface temperature history reflects the environmental change due to tectonically induced water level changes of the lake. If the annual mean of the ground surface temperature was higher than that of the bottom water temperature in a shallow part of the lake, which is consistent with the present-day data, the large amplitude of the sediment surface temperature change may be attributed to a combined effect of past climatic and environmental changes. Thus, we suggest that the borehole temperature at the Karasuma site preserves information not only on past climate changes but also on environmental changes due to tectonically induced water level changes. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1512 Isotopic and biogeochemical markers help in reconstructing the Lazaret Cave environment (Nice, France) during upper Pleistocene (IOS-5) (French) (Apport des marqueurs isotopiques et biog´eochimiques dans la reconstitution du pal´eoenvironnement de la grotte du Lazaret (Nice, Alpes-Maritimes) au cours du Pl´eistoc`ene sup´erieur (stade isotopique 5)) Rousseau L., Beauchamp J., Falgu`eres C. et al. Comptes Rendus - Geoscience 2005 337/15 (1348-1354) The isotopic composition of calcite from the stalagmitic floor E of the Lazaret Cave is interpreted as proxy of atmospheric circulation and vegetal cover changes during IOS 5. The 18O variations could indicate change in precipitation sources, which could originate from the Mediterranean Sea during warm periods and from the Atlantic Ocean during colder periods. The 13C variations could be related to vegetal cover and soil type. Tree cover appears to be dominant according to pollen spectra, and organic molecules trapped into calcite (sterols, terpenoids, humic acids). © 2005 Acad´emie des sciences. Publi´e par Elsevier SAS. Tous droits r´eserv´es. 1513 Aeolian process and pedogenesis under the influence of the East Asian monsoon: A statistical approach to particlesize distribution variability Parker E.J. and Bloemendal J. Sedimentary Geology 2005 181/34 (195-206) The grain size of Chinese loess has been widely regarded as a sensitive proxy for the intensity of the wind strength associated with the winter component of the East Asian monsoon. The majority of papers concerned with loess particle size examine variations in moments of the particle size distribution. However, in coastal geomorphological research parametric models have been used and the samples represented by resulting parameter estimates. Here we investigate the use of log-hyperbolic and log-skew-laplace models to distinguish between loess, loess subgroups and palaeosols in a particularly high accumulation rate profile from the NW Chinese loess plateau area. The aim is to define narrow units of ‘pristine’ loess that may indicate brief returns to dust storm conditions. With this approach, units within the loess, previously ascribed to Heinrich events, can be seen to have a particular particle size distribution signature, thus allowing them to be stratigraphically and environmentally constrained. Parametric models applied to grain-size distribution data in Chinese loess make a useful addition to previously used particle size techniques that have demonstrated cyclicity on a scale similar to that of Dansgaard-Oeschger events in ice cores and those designed to determine the degree of loess pedogenesis such as micromorphology and magnetic enhancement. The aim of our work is to make full use of particle size distribution data in the wider context of palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1514 An ostracode based paleolimnologic and paleohydrologic history of Death Valley: 200 to 0 ka Forester R.M., Lowenstein T.K. and Spencer R.J. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 2005 117/11-12 (1379-1386) Death Valley, a complex tectonic and hydrologic basin, was cored from its lowest surface elevation to a depth of 186 m. The sediments range from bedded primary halite to black muds. Con- THE QUATERNARY tinental ostracodes found in the black muds indicate that those sediments were deposited in a variety of hydrologic settings ranging from deep, relatively fresh water to shallow saline lakes to spring discharge supported wetlands. The alkaline-enriched, calcium-depleted paleolake waters indicate extrabasinal streamflow and basin-margin spring discharge. The alkaline-depleted, calcium-enriched paleowetland waters indicate intrabasinal spring discharge. During Marine Isotope Stage 6 (MIS 6, ca. 180-140 ka) the hydrologic settings were highly variable, implying that complex relations existed between climate and basin hydrology. Termination II (MIS 6 to MIS 5E) was a complex multicyclic sequence of paleoenvironments, implying that climates oscillated between high and low effective moisture. MIS 4 (ca. 73-61 ka) was a spring discharge supported wetland complex. During MIS 2 (ca. 20-12 ka) the hydrologic settings were variable, although they are not fully understood because some black muds deposited during that time were lost during coring. © 2005 Geological Society of America. 1515 Temperature variations recovered from tree-rings in the middle Qilian Mountain over the last millennium Liu X., Qin D., Shao X. et al. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/4 (521-529) Based on the cross-dated tree-ring samples collected from the middle Qilian Mountain, a standard ring-width chronology had been developed, which covered the period AD 1000 to 2000. The correlations between the chronology and climatic records from the nearby meteorological stations indicated that temperature was the dominant climatic factor for tree growth at upper timberline, and the most important climatic factor for the tree growth in the area was the mean temperature from previous December to current April. The temperature variations recovered from the ring-width data showed a cold period during the "Little Ice Age" and the continuous warming during the twentieth century. Comparison between the ring-width chronology and 18 O records from the Dunde ice core in the Qilian Mountain indicated that there was a consistent trend in both time series. A significant correlation existed between our ring-width chronology and the Northern Hemispheric temperature, suggesting that the climate changes in the Qilian Mountain were not only driven by regional factors, but also responsive to the global climate. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. 1516 The Y. D. and climate abrupt events in the early and middle Holocene: Stalagmite oxygen isotope record from Maolan, Guizhou, China Qin J., Yuan D., Cheng H. et al. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/4 (530-537) The isotope records which range from 3.9 kaBP to 15.7 kaBP with an average resolution of 90 a have been obtained from 45 cm to 193.6 cm of the upper part of D4 stalagmite from Dongguo Cave in Libo, Guizhou, by using system TIMS U-series dating and carbon and oxygen stable isotope analyses. The study indicates that the last cold event, the YD (Younger Dryas) event, of the last glacial period was apparently shown in D4 record, which started from 12.80 kaBP and ended in 11.58 kaBP, with a great range of drop in temperature. The end of the last glacial period was consistent with the termination I in oceanic isotope records and was with time limit of 11.3 kaBP. The three most distinct cold events in the early and middle Holocene occurred respectively in 10.91 kaBP, 8.27 kaBP and 4.75 kaBP, with a range of drop in temperature reaching 2 - 5°C. The climate abrupt events in thousand and hundred years scale recorded in stalagmite 18 O can be compared to those in GISP2 ice cores from Greenland in their happening time and the range of their lasting time. The cold events in 8.27 kaBP and 4.75 kaBP can also be compared to CC3 stalagmite records in Ireland, which indicate that climate changes of short range in China monsoon areas, western Europe and polar regions, have the same driving factor. This has a global significance. In addition, the trend of record curves in some time-stages is apparently different, which reflects probably the difference between environment in monsoon climate areas and in polar regions. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. 287 1517 Sea-salt aerosol transport patterns over the Northern Hemisphere inferred from two subarctic ice core records Yan Y., Kang S., Sun J. et al. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/4 (576-584) Atmospheric circulation reconstruction based on glaciochemical records requires knowledge of chemical concentration controls, such as source, transport pathway and strength. To gain insight into these processes, the relationships between glaciochemical records from two Northern Hemisphere sites (Mt. Logan in Yukon Territory and 20D in southern Greenland) and instrumental sea level pressure (SLP) series are investigated. Calibrations between Mt. Logan sea-salt sodium (ssNa+ ) concentration and SLP series show that ssNa + concentrations are closely correlated with the autumntime (SON) Aleutian Low and the summertime (JJA) North Pacific Subtropical High. Both the deepened Aleutian Low and enhanced North Pacific Subtropical High strengthen the transport of sea-salt aerosols from the North Pacific to the Mt. Logan region. Calibrations between 20D ssNa+ concentrations and SLP series indicate that ssNa+ concentrations are closely related to the wintertime (Jan.) Icelandic Low. A deepening of the Icelandic Low strengthens winter storms and frequent cyclogenesis over the North Atlantic and pushes more sea-salt laden air masses to the Greenland ice sheet. Therefore, ice core ssNa + records from the Mt. Logan region can be considered as a proxy for reconstructing the autumntime Aleutian Low and summertime North Pacific Subtropical High, and the ssNa+ records from Greenland ice core (20D) may provide a proxy for reconstructing the wintertime Icelandic Low. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. 1518 Lake sediment records on climate change and human activities since the Holocene in Erhai catchment, Yunnan Province, China Shen J., Yang L., Yang X. et al. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/3 (353-363) According to high-resolution analyses on multi-proxy of sediment core from the Erhai Lake, Yunnan Province, the sequence of climatic and environmental change since the Holocene has been reconstructed based on accurate dating. The results show that climate had transited from cold-wet to warm-wet during ca. 12950-8399 aBP in this area, and the transition happened in ca. 10329 aBP. Due to the enhancing southwest Asian monsoon and increasing precipitation, the lake-level of the Erhai Lake began to rise after ca. 10329 a BP. Climate in the catchment was warm and wet during the mid-Holocene, and the warmest stage appeared in ca. 8399-6371 a BP. The lake-level descended in the mid-Holocene because of the decrease of effective moisture in the basin. Human activities appeared in ca. 6371 a BP, and the initial manner mainly focused on deforestation. Up to ca. 2139 a BP, due to the amount of immigration into this area, the cultivation was developed widely, which was followed by mining (coal mine). Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. 1519 Lithology and stratigraphy of sediment cores from the Eifel dry maar lakes (German) (Lithologie und Stratigraphie der sp¨atpleistoz¨anen Trockenmaare der Eifel) Schaber K. and Sirocko F. Mainzer Geowissenschaftliche Mitteilungen 2005 -/33 (295-340) Twentytwo long sediment cores from 12 Eifel dry maar lakes and one modern lake are stratigraphically correlated to obtain a continuous record of the history of sedimentation during the last climatic cycle from today back to 140 000 years ago. The backbone of the stratigraphy is based on 64 AMS 14 C dates, 4 luminescence dates and the occurrence of the 5 to 20 cm thick deposits of the phonolithic D¨umpelmaar tephra, which is found in all records immediately above the annually laminated sections of the last interglacial. Greyscale variations in the sections of the last glacial show a stadial/ interstadial succession, which is highly similar to the Greenland ice core NorthGRIP, which allows high precision tuning of the stratigraphy, and document also the tight link between the North Atlantic/Greenland climate and central Europe. The sediments of the 22 cores reveal 3 different lithotypes, wh ich are synthesized into a general lithological profile. Accordingly, the last interglacial sediments are always fine grained laminae which allow varve counting in a few cases. A short episode of strong seismic activity immediately after the last interglacial caused seismites in the center of the lakes and 288 THE QUATERNARY slumps around the flanks. Early Weichselian sediments are still organic rich, but with much more clastic input than during the interglacial. Massive slumps indicate a lake level regression during the beginning of the marine oxygen isotope stage 4, which is then dominated by eolian sediments. The early interstadials of MIS3 are again rich in organic carbon content, stadials reveal abundant loess, which becomes dominating during the last glacial maximum. The phonolithic tephra of the Laacher See eruption is the second distinct chronological marker immediately above a fast transition to high organic carbon contents at the begin of the Holocene. This succession of sedimentation is typical for all Eifel maar lakes and clearly reflects the climate evolution of the last glacial cycle. 1520 Phosphorus geochemistry in the Luochuan loess section, North China and its paleoclimatic implications Rao W., Chen J., Luo T. and Liu L. Quaternary International 2005 144/1 (72-83) Total P (Pt ) on a carbonate-free basis in an entire loess-paleosol sequence and Pt , organic P (Po ) and inorganic P (Pi ) in the S0 -L1 - S1 sequence were investigated in detail with different resolutions for the Luochuan loess section from northern China. Pt content varies between 393 and 786 ppm throughout the loesspaleosol sequence, and is generally higher in the loess than in interstratified paleosols, showing fluctuation cycles of 100 ka in correspondence to loess-paleosol alternations. Pt variations on a carbonate-free basis in the loess-paleosol sequence could indicate variations in atmosphere precipitation resulting in different leaching loss of P from paleosols. Pi has an average value of 499 ppm with a range of 324-560 ppm, accounting for more than 70% of Pt in the S0 -L1 -S1 sequence, where the minimum of Pi in the Malan loess is higher than the maximum of Pi in S1 . Po ranges between 59 and 233 ppm with an average of 132 ppm in the S0 - L1 -S1 sequence. Phosphorus (P) was initially delivered to the Luochuan loess section via influx of aeolian dust from the northern desert and Gobi areas by the East Asian winter monsoon, and then was modified by pedogenesis associated with the East Asian summer monsoon during the last 130 ka. "Preserved Pt " in the loess L1 is tightly correlated with grain size without leaching loss of P due to enrichment of P in fine-grained fractions, as well as "initial Pt ". "Leaching Pt " data show that paleosol S1 had lost 15-40% of its "initial Pt ", and that there was much more precipitation in S1 than in L1 . Pi subject to slightly weak pedogenesis was completely transformed into Po without leaching loss of P in loess L1 . By contrast, much Pi disappeared from paleosol S1 due to strong pedogenesis, partly through leaching and partly through conversion to organic forms during P cycling processes. Po variation is similar to those of MS and the <7.8 m fraction in L1 , but contains more information on the East Asian winter monsoon due to weak pedogenesis without leaching of P. Po in S1 lower than L1 SS1 as a consequence of strong decomposition of the organic matter kept constantly in the middle of S1 where Pi kept at the lowest of 423 ppm, suggesting that there existed a very warm and humid climate related to the enhanced summer monsoon during that period. The mean organic P/inorganic P ratio (Po /Pi ) is lower in the L1 LL1 and L1 LL2 than in the S0 , S1 and L1 SS1 , indicating that low Po /Pi ratios coincide with weak weathering-pedogenesis, and higher Po /Pi ratios correspond to strong weathering-pedogenesis. Po /Pi ratio can eliminate the effect of grain size on aeolian dust because of chemical uniformity of aeolian dust and enrichment of Po and Pi in the fine-grained fractions. Thus, Po / Pi ratio is solely linked to pedogenesis of the Luochuan loess section. Variation in Po /Pi ratio is similar to those of MS and the Marine Oxygen Isotope composition, indicating the summer monsoon evolution during the last 130 ka and providing the biogeochemical evidence for further understanding the genetic links between the East Asian monsoon and global climate change. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. 1521 Modern pollen-rain characteristics of tall terra firme moist evergreen forest, southern Amazonia Gosling W.D., Mayle F.E., Tate N.J. and Killeen T.J. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (284-297) The paucity of modern pollen-rain data from Amazonia constitutes a significant barrier to understanding the Late Quaternary vegetation history of this globally important tropical forest re- gion. Here, we present the first modern pollen-rain data for tall terra firme moist evergreen Amazon forest, collected between 1999 and 2001 from artificial pollen traps within a 500  20 m permanent study plot (14°34
50

S, 60°49
48

W) in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (NE Bolivia). Spearman’s rank correlations were performed to assess the extent of spatial and inter-annual variability in the pollen rain, whilst statistically distinctive taxa were identified using Principal Components Analysis (PCA). Comparisons with the floristic and basal area data of the plot (stems 10 cm d.b.h.) enabled the degree to which taxa are over/under-represented in the pollen rain to be assessed (using R-rel values). Moraceae/Urticaceae dominates the pollen rain (64% median abundance) and is also an important constituent of the vegetation, accounting for 16% of stems 10 cm d.b.h. and ca. 11% of the total basal area. Other important pollen taxa are Arecaceae (cf. Euterpe), Melastomataceae/Combretaceae, Cecropia, Didymopanax, Celtis, and Alchornea. However, 75% of stems and 67% of the total basal area of the plot 10 cm d.b.h. belong to species which are unidentified in the pollen rain, the most important of which are Phenakospermum guianensis (a banana-like herb) and the key canopy-emergent trees, Erisma uncinatum and Qualea paraensis. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1522 15,000-yr pollen record of vegetation change in the high altitude tropical Andes at Laguna Verde Alta, Venezuela Rull V., Abbott M.B., Polissar P.J. et al. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (308-317) Pollen analysis of sediments from a high-altitude (4215 m), Neotropical (9°N) Andean lake was conducted in order to reconstruct local and regional vegetation dynamics since deglaciation. Although deglaciation commenced
15,500 cal yr B.P., the area around the Laguna Verde Alta (LVA) remained a periglacial desert, practically unvegetated, until about 11,000 cal yr B.P. At this time, a lycopod assemblage bearing no modern analog colonized the superp´aramo. Although this community persisted until
6000 cal yr B.P., it began to decline somewhat earlier, in synchrony with cooling following the Holocene thermal maximum of the Northern Hemisphere. At this time, the pioneer assemblage was replaced by a low-diversity superp´aramo community that became established
9000 cal yr B.P. This replacement coincides with regional declines in temperature and/or available moisture. Modern, more diverse superp´aramo assemblages were not established until
4600 cal yr B.P., and were accompanied by a dramatic decline in Alnus, probably the result of factors associated with climate, humans, or both. Pollen influx from upper Andean forests is remarkably higher than expected during the Late Glacial and early to middle Holocene, especially between 14,000 and 12,600 cal yr B.P., when unparalleled high values are recorded. We propose that intensification of upslope orographic winds transported lower elevation forest pollen to the superp´aramo, causing the apparent increase in tree pollen at high altitude. The association between increased forest pollen and summer insolation at this time suggests a causal link; however, further work is needed to clarify this relationship. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1523 Paleoecological and climatic changes of the Upper Lerma Basin, Central Mexico during the Holocene Ludlow- Wiechers B., Almeida- Le˜nero L. and Islebe G. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (318-332) The record of Almoloya Lake in the Upper Lerma basin starts with the deposition of the late Pleistocene Upper Toluca Pumice layer. The data from this interval indicate a period of climatic instability that lasted until 8500 cal yr B.P., when temperature conditions stabilized, although moisture fluctuations continued until 8000 cal yr B.P. Between 8500 and 5000 cal yr B.P. a temperate climate is indicated by dominance of Pinus. From 5000 to 3000 cal yr B.P. Quercus forest expanded, suggesting a warm temperate climate: A first indication of drier environmental conditions is an increase in grassland between 4200 and 3500 cal yr B.P. During the Late Holocene (3300 to 500 cal yr B.P.) the increase of Pinus and grassland indicates temperate dry conditions, with a considerable increase of Pinus between 1100 and 950 cal yr B.P. At the end of this period, humidity increased. The main tendency during the Holocene was a change from humid THE QUATERNARY to dry conditions. During the Early Holocene, Almoloya Lake was larger and deeper; the changing humidity regime resulted in a fragmented marshland, with the presence of aquatic and subaquatic vegetation types. 1524 A 23,000-yr pollen record from Lake Euramoo, Wet Tropics of NE Queensland, Australia Haberle S.G. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (343-356) A new extended pollen and charcoal record is presented from Lake Euramoo, Wet Tropics World Heritage rainforest of northeast Queensland, Australia. The 8.4-m sediment core taken from the center of Lake Euramoo incorporates a complete record of vegetation change and fire history spanning the period from 23,000 cal yr B.P. to present. The pollen record is divided into five significant zones; 23,000-16,800 cal yr B.P., dry sclerophyll woodland; 16,800-8600 cal yr B.P., wet sclerophyll woodland with marginal rainforest in protected pockets; 8600-5000 cal yr B.P., warm temperate rainforest; 5000-70 cal yr B.P., dry subtropical rainforest; 70 cal yr B.P.-AD 1999, degraded dry subtropical rainforest with increasing influence of invasive species and fire. The process of rainforest development appears to be at least partly controlled by orbital forcing (precession), though more local environmental variables and human activity are also significant factors. This new record provides the opportunity to explore the relationship between fire, drought and rainforest dynamics in a significant World Heritage rainforest region. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1525 Paleoclimate changes during the last 100,000 yr from a record in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest region and interhemispheric comparison Ledru M.- P., Rousseau D.- D., Cruz Jr. F.W. et al. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (444-450) A long terrestrial record, Colˆonia CO-3, from the Atlantic rainforest region in Brazil (23°52
S, 46°42
20

W, 900 m a.s.l.) registrates variations in the forest expansion during the last 100,000 yr. The 780-cm depth core was analyzed at 2-cm intervals and arboreal pollen frequencies were compared to nearby speleothem stable isotope records and neighboring marine records from the tropical Atlantic. To evaluate regional versus global climate forcing, our record was compared with Greenland and Antarctic ice-core records. These comparisons suggest that changes in temperature seen in polar latitudes relate to moisture changes: e.g., to changes in the length of the dry season, in tropical and subtropical latitudes during glacial as well as interglacial times. These climatic changes result from changes in the frequency of polar air incursions to these latitudes inducing a permanent cloud cover and precipitation. This is an important result that should help define paleoclimatic features in the Southern Hemisphere for the last glaciation. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1526 A Holocene pollen and diatom record from Vanderlin Island, Gulf of Carpentaria, lowland tropical Australia Prebble M., Sim R., Finn J. and Fink D. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (357-371) Sedimentary, palynological and diatom data from a dunefield lake deposit in the interior of Vanderlin Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria are presented. Prior to the formation of present perennial lake conditions, the intensified Australian monsoon associated with the early Holocene marine transgression allowed Cyperaceae sedges to colonise the alluvial margins of an expansive salt flat surrounded by an open Eucalyptus woodland. As sea level stabilised between 7500 and 4500 cal yr B.P. coastal dunes ceased to develop allowing dense Melaleuca forest to establish in a Restionaceae swamp. Dune-sand input into the swamp was diminished further as the increasingly dense vegetation prevented fluvial and aeolian transported sand arriving from coastal sources. This same process impounded the drainage basin allowing a perennial lake to form between 5500 and 4000 cal yr B.P. Myriophyllum and other aquatic taxa colonised the lake periphery under the most extensive woodland recorded for the Holocene. The palynological data support an effective precipitation model proposed for northern Australia that suggests more variable conditions in the late Holocene. A more precise measure of effective precipitation change is provided by diatom-based inferences that indicate few changes in lake hydrology. Such interpretations are 289 explained in terms of palynological sensitivity to adjustments in local fire regimes where regional precipitation change may only be recorded indirectly through fire promoting mechanisms, including intensified ENSO periodicity and human impact. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1527 High-resolution pollen record from core KW31, Gulf of Guinea, documents the history of the lowland forests of West Equatorial Africa since 40,000 yr ago Lezine A.- M. and Cazet J.- P. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (432-443) Pollen data from core KW31 recovered off the mouth of the Niger River (3°31
1N-05°34
1E; 1181 m water depth) provide an exceptional record of vegetation changes in the West African lowlands between 40,000 and 3500 cal yr B.P. The highly diverse microflora testify for the permanency of rain and secondary forests in the Niger river catchment, at least as gallery formations along rivers, during the last glacial period when dry conditions occurred in relation to enhanced trade-wind circulation. The direct consequence of the post-glacial warming and the correlative increase in monsoon fluxes over West Africa was the increase in forest diversity and the expansion of rain and secondary forests on the nearby continent. Comparison between KW31 pollen record and continental pollen data from 5°S to 25°N allows the evaluation of migration rates of tropical forest populations throughout North West Africa at the beginning of the Holocene and the vegetation response to the shift toward aridity recorded widely at the end of the African Humid Period around 4000 cal yr B.P. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. Oceans 1528 Analyses of a large-scale depositional clinoformal wedge along the Italian Adriatic coast Niedoroda A.Wm., Reed C.W., Das H. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (179-192) The processes controlling the formation of the late Holocene high-stand systems tract along the central Adriatic coast - a prograding clinoformal sediment wedge - have been diagnosed using a large-scale behavior-oriented numerical model. This model is based on time-averaged marine sediment dynamics, allowing it to represent processes acting over millennial time spans. River-derived sediment is redistributed by the combined action of littoral, shoreface and shelf processes. In this application the numerical model successfully simulates both the overall geometry of the deposits and the internal time-line stratigraphy. The simulation of this prograding clinoform with the numerical model clearly shows that the growth of these deposits depends on the combined effect of a strong and persistent coast-parallel advection and cross-shelf dispersion related to a large number of sediment re-entrainment events. This means that this clinoform is in the process of forming a new shelf surface with an offshore profile that is in adjustment with the present wave and current climate along with the relative stability of sea level over the past six millennia. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1529 Delta progradation and sediment fluxes since the last glacial in the Thermaikos Gulf and the Sporades Basin, NW Aegean Sea, Greece Lykousis V., Karageorgis A.P. and Chronis G.Th. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (381-397) Late Quaternary sedimentary cover in the Thermaikos Gulf consists of three seismic Units: (i) the uppermost Unit A that represents delta progradation during the last 6000 yr when the sea surface almost reached the present level (Highstand Systems Tract, HST); (ii) Unit B that includes relatively coarsegrained sediments deposited in a shallow, high-energy, estuarine environment during the post-glacial transgression (Transgressive Systems Tract, TST); and (iii) the lowest Unit C which may represent late glacial prodeltaic deposits and slope to basin turbidites (Lowstand Systems Tract, LST). Seismic units A and B overlay a well-defined unconformity which resulted from subaerial erosion during the late glacial sea-level fall. Subtracting 290 THE QUATERNARY the thickness of Unit A from the present bathymetry, the paleorelief of the Late Holocene times (ca. 6000 yr BP, sea level up to - 20 m) was assessed. Similarly, the paleo-relief
24 000 yr BP (sea level - 100 to - 120 m) was estimated. The main morphological feature is the incised valley of a major river that resulted from the confluence of the Axios, Aliakmon, Loudias, Gallikos and possibly Pinios Rivers. Sediment fluxes in the NW Aegean Sea were estimated for three time spans of the Late Quaternary (Interval I: 6000 yr BP-present, Interval II: 18 000- 6000 yr BP and Interval III:
24 000-18 000 yr BP). The terrestrial sediment load supplied by the Axios, Aliakmon, Pinios, and smaller rivers, was estimated at 35.4  109 t for Interval I. 93% of this material was deposited on the continental shelf, whereas the remaining 7% was transported to the adjacent basin. The mean annual terrestrial flux was estimated at 5.5  106 t yr-1 . During Interval II, more than 79  109 t of terrestrial sediment were discharged into the area (terrestrial flux 6.6  106 t yr-1 ), of which 86% was deposited on the shelf. During Interval III, the terrestrial load was 40.6  109 t (terrestrial flux 6.8  106 t yr -1 ), and sediments were predominantly deposited on the slope and basin. Based on the sediment’s carbonate content, the biogenic loads and fluxes were also determined. The biogenic flux during Intervals II and III was found to be
2.5-times higher than during Interval I. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1530 Isotopic and elemental records in a non-tropical coral (Cladocora caespitosa): Discovery of a new high-resolution climate archive for the Mediterranean Sea Silenzi S., Bard E., Montagna P. and Antonioli F. Global and Planetary Change 2005 49/1-2 (94-120) A 95-year annual record of skeletal Sr / Ca, Mg / Ca, 18 O and 13 C is reported for a non-tropical, slow-growing coral (Cladocora caespitosa) collected in the north-western Mediterranean Sea. Significant correlations were found for Sr / Ca vs. Mg / Ca, Sr / Ca vs. 18 O and for 18 O vs. 13 C, indicating the possibility of using this non-tropical species as a climatic and paleoclimatic biomarker. The Sr / Ca and Mg / Ca ratios as well as the 18 O composition in corals were compared against the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) data of IGOSS (Integrated Global Ocean Service System Products) for the north-western Mediterranean region. The Sr / Ca ratios show a significant correlation with the SST, according to the following equation: Sr / Ca (mmol/mol) = 11.25 ( 0.38) - 0.079 ( 0.026) SST (°C). The 18 O data do not appear to fit with the SST interval used, since the regression obtained is non-significant. This implies that other factors apart from temperature, such as the 18 O seawater , are affecting the coral 18 O. The relationship between Mg / Ca ratio and SST is not statistically significant. This is probably due to the heterogeneities in magnesium content found among the coral microstructures (calcification centres, surrounding fibres and dissepiments), along with other factors, such as the presence of microborings and/or organic matter. The annual record indicates a history of SST variation that is consistent with the instrumental measurements, and strongly suggests the feasibility of using this non-tropical coral as a new proxy for the Mediterranean Sea. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1531 Late Quaternary sea-level highstands in the central and eastern Indian Ocean: A review Woodroffe C.D. Global and Planetary Change 2005 49/1-2 (121138) The relative sea-level history of several atolls in the central and eastern Indian Ocean, including the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Chagos Archipelago, and the Maldives-Laccadive Archipelagoes, has been debated for over a century but takes on a particular significance in the face of anticipated climate change. For each of these central and eastern Indian Ocean atolls Pleistocene limestone is encountered at depths of 6-20 m below sea level. On the Cocos (Keeling) Islands this has been dated to Last Interglacial age. Conglomerate platform underlies the reef islands on Cocos within which a sequence of fossil microatolls of massive and branching Porites records a gradual fall of sea level relative to the atoll. In the Maldives, the significance of outcrops of ‘reef rock’ has been vigorously debated without resolving sea-level history. Although in situ Heliopora occurs on the reef flat of Addu Atoll, dated at around 2700 radiocarbon yrs BP, other evidence for higher sea level remains poorly constrained. Conglomerates of a similar age have been described from the Chagos Archipelago, but it has not been unequivocally demonstrated that they formed under conditions of relatively higher sea level. In contrast to reefs further west in the Indian Ocean, each of these atolls has living microatolls of massive Porites that have been constrained in their upward growth by sea level. Interpretation of the upper surface of two such specimens from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands indicates broad fluctuations in the sea surface over the past century; similar microatolls are described from the Maldives implying little change in sea level over recent years. Regardless of minor past fluctuations, most reef islands in the Maldives are particularly low-lying and appear vulnerable to inundation, and extracting a more detailed sea-level history remains an important challenge. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1532 Palaeoceanography of the Banda Sea, and Late Pleistocene initiation of the Northwest Monsoon Spooner M.I., Barrows T.T., De Deckker P. and Paterne M. Global and Planetary Change 2005 49/1-2 (28-46) This paper details the Late Quaternary palaeoceanography of the Banda Sea based on analysis of core SHI 9016, located east of Timor. This core is located below the pathway of the Indonesian Throughflow, at a depth of 1805 m bsl. Planktonic foraminifera assemblages, the 18 O and 13 C of the foraminifer Globigerinoides ruber, and the total carbonate content of each sample were used to reconstruct the vertical structure of the water column through the past
80,000 yr. Today, the core site is characterised by high sea-surface temperature and high precipitation, which results in the formation of a low-salinity boundary layer. Sea-surface temperature estimates down core indicate minimal cooling during the last glacial maximum. Mean sea-surface temperatures ranged between 29.8°C and 26.6°C for the past
80,000 yr; sea-surface seasonality never increased above 3°C. In addition, the abundance of the planktonic foraminifera Neogloboquadrina dutertrei, Neogloboquadrina pachyderma, and Globigerinoides quadrilobatus indicates that the mixed layer (the low-salinity boundary layer of the Throughflow) thinned during Marine Isotope Stages 3 and 2. This enhanced a deep chlorophyll maximum (DCM) layer. The Northwest Monsoon was less intense for about 60,000 yr and then ‘switched on’ at
15,000 cal yr BP. This thickened the mixed layer, reducing the DCM, and increased SST seasonality in the Banda Sea. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1533 Inherent correlation between decreased marine sedimentary phosphorus and glacial atmospheric CO2 decline Weng H.- X., Qin Y.- C. and Weng J.- K. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The environmental and biogeochemical information implicated by a sediment column from the northern shelf of the South China Sea suggests that the vertical phosphorus variation in the sediment column bares a negative correlation with those of calcium carbonate and cadmium. The functional correlation between CO2 and PO34 in seawater is given by calculating a series of chemical equilibriums, indicating a coupling relationship between the accumulation of marine sedimentary P and the atmospheric CO2 change. The decreased P accumulation in marine sediments correlated to the increase of marine primary production during the glacial period might act as a key factor causing glacial atmospheric CO2 decline. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1534 Changes in the source and transport mechanism of terrigenous input to the Indian sector of Southern Ocean during the late Quaternary and its palaeoceanographic implications Thamban M., Naik S.S., Mohan R. et al. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth and Planetary Sciences 2005 114/5 (443-452) Changes in the terrigenous sediment source and transport mechanisms during the late Quaternary have been investigated using four sediment cores within the Indian sector of Southern Ocean, using the magnetic susceptibility (MS) and sedimentological records. Sediments deposited during the Holocene and other interglacial periods were characterised by low MS, low sand content, reduced ice-rafted detritus (IRD) input and increased THE QUATERNARY illite possibly transported via hydrographic advection from the south. The glacial intervals are characterised by high MS, high sand content, increased IRD input and reduced illite clays, derived from both local as well as Antarctic sources. Significant reduction in clay fraction and illite content during glacials suggests that the erosive and transporting capabilities of the deep and bottom waters could have reduced compared to the interglacial times. The changes in terrigenous influx to this region were significantly influenced by the rhythmic glacial-interglacial fluctuations in bottom circulation and the position of the Polar Front. © Printed in India. 1535 Palaeoceanographic implications of abundance and mean proloculus diameter of benthic foraminiferal species Epistominella exigua in sub-surface sediments from distal Bay of Bengal fan Saraswat R., Nigam R. and Barreto L. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth and Planetary Sciences 2005 114/5 (453-458) Temporal variation in abundance and mean proloculus diameter of the benthic foraminiferal species Epistominella exigua has been reconstructed over the last
50,000 yr BP, from a core collected from the distal Bay of Bengal fan, to assess its potential application in palaeoceanographic reconstruction studies. The down-core variation shows significant change in abundance of E. exigua during the last
50,000 yr BP. In view of the present day abundance of this species from areas with strong seasonal organic matter supply, we conclude that at
7,
22,
33 and
46 kyr BP, strong seasonality prevailed in the distal Bay of Bengal fan, probably indicating either strong or prolonged north-east monsoon or weakened south-west monsoon. For the first time, a strong correlation is observed in abundance and mean proloculus diameter of E. exigua. Based on coherent variation in mean proloculus diameter and abundance, it is postulated that mean proloculus diameter can also be used to infer increased seasonality in organic matter production, thus variation in strength or duration of monsoon. Thus, this study establishes that the downcore vaxiation in the abundance and mean proloculus diameter of Epistominella exigua can be used to infer past climatic variations from the distal Bay of Bengal fan. © Printed in India. 1536 Stable isotopes and sclerochronology of the bivalve Mesodesma donacium: Potential application to Peruvian paleoceanographic reconstructions Carr´e M., Bentaleb I., Blamart D. et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2005 228/1-2 (4-25) Reconstructing the past ENSO (El Ni˜no Southern Oscillation) interannual variability requires very high resolution sea surface temperature (SST) proxies. In order to compensate for the lack of coral archive in the Eastern Pacific cold tongue, we studied the potentiality of the bivalve species Mesodesma donacium as a SST tracer for the Peruvian coast. Biomineralisation cycles and growth line formation in the shells are shown to be controlled by tides. The sclerochronology based on fortnightly cycles allowed us to compare local SST data with high resolution shell records. As a result of the high correlation between SST and aragonite 18 O, we calculated a linear SST-fractionation relationship for the 14-20°C range: T(°C)=(17.41 1.15)(3.66 0.16)( 18 Oarag./PDB - 18 Owat./SMOW ). The difference from the commonly used Grossman and Ku (1986) [Grossman, E.L., Ku, T.L., 1986. Oxygen and carbon fractionation in biogenic aragonite: temperature effect. Chemical Geology 59, 59-74] equation suggests the potential existence of a species dependence of vital effect within bivalves. This preliminary equation allows monthly-scale SST reconstructions with a 1.5°C precision using M. donacium archaeological shells from southern Peru, giving potential insights into the problem of past ENSO behaviour. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1537 Orbitally paced paleoproductivity variations in the Timor Sea and Indonesian throughflow variability during the last 460 kyr Holbourn A., Kuhnt W., Kawamura H. et al. Paleoceanography 2005 20/3 (1-18) A high-resolution (
1-2 kyr) multiproxy record from the Timor Sea in the easternmost Indian Ocean (International Marine Global Change (IMAGES) Program Core MD01-2378, latitude 291 13°04.95
S, longitude 121°47.27
E, 1783 in water depth) closely tracks changes in intermediate water ventilation and paleoproductivity over the last 460 kyr within one of the main outflow passages of the Indonesian Throughflow. Spectral analysis of five different flux-based productivity proxies indicates spectral power concentrated in the 100 kyr (glacial-interglacial) and the 23 kyr and 19 kyr (precessional) periods. Paleoproductivity maxima lead ice volume (benthic 18 O) maxima by 20° to 40° (
1300 to 2600 years) at the precession band. The spectral differences in tropical paleoproductivity records from the Pacific and Indian oceans suggest that local processes (wind and circulation patterns driven by insolation) are dominant in driving productivity rather than large-scale tropical features. In the Timor Sea, productivity fluctuations over the last 460 kyr were strongly influenced by monsoonal wind patterns offshore NW Australia (23 and 19 kyr) and were also modulated by sea level-related variations in the intensity of the Indonesian Throughflow (100 kyr). Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1538 Diatom-bound 15 N/14 N: New support for enhanced nutrient consumption in the ice age subantarctic Robinson R.S., Sigman D.M., DiFiore P.J. et al. Paleoceanography 2005 20/3 (1-14) Diatom-bound 15 N/14 N was used to reconstruct the glacial nutrient status of the Subantarctic Zone in the Southern Ocean. Down-core records from both the Pacific and Indian sectors show 15 N of 5 to 6%‰ during the Last Glacial Maximum and a decrease, coincident with the glacial termination, to values as low as 2‰. The effect of either diatom assemblage or physiological change on the diatom-bound 15 N/14 N is unknown and cannot yet be ruled out as a possible explanation for the observed change. However, the consistency between Indian and Pacific sector records and with other paleoceanographic data suggests that the glacial-interglacial difference in diatom-bound 15 N/14 N was driven by higher consumption of nitrate in the subantarctic surface during the last ice age. Such a change in nutrient consumption may have resulted from atmospheric iron fertilization and/or decreased glacial mixed layer depths associated with sea ice melting. Enhanced nutrient consumption in the glacial subantarctic would have worked to lower the concentration Of CO2 in the ice age atmosphere. It also would have reduced the preformed nutrient content of the low-latitude thermocline, leading to decreases in lowlatitude productivity, suboxia, and denitrification. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1539 Glacial to interglacial changes in the settling depth of the Mediterranean Outflow plume Rogerson M., Rohling E.J., Weaver P.P.E. and Murray J.W. Paleoceanography 2005 20/3 (1-12) We present micropalaeontological and grain-size records for a set of sediment cores from the Gulf of Cadiz (southwest Spain) that reflect changes in the position and strength of the Mediterranean Outflow (MO) current. The cores sample a sediment drift (the Gil Eanes Drift) that is positioned lower on the slope in the Gulf of Cadiz than the position of the main current today. The data indicate that the drift is of glacial age and that the glacial MO current was positioned lower on the slope than today but also that it was active over a considerably reduced area of the slope. We argue that this observation is consistent with physical constraints on the Gibraltar Exchange and on the likely settling and spreading behavior of the MO plume along the Iberian Margin under glacial environmental and sea level conditions. The deeper settling of the MO is likely to have influenced the formation of glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water and also may have exerted indirect influence on the formation of glacial North Atlantic Deep Water. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1540 Ocean climate variability in the eastern North Atlantic during interglacial marine isotope stage 11: A partial analogue to the Holocene? de Abreu L., Abrantes F.F., Shackleton N.J. et al. Paleoceanography 2005 20/3 (1-15) Similar orbital geometry and greenhouse gas concentrations during marine isotope stage 11 (MIS 11) and the Holocene make stage 11 perhaps the best geological analogue period for the natural development of the present interglacial climate. Results 292 THE QUATERNARY of a detailed study of core MD01-2443 from the Iberian margin suggest that sea surface conditions during stage 11 were not significantly different from those observed during the elapsed portion of the Holocene. Peak interglacial conditions during stage 11 lasted nearly 18 kyr, indicating a Holocene unperturbed by human activity might last an additional 6-7 kyr. A comparison of sea surface temperatures (SST) derived from planktonic foraminifera for all interglacial intervals of the last million years reveals that warm temperatures during peak interglacials MIS 1, 5e, and 11 were higher on the Iberian margin than during substage 7e and most of 9e. The SST results are supported by heavier 18 O values, particularly during 7e, indicating colder SSTs and a larger residual ice volume. Benthic 13 C results provide evidence of a strong influence of North Atlantic Deep Water at greater depths than present during MIS 11. The progressive ocean climate deterioration into the following glaciation is associated with an increase in local upwelling intensity, interspersed by periodic cold episodes due to ice-rafting events occurring in the North Atlantic. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1541 Problems with paleoproductivity proxies Anderson R.F. and Winckler G. Paleoceanography 2005 20/3 (1-7) Difficulties associated with reconstructing past changes in export production were highlighted recently by Averyt and Paytan (2004), who reported substantial disagreement among records developed using different paleoproductivity proxies extracted from two equatorial Pacific piston cores. Proxies included the accumulation rates of barite, excess Ba, and excess as well as elemental ratios of A1/Ti and Ba/Ti. Here we build upon their work by presenting evidence for two factors that contributed to these discrepancies. First, elemental (Ba/Ti and Al/ Ti) ratios are influenced by variability in space and time of the flux of Ti to equatorial Pacific sediments, so these proxies cannot be expected to hold a constant relationship to export production. Second, the late Holocene increase in CaCO3 dissolution has caused concentrations of barite, excess Ba, and excess Al to be enriched in surface sediments relative to the depth interval over which sediment accumulation rates were evaluated in developing the algorithms used by Averyt and Paytan (2004). This produces an error in the accumulation rates of these proxies that varies from core to core, ranging from a few tens of percent to as much as a factor of 3. These errors would have been propagated into the export production algorithms on the basis of fluxes of barite, excess Ba, and excess Al. Furthermore, this bias created by the late Holocene increase in CaCO3 dissolution will affect the development of any algorithm based on fluxes of sedimentary constituents. These factors must be taken into account in future paleoceanographic reconstructions. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1542 Temporal and spatial variation in tetraether membrane lipids of marine Crenarchaeota in particulate organic matter: Implications for TEX86 paleothermometry Wuchter C., Schouten S., Wakeham S.G. and Sinninghe Damst´e J.S. Paleoceanography 2005 20/3 (1-11) The TEX86 is a new temperature proxy which is based on the number of cyclopentane moieties in the glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether (GDGT) lipids of the membranes of Crenarchaeota that occur ubiquitously in oceans and shelf seas. This proxy was calibrated by core top sediments, but it is as yet not clear during which season and at which depth in the water column the GDGT signal used for TEX86 paleothermometry is biosynthesized. Here we analyzed >200 particulate organic matter (POM) samples from 11 different marine settings for TEX86 . This revealed that the GDGTs occur seasonally in surface waters and occur in higher abundances during the winter and spring months. The depth distribution showed that GDGTs generally appeared in higher amounts below 100 m depth in the water column. However, the TEX86 values for waters below the photic zone (150-1500 m) did not correlate with the in situ temperature but rather correlated linearly with surface temperature. The TEX86 for POM from the upper 100 m showed a linear correlation with in situ temperature, which was nearly identical to the previously reported core top equation. The correlation of all POM samples with surface temperature was also strikingly similar to the core top correlation. These findings demonstrate that the GDGT signal which reaches the sediment is mainly derived from the upper 100 m of the water column. This may be caused by the fact that GDGTs from the photic zone are much more effectively transported to the sediment by grazing and repackaging in large particles than GDGTs from deeper waters. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1543 Reconstruction of paleo-particulate organic carbon fluxes for the Campbell Plateau region of southern New Zealand using the zinc content of sponge spicules Ellwood M.J., Kelly M., Neil H. and Nodder S.D. Paleoceanography 2005 20/3 (1-15) The zinc concentration of siliceous sponge spicules was determined from spicules recovered from four sediment cores spanning the last 160 kyr, from the Campbell Plateau region southeast of New Zealand. Zinc/Si results showed little difference between Holocene and glacial aged spicules. An increase in Zn/Si was observed for core Y14, where Zn/Si peaked at about 0.6 mol/mol during marine isotope stages 5a-5b. To better understand the role carbon export has on sponge Zn/Si, we explored the strong relationship observed between surficial sediment particulate organic carbon (POC) and the Zn/Si of sponge silica and related this to sediment trap POC flux estimates. Conversion of the Zn/ Si records to benthic POC fluxes suggests that there has been little change in the amount of POC reaching Campbell Plateau sediments over the past 30 kyr. These results suggest that surface productivity over the Campbell Plateau has remained relatively low over the past 160 kyr and suggests that glacial productivity was not significantly higher than the present day. Finally, this work reveals that living marine sponges appear to act as the biological equivalents of moored sediment traps, recording the flux of POC to the seafloor by archiving zinc associated with sinking POC in the growing silica skeleton. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1544 Methane-driven late Pleistocene 13 C minima and overflow reversals in the southwestern Greenland Sea Millo C., Sarnthein M., Erlenkeuser H. and Frederichs T. Geology 2005 33/11 (873-876) A core transect across the southwestern Greenland Sea reveals coeval events of extremely negative planktic and benthic 13 C excursions between 40 and 87 ka. The most pronounced event, event 1, began at peak Dansgaard-Oeschger stadial 22 (85 ka) with a duration of 18 k.y. During this episode, incursions of Atlantic Intermediate Water caused a bottom-water warming of up to 8°C. The amplitude, timing, and geographic pattern of the 13 C events suggest that this bottom-water warming triggered clathrate instability along the East Greenland slope and a methane-induced depletion of 13 CDIC (DIC - dissolved inorganic carbon). Since 13 C event 1 matches a major peak in atmospheric CH concen4 tration, this clathrate destabilization may have contributed to the rise in atmospheric CH4 and thus to climate warming over marine isotope stage 5.1. © 2005 Geological Society of America. 1545 Late Quaternary paleoenvironmental changes in the southeastern Yellow Sea, Korea Kong G.S., Park S.- C., Han H.C. et al. Quaternary International 2005 144/1 (38-52) A 34-meter-long AMS 14 C-dated sediment core was examined in order to reconstruct the paleoenvironmental changes that have taken place in the southeastern Yellow Sea during the last 16,600 years. To achieve this, we analyzed the geochemical compositions of organic matter, the benthic foraminiferal assemblages, and the stable isotopes of benthic foraminiferal tests. The organic geochemical results show that terrigenous organic matter was dominant in the southeastern Yellow Sea between 16,600 and 4300 cal. yr BP, probably due to the influence of river runoff; marine organic matters, originating from surface primary productivity, began increasing drastically after 4300 cal. yr BP. Benthic foraminiferal assemblages reveal that brackish species were dominant before 3500 cal. yr BP, but the saline species dominated after this time. The 18 O values of the benthic foraminifer Cibicides lobatulus showed that a change from high-amplitude to low-amplitude fluctuations took place at 3500 cal. yr BP. These multi-results indicate that the southeastern Yellow Sea changed from an estuarine to a modern marine shelf environment, proba- THE QUATERNARY bly due to the inflow of the Yellow Sea Warm Current, between 4300 and 3500 cal. yr BP. The time discrepancy of 800 years indicates that a modern marine shelf environment was not fully developed in the southeastern Yellow Sea until 3500 cal. yr BP, even though the sea began to be influenced by the oceanic current at 4300 cal. yr BP. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. Tropics and sub-tropics 1546 Modern pollen spectra from the highlands of the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic Kennedy L.M., Horn S.P. and Orvis K.H. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 2005 137/1-2 (51-68) We studied pollen, spores, and pine stomata in surface pond and bog sediments and surface soils to characterize modern pollen deposition in highland plant communities of the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. We collected our samples at 47 sites representing a range of elevations (1200-3000 m) and cover types on both the windward and leeward flanks of the cordillera. Pollen from the endemic West Indian pine dominated surface spectra in nearly all forested sites, as well as in most grasslands. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) revealed that the modern pollen spectra of forested uplands and open wetland sites are clearly distinct, while other site types that are intermediate in terms of vegetation are also intermediate in terms of modern pollen spectra. The DCA also separated windward from leeward sites based mainly on higher pollen percentages of broadleaf trees and shrubs in the windward sites. A lack of pine stomata was an excellent indicator of treelessness in grassland sites. This clear distinction between treeless and forested sites may be useful in interpreting highland fossil records that date to the last glacial period. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1547 Stratigraphical and palynological appraisal of the Late Quaternary mangrove deposits of the west coast of India Kumaran K.P.N., Nair K.M., Shindikar M. et al. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (418-431) The organic deposits derived from the mangrove swamps form reliable stratigraphic markers within the Late Quaternary sequence of Kerala - Konkan Basin. Three generations of such deposits have been identified. The older one is dated to around 43,000-40,000 14 C yr B.P., with a few dates beyond the range of radiocarbon. The younger ones date from the Middle Holocene to latest Pleistocene (10,760-4540 14 C yr B.P.) and the Late Holocene (<4000 14 C yr B.P.). Pollen analyses confirm that the deposits are mostly derived from the mangrove vegetation. Peat accumulation during the period 40,000-28,000 14 C yr B.P. can be correlated with the excess rainfall, 40-100% greater than modern values, of the Asian summer monsoon. The low occurrence of mangrove between 22,000 and 18,000 14 C yr B.P. can be attributed to the prevailing aridity and/or reduced precipitation associated worldwide with Last Glacial Maximum, because exposure surfaces and ferruginous layers are commonly found in intervals representing this period. The high rainfall of 11,000-4000 14 C yr B.P. is found to be the most significant as the mangrove reached an optimum growth around 11,000 14 C yr B.P. but with periods of punctuated weaker monsoons. From the present and previous studies, it has been observed that after about 5000 or 4000 14 C yr B.P., the monsoons became gradually reduced leading to drying up of many of the marginal marine mangrove ecosystems. A case study of Hadi profile provided an insight to the relevance of magnetic susceptibility (x) to record the ecological shift in Late Holocene. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1548 How a wet tropical rainforest copes with repeated volcanic destruction Jago L.C.F. and Boyd W.E. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (399-406) The Holocene Period for the province of West New Britain, Papua New Guinea, is characterised by periodic catastrophic volcanism. The region is mantled in dense wet tropical rainforest, and has been occupied by people since the Pleistocene. Analyses of peat from two nearby sites within a lowland rainforest environment 293 provide us with a macro-level landscape account of the periodic destruction and recovery of the coastal forests during seven periods of volcanic activity in the latter part (
2900 yr ago to present) of the Holocene. Radiocarbon dating shows the very close correlation of the peat and tephra layers at both sites, yet the pollen analysis reveals different vegetation communities. These initial results allow us to begin identifying the processes of recovery, and to recognise different ecological pressures placed on vegetation at these neighbouring sites. Evidence of hydrological changes are observed beginning with a marine incursion recorded at Garu Site 3
1360 14 C yr B.P. The distinct differences in the vegetation re-establishment and community regeneration rates suggest the greater level of disturbance at Garu Site 1 could be related to the depth of the ashfall, although the proximity of a known human settlement may also be a contributing factor. Of note, palynologically, we found that the fern spore flora is particularly rich and believe it will be useful for ecological interpretation. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. Mid-latitude and extra-glacial 1549 Estimating relevant source area of pollen for small Danish lakes around AD 1800 Nielsen A.B. and Sugita S. Holocene 2005 15/7 (1006-1020) The aims of this study were to obtain estimates of the relevant source area of pollen (RSAP) that can be used to interpret fossil pollen diagrams from medium sized lakes, and to elucidate factors affecting RSAP for such lakes. A data set of sediment pollen assemblages dating from AD 1800 from 25 Danish lakes (3-27 ha) and land cover around the same lakes from historical maps was used. The plant abundance data were distance weighted using a species-specific model of pollen dispersal/deposition and other distance weighting functions (1, 1/d and 1/d2 ). Extended R-value models were applied to evaluate the relationship between pollen and plant abundance and to estimate RSAP. The choice of distance weighting function influenced the RSAP estimates. When using the species-specific model, wind speed and speciesspecific properties of pollen dispersal had little effect on the RSAP estimates, which were approximately 1700 m in radius, when all lakes were analysed together. When the pollen types were classified into fewer groups, the RSAP estimate increased, probably because this procedure affected the spatial pattern of the plant abundance data by, in effect, increasing patch size. When the lakes were classified into two distinct groups (western Jutland and remaining sites) using a multivariate statistical technique (TWINSPAN), we obtained different RSAP estimates for each of the two groups. This result could be explained by a difference in average patch size of the land cover types between regions. A series of simulations supported our interpretation that the patch size was the main factor determining the size of the RSAP for the Danish lakes at AD 1800. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1550 Aeolian sand preserved in Silver Lake: A new signal of Holocene high stands of Lake Michigan Fisher T.G. and Loope W.L. Holocene 2005 15/7 (1072-1078) Aeolian sand within lake sediment from Silver Lake, Michigan can be used as a proxy for the timing of high lake levels of Lake Michigan. We demonstrate that the sand record from Silver Lake plotted as percent weight is in-phase with the elevation curve of Lake Michigan since the mid-Holocene Nipissing Phase. Because fluctuations in Lake Michigan’s lake level are recorded in beach ridges, and are a response to climate change, the aeolian sand record within Silver Lake is also a proxy for climate change. It appears that increases in dune activity and lake sand are controlled by similar climatic shifts that drive fluctuations in lake level of Lake Michigan. High lake levels destabilize coastal bluffs that drive dune sand instability, and along with greater wintertime storminess, increase niveo-aeolian transport of sand across lake ice. The sand is introduced into the lake each spring as the ice cover melts. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 294 THE QUATERNARY 1551 Holocene paleosols of the Upo wetland, Korea: Their implications for wetland formation Nahm W.- H., Kim J.- K., Yang D.- Y. et al. Quaternary International 2005 144/1 (53-60) A 4.490 m long core UP-1 was recovered from the marginal part of the Upo wetland. The wetland is a typical riverine wetland in Korea and has been designated as a Protected Wetland in accordance with the International Ramsar Treaty. We studied the Holocene environmental changes of the Upo wetland and the depositional conditions under which the Upo wetland formed. The core is divided into four units on the basis of grain size distribution, abundance of mottles and vertical color variation. Unit 1 has undergone pedogenic processes, resulting in variably weak to moderate soil profile development. Unit 1 paleosols are regarded as synsedimentary soils of floodplain origin, and the radiocarbon data suggest that the whole paleosol profile spans the last 5790 years. The boundaries between the soil horizons are not clear-cut, probably due to a repeated cycle of accumulation, denudation and soil-forming processes. The recurrence of these processes initiated the development of the Upo wetland. The lower boundary of Unit 2 lies at about 2300 14 C yr BP, the beginning of the Subatlantic age in Korea. The lack of intense soil formation and abundant clay content in Unit 2 indicate that the geomorphologically stable wetland was developed around the coring site at that time. This means that the depositional environment changed from a floodplain to a stable, continuously submerging wetland setting. An abrupt change in sediment textures was detected in Unit 3, which commenced formation around 1000-900 14 C yr BP, indicative of geological events such as inundations or inflows of slope-wash sediments. Anthropogenic deforestation and plowing around the Upo wetland area might have started at that time. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. 1552 A comparison of late Quaternary forest changes in New Caledonia and northeastern Australia Stevenson J. and Hope G. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (372383) A pollen record from Lake Xere Wapo, southeast New Caledonia, is the longest continuous terrestrial record to be recovered from the tropical southwest Pacific and reveals a series of millennial scale changes in vegetation over the last
130,000 yr. A comparison of the Lake Xere Wapo record with the key northeast Australian record of Lynch’s Crater reveals regional patterns of change. From
120,000 to
50,000 yr ago the vegetation around Lake Xere Wapo alternated between rainforest and maquis with fire an important disturbance factor. In the last 50,000 yr fire is almost absent from the record and the vegetation assumes a character unprecedented in the preceding 100,000 yr, dominated by Dacrydium and Podocarpus pollen. The most compelling aspect of the comparison with Lynch’s Crater is that the muchdiscussed Araucaria decline at around 45,000 yr ago in northern Queensland is matched by a similar decline in the Lake Xere Wapo record. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. Glacial landforms and sediments 1553 A complex subglacial clastic dyke swarm, S´olheimaj¨okull, southern Iceland Le Heron D.P. and Etienne J.L. Sedimentary Geology 2005 181/12 (25-37) A complex network of clastic dykes dissects loosely consolidated Holocene sediments along the east flank of the proglacial braid plain of S´olheimaj¨okull, southern Iceland. The dykes comprise downward-bifurcating intrusions up to 0.5 m thick and several metres in length and are intruded into glaciogenic deposits (sandy gravel, gravelly sand, interlaminated silt and sand, and diamicton). The dykes were sourced from a clast-poor sandy diamicton, interpreted as a subglacial till, and were intruded downwards beneath S´olheimaj¨okull glacier during a previous phase of advance. As the glacier advanced southwards, it loaded the sediment column resulting in the intrusion of dykes with a consistent south-southwest dip (with rare northward-dipping examples). The dyke fills are characterised by laminated sed- iment, with laminae oriented parallel to the dyke margins and comprise interlaminated clay, silty clay, silt, sand, sandy gravel and diamicton. In some dykes, high concentrations of pebble- to boulder-sized clasts occur in association with rotated pods of the laminated sediment. The laminae are thought to have evolved by a slow, long-lived intrusion process that involved the repeated fracture and expansion of the host sediments followed by viscous smearing-on of subglacial material onto the dyke walls, rather than rapid injection of fluidised sediment. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1554 3-D sedimentary architecture of a Quaternary gravel delta (SW-Germany): Implications for hydrostratigraphy Kostic B., Becht A. and Aigner T. Sedimentary Geology 2005 181/3-4 (147-171) This paper investigates a Quaternary Gilbert-type gravel delta that was formed in an ice-marginal environment at the end of the last glacial period. Outcrop, sediment core and groundpenetrating radar (GPR) studies reveal the sedimentary facies and depositional architecture of the delta that comprises three major units: (1) a 2-5 m thick, gravelly topset with an erosional base, formed by accretion of bedload sheets in a braided river; (2) an up to 40 m thick, steeply inclined (13-35°) foreset, dominated by gravelly lithofacies being the product of cohesionless debris flows and debris falls as well as gravity slides while sandy lithofacies was deposited by traction currents; and (3) a 10-20 m thick, sandy bottomset comprising low-density turbidites. Syn- to postdepositional deformation of parts of the bottomset deposits largely resulted from rapid deposition of overlying gravels and differential loading of the prograding foreset beds. The development of the delta was most likely controlled by a high sediment supply and lake level fluctuations. The overall coarsening-upward succession reflects delta progradation and aggradation into a glaciolacustrine environment. Outcrop sedimentology served as a direct analogue in order to characterise the three-dimensional sedimentary and hydraulic architecture of the nearby gravel-delta aquifer. Applying a multidisciplinary approach, sedimentological, geophysical, and hydrogeological data were integrated within the 3-D modelling package Gocad (Earth Decision Sciences) to develop high-resolution 3-D aquifer models. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1555 Evolution of the southern Barents Sea framing in the Late Pleistocene Tarasov G.A. and Matishov G.G. Doklady Earth Sciences 2005 404/7 (1093-1096) The Late Pleistocene was characterized by the growth and degradation of continental and, sometimes, marine ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere. These processes were responsible for the main global changes that occurred on the continents and in the ocean and atmosphere. The study region is a key one for the study of unclear and controversial problems concerning the reconstruction of deglaciation conditions and postglacial environmental changes. The present communication is based o n results of the lithological study of the offshore borehole sections of bays, shelf zones, and lacustrine depressions in the northern Kola and Kanin peninsulas. We also used data from morphostructural and geomorphological observations, dendrochronological analysis (Pinus silvestris), radiocarbon datings, 10 Be and 26 Al isotopic datings in quartz-bearing rocks, and other materials. The study region is large. Moreover, its geological-geomorphological structure and physicogeographic conditions sharply vary from east to west. Therefore, it is reasonable to consider the main natural peculiarities separately for each of the examined areas. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 1556 Strandline analysis in the southern basin of glacial Lake Agassiz, Minnesota and North and South Dakota, USA Fisher T.G. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 2005 117/11-12 (1481-1496) Glacial Lake Agassiz, a large Pleistocene lake, left behind strandlines at multiple elevations within its basin. Prior researchers have used these strandlines to identify four relatively stable water level stages, but tracing them over long distances is often problematic. In this study, the elevation of the Tintah strandline is returned to its original designation, and a newly interpreted stable lake level at 1020-1030 ft (311-314 m) is referred to as THE QUATERNARY the Upham level, based on a concentration of ridges and a spit at that elevation. Cores from strandline and lagoon complexes from the Milnor to Tintah beaches reveal a decreasing thickness of strandline sediment associated with shorter aggregate-length strandlines. This relationship is most likely controlled by sediment starvation, greater water level fluctuations and shallower water. Beaches near the head of the southern outlet spillway indicate that shoreline occupation at the Lower Campbell level was either very short-lived or strandline development was hampered by shallow water. The modern-day sill elevation between the southern outlet spillway and the lake basin is found to be 3 km south of White Rock, Minnesota, at an elevation of 974 ft (297 m). All but the Campbell strandlines at the southern outlet are interpreted as the result of a regression driven by incision of the southern outlet spillway. © 2005 Geological Society of America. The Holocene 1557 Archaeological evidence for the first Mesolithic occupation of the Western Isles of Scotland Gregory R.A., Murphy E.M., Church M.J. et al. Holocene 2005 15/7 (944-950) The examination of eroding coastal dunes at the prehistoric site of Northton, Harris, has produced the first archaeological evidence of Mesolithic activity in the Western Isles in the form of two midden-related deposits. The first phase of Mesolithic activity is dated to 7060-6650 cal. BC based on AMS dating of charred hazelnut shells. This discovery appears to validate the frequent pollen-based inferences of Mesolithic impact for the area and, as predicted, allows the Atlantic fringe of Scotland to become part of the European Mesolithic mainstream. A detailed pedological analysis also suggests that these early midden layers may have been amended during the Neolithic period as part of a possible phase of cultivation. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1558 Late-Holocene environmental variability at Munsa archaeological site, Uganda: A multicore, multiproxy approach Lejju B.J., Taylor D. and Robertshaw P. Holocene 2005 15/7 (1044-1061) Palaeoenvironmental data, in the form of 113 counts of pollen, fungal spores and charcoal abundances, 121 counts of phytoliths and 15 AMS 14 C dates (11 macrofossil and 4 bulk sediment samples), have provided a means of reconstructing the late-Holocene environmental history of Munsa archaeological site, Uganda. The data were extracted from sediment cores from what is today a papyrus swamp, located within an area described by an outermost ring of earthworks at Munsa. Sediment core data indicate the general presence of forested conditions to c. AD 1100, although there is evidence for the local presence of food plants prior to this date. Deforestation from c. AD 1100 is marked in both the pollen and phytolith records, while fungal spores indicate the presence of increased numbers of herbivores post-deforestation. Indicators of deforestation and increased herbivore numbers broadly accord with the archaeological evidence for substantial occupation of the site at Munsa and the establishment of a mixed economy based on crops, cattle and iron working. Evidence for forest recovery and reduced herbivore numbers locally from c. AD 1780 could reflect abandonment of permanent settlement at the site, possibly during or following a period of drought and/or political upheaval in the region. Fungal spores and phytoliths provide evidence of agricultural activities at Munsa that have not left an imprint on pollen records, thus supporting the case for the use of multiproxies in palaeoenvironmental research, while intercore differences between the three sediment cores analysed, although relatively minor, confirm the benefits of a multicore approach. Tentative evidence for the very early presence of Musa (cultivated edible banana) is provided and warrants further study. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1559 Tephra-dated climate- and human-impact studies during the last 1500 years from a raised bog in Central Ireland Hall V.A. and Mauquoy D. Holocene 2005 15/7 (1086-1093) Historic Icelandic tephrochronology constrains the time frame of a plant macrofossil and palynological study of ombrotrophic 295 peat to evaluate the effects of climatic and human impact over the last 1500 years on the landscape at a large monastic site in the Irish Midlands. The plant macrofossil climate proxy record indicates maximum wetness during the sixth century AD. Decreasing wetness occurred from the late ninth century to the late thirteenth century. From c. AD 1290 to 1830, the plant macrofossils record a reduction in mire surface wetness and there is no evidence for ‘Little Ice Age’ climatic deteriorations. The pollen analytical evidence indicates an agricultural system dominated by pastoralism throughout the first millennium AD with arable agriculture increasing in the closing years of the first millennium and throughout the second millennium AD. From the eighteenth century onward, agricultural land use expands with a concomitant reduction in scrub. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1560 An evaluation of multielement analysis of historic soil contamination to differentiate space use and former function in and around abandoned farms Wilson C.A., Davidson D.A. and Cresser M.S. Holocene 2005 15/7 (1094-1099) Historic and prehistoric human activity can cause accumulation of elements in the soil. Multielement soil analysis has been used extensively over the last two decades to study element patterns of historic soil enrichment as a means of prospecting for sites and as an aid to interpretation of space use within archaeological structures. However, there have been surprisingly few of studies designed to assist with the interpretation of the analytical results. In this investigation soils from six abandoned farms with a known history of spatial use were sampled to determine if similar patterns of trace element enhancement occur between different farms. The preliminary results show significant differences in soil elemental concentrations between the functional areas, and highlight similar patterns of element enhancement between the farms. Concentrations of Ca, P, Sr, Ba, Zn and Pb are elevated in the buildings and fields of all the farms and provide valuable information about past human activity. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1561 High-resolution reconstruction of a 1300 year old gully system in northern Bavaria, Germany: A basis for modelling long-term human-induced landscape evolution Dotterweich M. Holocene 2005 15/7 (994-1005) Knowledge of historical gullying and long-term processes of interactions between land use and gullying is still rather limited. Here, I review results from case studies in Germany and neighbouring countries and exmine the complex development of a gully system in northern Bavaria, integrating land-use changes and their interactions within a conceptual model. Reconstructions of gully development were made by identifying and dating sediment layers, artificial modifications and soil horizons at high spatial and temporal resolution, combined with analyses of historical documents. The case study in northern Bavaria shows that more than 150 colluvial layers found in a gully system revealed the detailed history of gully development during the last 1300 years. The first gullying took place in early Mediaeval times during several heavy rainfall events but the main phases of gullying took place between the fourteenth and the mid-eighteenth centuries. Occurrence of gullying was strongly linked to phases of high land-use intensity, which later changed the runoff pattern and enlarged the catchment area by 50%. Subsequently, overflowing field furrows led to the development of two gullies, up to 6 m deep, in late Mediaeval and early modern times. From the middle of the nineteenth century until today, only a little soil erosion has taken place and most of the catchment area has become grassland or forest. During the 1050 years from AD 800 to 1850, a soil volume of about 6430 m3 was eroded by gullying, destroying 15% of the arable land. The results provide a basis for modelling long-term human-induced landscape evolution. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 296 THE QUATERNARY 1562 A new step towards a synthesis of the Holocene history of the vegetation of the Monts de la Madeleine, Forez Livradois and Pilat (Eastern Massif central, France) (French) (L’´evolution Holoc`ene de la v´eg´etation des monts de la Madeleine, du Forez, du livradois et du pilat (Massif central oriental, France): L’apport d’une nouvelle s´erie d’analyses palynologiques) Argant J. and Cubizolle H. Quaternaire 2005 16/2 (119-142) In France, many fens and peat bogs are located in the granitic eastern part of the Massif central. In this area peat formation was determined by the climate with abundant rainfalls - from 1000 to 1500 mm above an altitude of 1000 m a.s.l. - a fair distribution of this rainfalls over the year, the topography with shallow headwaters areas, small hollows with concave bottoms and the geomorphology with glacial and periglacial land forms and deposits. During the last sixty years several pollen analysies, discussed in that paper, allows the reconstruction of the vegetation of this area back to the end of the Lateglacial. But the most ancient studies are not so precise as those of today and have often either few or even no radiocarbon dates. All these studies have not been published. So, four new analysies were undertaken on three peat bogs and one fen. They are supported by 32 14 C dates which allows us to be precise about the former available data. They are part of global research including palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, understanding the origin of the great number of holocene mires and evaluation of the role of Man in the landscape evolution since the prehistoric time. Pollen analysis shows that the changes in vegetation are very similar to what is known elsewhere in the Massif central, except in the Massif du Pilat where the dynamics of Fagus and Abies is quite different. Human influence can be noted since the end of the Atlantic period (Middle Neolithic, about 5500 cal. BP) and the numerous radiocarbon dates make it possible to have an accurate chronology and they give us a better understanding of the occupancy of the middle-range-mountain in the past. 1563 13 C variation of C3 and C4 plants across an Asian monsoon rainfall gradient in arid northwestern China Liu W., Feng X., Ning Y. et al. Global Change Biology 2005 11/7 (1094-1100) We have investigated carbon isotopic compositions of four plant genus/species, Bothriochloa ischaemum (C4 ), Stipa bungeana (C 3 ), Lespedeza sp. (C3 ) and Heteropappus less (C 3 ), along a precipitation gradient in northwest China in order to assess the impact of water availability on the carbon isotopic discrimination against 13 C during carbon assimilation in this area. This information is necessary for reconstruction of paleovegetation, particularly paleo-C 3 /C4 plant ratios using 13 C value of organic matter in loess and paleosols in the Chinese Loess Plateau. The 13 C of C plants, as a group, exhibits a negative correlation with 3 the annual precipitation amount with a total change and sensitivity of 5%o and -1.1%o/100 mm, respectively, for the precipitation range from 200 to 700mm. The C4 grass, B. ischaemum responds to aridity by decreasing 1.7%o for over the precipitation range from 350 to 700 mm; the plant 13 C is significantly correlated with annual precipitation with a slope -0.61%o/100 mm. This result implies that without considering the effect of water availability on the plant 13 C values, reconstruction of percent C4 vegetation during the last glaciation can be overestimated by about a factor of two. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1564 Climate change and human impact on the Song Hong (Red River) Delta, Vietnam, during the Holocene Li Z., Saito Y., Matsumoto E. et al. Quaternary International 2005 144/1 (4-28) On the basis of the results of palynological research on two cores from the Song Hong (Red River) delta in the sub-tropical zone of Asia, centennial- to millennial-scale climate changes and human impacts during the Holocene were clarified. Three cycles of cooling and warming were identified during the last 5000 yr: a cool and wet climate during 4530-3340 cal. yr BP, 2100-1540 cal. yr BP, and 620-130 cal. yr BP, a warm and dry climate during 3340-2100 cal. yr BP, 1540-620 cal. yr BP and the present warm climate. The first and last cooling events correspond to global Holocene cooling events, the Neoglacial Period and the Little Ice Age, respectively. Each persisted for 500-1000 yr, and they occurred at intervals of 1500-2000 yr. Pollen records also reflect human impacts on this area, which intensified after 3340 cal. yr BP when large quantities of cultivated Gramineae taxa, possibly including the main wet rice species, Oryza sativa, secondary forest, and other upland cultivated taxa appear in the record. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. 1565 Quantification strategies for human-induced and natural hydrological changes in wetland vegetation, southern Florida, USA Donders T.H., Wagner F. and Visscher H. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (333-342) An accurately dated peat profile from a mixed cypress swamp in the Fakahatchee Strand Preserve State Park (FSPSP, Florida, USA) has been examined for pollen and spores. The near-annual resolved pollen record shows a gradual shift from a wet to a relatively dry assemblage during the past 100 years. Timing of drainage activities in the region is accurately reflected by the onset and duration of vegetation change in the swamp. The reconstructed vegetation record has been statistically related to pollen assemblages from surface sediment samples. The response range of the FSPSP wetland to environmental perturbations could thus be determined and this allows better understanding of naturally occurring vegetation changes. In addition, the human impact on Florida wetlands becomes increasingly apparent. Superimposed high-frequency variation in the record suggests a positive correlation between winter-precipitation and pollen productivity of the dominant tree taxa. However, further high-resolution analysis is needed to confirm this relation. The response range of the FSPSP wetland to environmental perturbations on both annual- and decadal-scales documented in this study allows recognition and quantification of natural hydrological changes in older deposits from southwest Florida. The strong link between local hydrology and the El Ni˜no Southern Oscillation makes the palynological record from FSPSP highly relevant for studying past El Ni˜no - variability. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1566 The stratigraphy and fire history of the Kutai Peatlands, Kalimantan, Indonesia Hope G., Chokkalingam U. and Anwar S. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (407-417) The equatorial peatlands of the Kutai lowland of eastern Kalimantan are generally 4-10 m in thickness but some sections exceed 16 m in depth. The deposition of peat commenced about 8000 yrs ago after shallow flooding of the basin by the Mahakam River. The earliest vegetation is a Pandanus swamp which grades upwards to swamp forest dominated by dipterocarps. The peatland has expanded laterally and rivers have maintained narrow leveechannel tracks through the swamp, which has grown vertically in balance with river accretion. Historical fires are associated with extreme El Ni˜no years of drought, but human agency is important. The fires of 1982-1983 and 1997-1998 burnt up to 85% of the vegetation on the peatland. Although charcoal analyses show that fire has occurred throughout the history of the peatland, it is rare in forests remote from rivers until the last 3000 years and only common within the last millennium. Fires are earlier and more frequent in sites accessible from waterways, and floodplains have been widely burnt down to water table or below, forming extensive lakes. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1567 Vegetation change in the coastal-lowland rainforest at Avai’o’vuna Swamp, Vava’u, Kingdom of Tonga Fall P.L. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (451-459) Avai’o’vuna Swamp, a small coastal wetland in Vava’u, Kingdom of Tonga, produced a 4500-year pollen and sediment record. Results are: (1) a mid-Holocene sea level highstand is confirmed for Tonga between about 4500 and 2600 14 C yr B.P.; marine clay contains pollen from mangroves (Rhizophora mangle), coastal forest trees (Barringtonia asiatica and Cocos nucifera), and rainforest trees (Alphitonia, Rhus, Hedycarya and Calophyllum). (2) Microscopic charcoal first appeared at 2600 14 C yr B.P., coincident with the arrival of Polynesians. (3) Cocos, Pandanus, Excoecaria, Macaranga, and Elaeocarpaceae pollen reflects the establishment of a mixed coastal-lowland rainforest in the last 2500 years. (4) The loss of Hedycarya, Elaeocarpus, Calophyl- THE QUATERNARY lum, and Guettarda and the reduction of Terminalia and taxa in the Papilionaceae family by about 1000 years ago may be due to habitat destruction and the loss of dispersal capabilities of some species through the extinction of the two largest pigeons in Tonga. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1568 Cultivation and human impact at 6000 cal yr B.P. in tropical lowland forest at Niah, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo Hunt C.O. and Rushworth G. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (460-468) This paper describes palynological evidence for what appears to be comparatively large-scale human impact in the catchment of the Sungai Niah in the wet tropical lowland swamp forests of Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo close to the Great Cave of Niah. Pollen associated with cleared landscapes and rice cultivation is evident in the sedimentary record from before 6000 cal yr B.P. Human activity seems to have been associated with changes in sedimentary regime, with peat-dominated environments being replaced diachronously by clay-dominated deposition. This may reflect anthropogenic soil erosion in the catchment of the Sungai Niah. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1569 Holocene dryness and human occupation in Brazil during the "Archaic Gap" Araujo A.G.M., Neves W.A., Pil´o L.B. and Atui J.P.V. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (298-307) An overview of the archaeological data produced over the last decades for Brazil, coupled with a background of recent paleoenvironmental studies, suggests that during the mid-Holocene vast areas of Central Brazil ceased to be occupied by human groups. Independent data from dated human skeletons, rock-shelter stratigraphy, and chronology of open-air sites converge to support the inference that these areas were depopulated or altogether abandoned. Paleoenvironmental data suggest that dryness events constitute the major cause behind the observed trends. This phenomenon expands the already perceived notion that climatic stresses had a major role in the shaping of human settlement patterns in marginal environments, such as deserts and high-altitude settings. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. 1570 Interactions between human activity, volcanic eruptions and vegetation during the Holocene at Garua and Numundo, West New Britain, PNG Boyd W.E., Lentfer C.J. and Parr J. Quaternary Research 2005 64/3 (384-398) This paper reviews recent fossil phytolith analysis from wet tropical West New Britain (Papua New Guinea). The Holocene vegetation has been influenced by spatially and temporally diverse patterns of both prehistoric human settlement and catastrophic volcanic events. We have hypothesized different landscape responses and recovery pathways to events during the last six millennia. Phytolith sequences on the coastal lowlands, the Willaumez Peninsula, and nearby island of Garua provide details of vegetational change and human interactions at different landscape scales since c. 5900 cal yr B.P. During this period four major volcanic eruptions (c. 5900, 3600, 1700 and 1400 cal yr B.P.) have disrupted the landscape. The evidence provides detailed descriptions of temporal and spatial patterning in the impacts and changes in the vegetation. In particular, vegetation responded differently from one event to another, reflecting both forest recovery from seed bank and shooting, and the influence of prehistoric people on recovering vegetation. Furthermore, after some events landscape recovery was moderately uniform, while after others there was considerable landscape partitioning. Although these differences largely relate to airfall tephra type, distribution and magnitude, the partitioning is more strongly influenced by human activity. © 2005 University of Washington. All rights reserved. Periglacial 1571 Pleistocene cryostructures and landslide at Petit-Bost (southwestern France, 45°N) Bertran P. and Fabre R. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (344-356) 297 Remnants of a Pleistocene landslide have been observed during field investigations of Quaternary alluvial formations of the Isle River at Petit-Bost, southwestern France. The main features of the landslide-induced deformation give a good indication of its size and depth. The surface of rupture is located in a 0.5 m thick, very plastic mottled clay at the top of an alluvial gravel. The clay is overlain by 1.7 m thick loamy colluvial deposits with a polygonal net of bleached wedges that testify to past permafrost conditions. The mechanical parameters used in stability calculations for the case of an infinite planar sliding surface, that fits well the geomorphological data, are given by triaxial tests. Stability calculation indicates that the slope is very stable at present and that rupture can only have occurred in fully unconsolidated and undrained conditions. This likely happened during permafrost degradation and subsequent thawing of ice-rich soil layers. Oedometric tests indicate post-sliding over-consolidation of the clay. With regards to the debate on permafrost distribution in France during the Pleistocene, this study gives support to a wide extent of permafrost, at least to the latitude 45°N southward, during the coldest periods. It also points out that frost-induced slope instability may have played a major, but still underestimated, role in many French regions north to this latitude. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Glaciology 1572 Holocene glacier chronology of Valenzuela Valley, Mendoza Andes, Argentina Espizua L.E. Holocene 2005 15/7 (1079-1085) Glacial geologic evidence and radiocarbon-dated glacial deposits provide evidence of glacier fluctuations during the last 5 ka years in the Andes. Radiocarbon-dated moraines, morphological and stratigraphical studies permit the reconstruction of glacier fluctuations during the Holocene in the Valenzuela area of the Mendoza Andes valley located at 35°S, in the upper Rio Grande basin. The Holocene record in this part of the Andes is mostly unknown, so this research is relevant for palaeoclimatic reconstructions in South America. In the Ro Valenzuela, glacier variations were dated in the El Azufre and El Pe˜no´ n valleys. The first Neoglacial advance occurred at c. 5700 yr BP and a very close re-advance of similar magnitude occurred at 4700-4300 yr BP which formed well-preserved lateral-terminal moraines. The first Neoglacial advance occurred in the El Pe˜no´ n valley at c. 4400 yr BP and a well-preserved terminal moraine is observed. A second Neoglacial advance reached its maxima at c. 2500-2200 yr BP in the El Azufre and El Pe˜no´ n glaciers. A third, corresponding to the ‘ittle Ice Age’, culminated at c. 400 yr BP (c. AD 1451-1641 cal. yr) and 350 60 yr BP (c. AD 1460-1644 cal. yr) in the El Azufre valley. The third Neoglacial advance is distinguished in the El Pe˜no´ n valley based on morphological characteristics, colour, freshness of the glacial deposits and the proximity to the active glacier. It is indicated by the Amarilla I, II, III lateral moraines. An estimation of the magnitude of snowline depression is obtained comparing the altitude of the present snowline with that of the reconstructed snow line for the first Neoglacial and ‘Little Ice Age’ advances. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1573 An alternative form for the statistical distribution of extreme avalanche runout distances Keylock C.J. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 42/3 (185-193) There are two main approaches in the avalanche literature for the statistical characterisation of extreme avalanche runout and these are known as the alpha-beta and runout ratio methods. Recent work suggests that the latter method is a more robust approach. This paper examines the statistical reasoning behind the selection of the Extreme Value Type I or Gumbel distribution used to characterise the runout distribution in the runout ratio method. On the basis that a threshold is often applied to the distribution of extreme avalanches used in analysis, it is proposed that the Generalised Pareto Distribution is an appropriate candidate distribution based on theoretical arguments. Such a proposal is tested against data on extreme avalanches in Iceland for both the largest events on specific paths and for all events exceeding a threshold. The latter is a peaks-over-threshold approach that 298 THE QUATERNARY potentially allows more robust distribution estimation due to the increase in data availability. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1574 Greenland mass balance from GRACE Velicogna I. and Wahr J. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) We use 22 monthly GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) gravity fields to estimate the linear trend in Greenland ice mass during 2002-2004. We recover a decrease in total ice mass of 82 28 km3 of ice per year, consistent with estimates from other techniques. Our uncertainty estimate is dominated by the effects of GRACE measurement errors and errors in our post glacial rebound (PG) correction. The main advantages of GRACE are that it is sensitive to the entire ice sheet, and that it provides mass estimates with only minimal use of supporting physical assumptions or ancillary data. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1575 A user-friendly anisotropic flow law for ice-sheet modelling Gillet- Chaulet F., Gagliardini O., Meyssonnier J. et al. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (3-14) For accurate ice-sheet flow modelling, the anisotropic behaviour of ice must be taken fully into account. However, physically based micro-macro (-M) models for the behaviour of an anisotropic ice polycrystal are too complex to be implemented easily in large-scale ice-sheet flow models. An easy and efficient method to remedy this is presented. Polar ice is assumed to behave as a linearly viscous orthotropic material whose general flow law (GOLF) depends on six parameters, and its orthotropic fabric is described by an ‘orientation distribution function’ (ODF) depending on two parameters. A method to pass from the ODF to a discrete description of the fabric, and vice versa, is presented. Considering any available -M model, the parameters of the GOLF that fit the response obtained by running this -M model are calculated for any set of ODF parameters. It is thus possible to tabulate the GOLF over a grid in the space of the ODF parameters. This step is performed once and for all. Ice-sheet flow models need the general form of the GOLF to be implemented in the available code (once), then, during each individual run, to retrieve the GOLF parameters from the table by interpolation. As an application example, the GOLF is tabulated using three different -M models and used to derive the rheological properties of ice along the Greenland Icecore Project (GRIP) ice core. 1576 A distributed surface energy-balance model for complex topography and its application to Storglaci¨aren, Sweden Hock R. and Holmgren B. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (25-36) A grid-based surface energy-balance mass-balance model has been developed to simulate snow- and ice melt in mountainous regions with an hourly resolution. The model is applied to Storglaci¨aren, a valley glacier in Sweden, using a 30m resolution digital elevation model. Emphasis is directed towards computing the radiation components. These are modelled individually, considering the effects of slope angle, aspect and effective horizon. A new parameterization for snow albedo is suggested, modifying the albedo of the preceding hour as a function of time after snowfall, air temperature and cloudiness. The model is used to provide the meltwater input for discharge modelling and to assess the influence of the individual components on melt. Results are validated by means of observed melt rates, patterns of snow-line retreat and proglacial discharge. In general, simulations are in good agreement with observations. In particular, the diurnal and seasonal fluctuations of discharge are simulated remarkably well. 1577 Spatial and temporal evolution of rapid basal sliding on Bench Glacier, Alaska, USA Macgregor K.R., Riihimaki C.A. and Anderson R.S. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (49-63) We measured the surface velocity field during the summers of 1999 and 2000 on the 7 km long, 185 m thick Bench Glacier, Alaska, USA. In the spring of both years, a short-lived pulse of surface velocity, 2-4 times the annual mean velocity, propagated up-glacier from the terminus at a rate of
200-250 md-1 . Displacement attributable to rapid sliding is
5-10% of the annual surface motion, while the high-velocity event comprised 60-95% of annual basal motion. Sliding during the propagating speed-up event peaked at 6-14cmd-1 , with the highest rates in mid-glacier. Continuous horizontal and vertical GPS measurements at one stake showed divergence and then convergence of the ice surface with the bed as the velocity wave passed, with maximum surface uplift of 8-16 cm. High divergence rates coincided with high horizontal velocities, suggesting rapid sliding on the up-glacier side of bedrock steps. Initiation of the annual speed-up event occurred during the peak in englacial water storage, while the glacier was entirely snow-covered. Basal motion during the propagating speed-up event enlarges cavities and connections among them, driving a transition from a poorly connected hydrologic system to a well-connected linked-cavity system. Sliding is probably halted by the development of a conduit system. 1578 Borehole imagery of meteoric and marine ice layers in the Amery Ice Shelf, East Antarctica Craven M., Carsey F., Behar A. et al. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (75-84) A real-time video camera probe was deployed in a hot-water drilled borehole through the Amery Ice Shelf, East Antarctica, where a total ice thickness of 480 m included at least 200 m of basal marine ice. Down-looking and side-looking digital video footage showed a striking transition from white bubbly meteoric ice above to dark marine ice below, but the transition was neither microscopically sharp nor flat, indicating the uneven nature (at centimetre scale) of the ice-shelf base upstream where the marine ice first started to accrete. Marine ice features were imaged including platelet structures, cell inclusions, entrained particles, and the interface with sea water at the base. The cells are assumed to be entrained sea water, and were present throughout the lower 100-150 m of the marine ice column, becoming larger and more prevalent as the lower surface was approached until, near the base, they became channels large enough that the camera field of view could not contain them. Platelets in the marine ice at depth appeared to be as large as 1-2 cm in diameter. Particles were visible in the borehole meltwater; probably marine and mineral particles liberated by the drill, but their distribution varied with depth. 1579 Use of the ELA as a practical method of monitoring glacier response to climate in New Zealand’s Southern Alps Chinn T.J., Heydenrych C. and Salinger M.J. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (85-95) In lieu of direct glacier surface mass-balance measurements, equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) have been measured over a 28 year period at 50 selected glaciers distributed along the glacierized length of New Zealand’s Southern Alps. Analysis of the data shows that ELAs are a useful measurement of glacier response to annual climate fluctuations, although there is much variability in the degree of response between glaciers in any given year. Comparisons of individual glacier annual ELA with the mean for all annual ELAs of the Southern Alps show a large variation of individual glacier response, with coefficients of variation (r2 ) ranging from 0.53 to 0.90. The ELA data show detailed, but qualitative, annual mass-balance variations on both regional and individual glacier scales. The ELA record closely predicts glacier termini responses that follow after appropriate response time delays. The recorded variability in climate response for the Southern Alps suggests no single glacier is truly representative for detailed studies of glacier-climate relationships, and that a large number of ELA measurements may be as good an indicator of climate as a few mass-balance measurements. Given the appropriate mass-balance gradient, mass-balance values may be calculated for any of the monitored glaciers. 1580 Ice-elevation changes of Glaciar Chico, southern Patagonia, using ASTER DEMs, aerial photographs and GPS data Rivera A., Casassa G., Bamber J. and K¨aa¨ b A. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (105-112) Hielo Patag´onico Sur (HPS; southern Patagonia icefield) is the largest temperate ice mass at mid-latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. With few exceptions, the glaciers in this region have been retreating during the last 50 years. Based on field data, vertical THE QUATERNARY aerial photographs and satellite images, ice-elevation changes since 1975 on Glaciar Chico, one of the main tongues of HPS, are presented. A maximum ice thinning of 5.4 0.55 ma-1 was observed at the glacier front between 1975 and 1997. Global positioning system (GPS) data were used in the accumulation area of the glacier to infer a thinning rate of 1.9 0.14ma-1 between 1998 and 2001. This thinning rate is three times higher than the snow accumulation rate estimated for that part of the glacier. A mean net glacier mass balance of -0.29 0.097 km3 w.e. a-1 was estimated between 1975 and 2001. Climate data suggest an increase in temperature and a reduction in precipitation during most of the 20th century in the vicinity of HPS. Although these climate changes are the primary explanation for the observed ice-elevation changes of the glacier, ice-dynamics effects are also believed to play an important role. 1581 Spatial and temporal variability of snow accumulation in East Antarctica from traverse data Frezzotti M., Pourchet M., Flora O. et al. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (113-124) Recent snow accumulation rate is a key quantity for ice-core and mass-balance studies. Several accumulation measurement methods (stake farm, fin core, snow-radar profiling, surface morphology, remote sensing) were used, compared and integrated at eight sites along a transect from Terra Nova Bay to Dome C, East Antarctica, to provide information about the spatial and temporal variability of snow accumulation. Thirty-nine cores were dated by identifying tritium/ marker levels (1965-66) and non-seasalt (nss) SO 24 spikes of the Tambora (Indonesia) volcanic event (1816) in order to provide information on temporal variability. Cores were linked by snow radar and global positioning system surveys to provide detailed information on spatial variability in snow accumulation. Stake-farm and ice-core accumulation rates are observed to differ significantly, but isochrones (snow radar) correlate well with ice-core derived accumulation. The accumulation/ablation pattern from stake measurements suggests that the annual local noise (metre scale) in snow accumulation can approach 2 years of ablation and more than four times the average annual accumulation, with no accumulation or ablation for a 5 year period in up to 40% of cases. The spatial variability of snow accumulation at the kilometre scale is one order of magnitude higher than temporal variability at the multi-decadal/secular scale. Stake measurements and firn cores at Dome C confirm an approximate 30% increase in accumulation over the last two centuries, with respect to the average over the last 5000 years. 1582 Dissipated work, stability and the internal flow structure of granular snow avalanches Bartelt P., Buser O. and Kern M. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (125-138) We derive work dissipation functional for granular snow avalanches flowing in simple shear. Our intent is to apply constructive theorems of non-equilibrium thermodynamics to the snow avalanche problem. Snow chute experiments show that a bilayer system consisting of a non-yielded flow plug overriding a sheared fluidized layer can be used to model avalanche flow. We show that for this type of constitutive behaviour the dissipation functionals are minimum at steady state with respect to variations in internal velocity; however, the functionals must be constrained by subsidiary mass-continuity integrals before the equivalence of momentum balance and minimal work dissipation can be established. Constitutive models that do not satisfy this equivalence are henceforth excluded from our consideration. Fluctuations in plug and slip velocity depend on the roughness of the flow surface and viscosity of the granular system. We speculate that this property explains the transition from flowing avalanches to powder avalanches. Because the temperature can safely be assumed constant, we demonstrate within the context of nonequilibrium thermodynamics that granular snow avalanches are irreversible, dissipative systems, minimizing - in space - entropy production. Furthermore, entropy production is linear both near and far from steady-state non-equilibrium because of the masscontinuity constraint. Finally, we derive thermodynamic forces and conjugate fluxes as well as expressing the corresponding phenomenological Onsager coefficients in terms of the constitutive parameters. 299 1583 Debris transport in a temperate valley glacier: Haut Glacier d’Arolla, Valais, Switzerland Goodsell B., Hambrey M.J. and Classer N.F. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (139-146) This paper considers the role of structural glaciology in debris entrainment, transport and deposition at Haut Glacier d’Arolla, a temperate valley glacier in Valais, Switzerland. Sedimentological descriptions and clast analysis have been used to identify relationships between ice structure and debris transport. Relationships identified are (1) debris associated with crevasse traces, (2) the folding of rockfall material incorporated within primary stratification to form medial moraines and (3) dirt cones and englacial debris layers associated with reactivated crevasse traces. A conceptual model is introduced to summarize the manner in which ice structures at Haut Glacier d’Arolla control entrainment and deposition of debris. 1584 Decadal-scale variations in ice flow along Whillans Ice Stream and its tributaries, West Antarctica Stearns L.A., Jezek K.C. and Van Der Veen C.J. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (147-157) We investigate velocity changes occurring along Whillans Ice Stream (WIS) by comparing velocities derived from repeat aerial photographs acquired in 1985-89 (average date of 1987) to interferometric satellite radar (InSAR) velocities collected in 1997. Three different analysis methods are applied to the velocity data. First, temporal and spatial changes in velocities are correlated to identifiable features (flowlines, shear margins, bed features) visible on the 1997 RADARSAT Antarctic Mapping Project mosaic. Second, we relate velocity gradients to stresses via the flow law and, along with surface topography and ice-thickness data, apply the force-budget technique to determine the relative importance of driving stress, side drag and basal drag over time. Finally, the mass balance of the main part of WIS is determined for 1987 and 1997. Our results are consistent with previous studies that show an overall deceleration resulting in downstream thickening of the ice stream (Whillans and others, 2001; Joughin and others, 2002). 1585 Instruments and Methods A non-destructive method for measuring the salinity and solid fraction of growing sea ice in situ Notz D., Wettlaufer J.S. and Worster M.G. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (159-166) We describe an instrument developed to make in situ measurements of salinity and solid-fraction profiles in growing sea ice. The vertical resolution of the measurements is up to a few millimeters, with a temporal resolution of up to fractions of a second. The technique is based on impedance measurements between platinum wires around which sea ice grows. Data obtained using this instrument in laboratory experiments are in good agreement with theoretical predictions. In a field test in the Arctic, the bulk salinity of growing sea ice has been measured in situ throughout the whole depth of the ice layer. The data are compared with bulk salinities obtained from ice cores, and confirm the general understanding that the bulk salinity in ice-core studies is significantly underestimated in the lower parts of the cores. The approach can also be used in other glaciological applications and for general studies of two-phase, two-component porous media. 1586 The retreat stages of Arve glacier between cluses bolt and chamonix ombilic during the lateglacial (Arve Valley, Haute-Savoie) (French) (Les stades de retrait du glacier de l’Arve entre le verrou de cluses et l’ombilic de chamonix au cours du tardiglaciaire (Vall´ee de l’Arve, Haute-Savoie)) Coutterand S. and Nicoud G. Quaternaire 2005 16/2 (85-94) This updated cartography of glacial deposits, especially the ablation moraines and the associated devices, such as kame terraces, enables us to suggest a paleogeography more complete of the various steps of the Tardiglaciaire deglaciation in the middle Arve Valley. The two main stages during the retreat, namely Magland and Le Fayet ones were subdivided into two subdivisions (Tour Noire and Pierre a` Voix), and four subdivisions, - Am´erands, Fayet d’en Haut, Fayet du Milieu and Fayet d’en Bas -, respectively. One age based on the exposur e method (Be10 ) performed on a crystalline erratic boulder of the Magland- 300 THE QUATERNARY Tour Noire stage-the most downstream from those studied in the Sallanches ombilic, yield 17540 50010 Be BP. On the basis of the various glacial equilibrium line values and on 10 Be ages, a correlation is suggested between our relative chronology and the Grisons scale (Switzerland). 1587 Laboratory study of erosion processes in snow avalanches Barbolini M., Biancardi A., Cappabianca F. et al. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (1-9) In order to better understand the mechanics of erosive processes characteristic of snow avalanche flows, a series of laboratory experiments were carried out. In these experiments a mass of dry granular material was released in a channel with rectangular cross-section. A part of the channel was covered with an erodible layer. The experiments were recorded with a high-speed digital camera and the interaction between the flowing material and the erodible bed was studied using different colours for the two materials. The records allowed an extremely detailed high-frequency visualisation of the phenomenon. Observations of the erosion mechanisms as well as measurements of the erosion rates were performed. The results of the experiments were analysed and interpreted with respect to some theoretical erosion models from the literature. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1588 Mathematical modeling of snow entrainment in avalanche motion Eglit M.E. and Demidov K.S. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (10-23) The entrainment of snow plays an important role in snow avalanche dynamics. Various ways of incorporating the entrainment effect into avalanche mathematical models are discussed in this paper. The results of calculations using a variety of formulae for the entrainment rate that have been proposed for bed erosion by flows of various physical natures are presented. For various studied entrainment laws it is found that in motion at a steep slope the entrainment takes place in a frontal part of an avalanche. The motion of an avalanche depends mainly on the total depth of the entrainable snow layer and on the length of the entrainment zone, but only weakly on the form of the entrainment law. However the length of an entrainment zone depends on the values of the coefficients entering the entrainment law. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1589 On size and shape effects in snow fracture toughness measurements Sigrist C., Schweizer J., Schindler H.- J. and Dual J. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (24-35) Dry snow slab avalanche release is preceded by two fracture mechanical processes: shear failure of a weak layer or an interface within the snowpack, followed by tensile failure of the overlaying slab. For a slope stability analysis based on fracture mechanics, the fracture toughness of snow has to be known. The purpose of this work was to evaluate snow fracture toughness in mode I, to determine to what extent it is affected by the specimen size and shape and to search for adequate correction methods. Edgecracked beam-shaped snow specimens cut from homogeneous layers of naturally deposited snow were subjected to three-point bending and cantilever beam tests. To describe the size dependence an empirical size effect law and the FAD (failure assessment diagram) approach were explored. By comparing the three-point bending with the cantilever beam tests a shape dependence of the toughness was found. The fracture process zone was estimated to be in the order of at least one centimetre. Due to the large size of the fracture process zone a dependence of the toughness on the specimen size has to be expected, as it is typical for nonlinear, quasi-brittle materials. Experiments with four different specimen sizes clearly confirmed that toughness is size dependent, possibly up to the scale of a slab avalanche. Preliminary results suggest that the actual fracture toughness might be twice as large as the one determined experimentally. Therefore, size correction functions will be essential to transform toughness data of laboratory-scaled experiments to the scale relevant for snow slope stability models. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1590 Two-dimensional mathematical and numerical model for the dynamics of granular avalanches De Toni S. and Scotton P. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (36-48) This paper considers a model that reproduces the dynamics of snow avalanches from initiation to runout for a given terrain topography and given the volume, shape and position of the initial mass. According to the Savage-Hutter theory, the granular avalanche is treated as an incompressible cohesionless continuum, which satisfies a Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion and with a Coulomb-type friction law at the bottom. The internal and bottom friction angles,  and , are the only rheological parameters to be set. The balance laws of mass and momentum are simplified imposing the "shallow water" assumption and then averaged along the vertical direction. The momentum balance along the direction normal to the bottom reduces to a hydrostatic distribution of pressure in a form which includes the centrifugal forces due to the curvature. The stress tensor is written in a coordinate system independent of the topography and related to the velocity vector. The numerical model is validated by laboratory experiments, performed at the Hydraulic Laboratory of the University of Trento, and by comparing the simulation results with data collected from the literature. The applicability of the model to natural snow avalanches is discussed with reference to observations on granular avalanches reported in the literature and to the surveys carried out at the Lavina Granda and Spini Valley avalanche sites in Trentino Province (Italy). © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1591 A low cost system for the estimation of concentration and velocity profiles in rapid dry granular flows Barbolini M., Biancardi A., Natale L. and Pagliardi M. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (49-61) A series of laboratory experiments with granular material has been carried out at the Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering Department of the University of Pavia (Italy). The aim was to investigate the internal properties of fast moving dry granular flows, with particular attention paid to the measurements of concentration and velocity profiles. A low-cost acquisition system was built using a Pulnix digital camera and off-the-shelf components and integrating only open-source software around a GNU/Linux operating system. Different techniques for the measurements of velocity and concentration profiles have been proposed and tested. The flow regimes have been investigated and a distinction between "front", "body" and "tail" of the moving mass has been established in terms of the flow concentration. Additionally, a comparison with experimental results and theories found in the literature has been outlined. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1592 Application of the snow cover model SNOWPACK to snow avalanche warning in Niseko, Japan Nishimura K., Baba E., Hirashima H. and Lehning M. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (62-70) We describe the use of the snow cover model SNOWPACK for avalanche warning in Niseko, Japan. Input data was collected from a newly installed meteorological station at 800 m a.s.l. To verify the model output, snow pit observations were made almost everyday during the winter 2002-2003. Ten dry snow slab avalanches occurred during the observation period. Most of them were released after a heavy storm and had fracture depths of 40-60 cm. Pit observations revealed that the fracture layers in the snowpack consisted of either graupel or stellar precipitation particles without rime (70%) or faceted crystals (30%). Slab layers consisted of precipitation or decomposing and fragmented particles, which indicated that these avalanches occurred soon after the snow deposition. Snow profiles simulated with SNOWPACK roughly agreed with the observed profiles. The model reproduced faceted crystals on a crust that became the weak layer and caused the avalanches on 14-16 February 2003. In addition, air temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and snow depth in the study area were estimated for grid points with 50 m spacing. This allowed to calculate for each grid point snow properties such as grain type and density as well as the snow stability index SI. The predictions agreed reasonably well with the field observations. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. THE QUATERNARY 1593 High-speed photography of fractures in weak snowpack layers van Herwijnen A. and Jamieson B. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (71-82) During the winters of 2002-2003 and 2003-2004, fractures in weak snowpack layers were recorded with a portable digital highspeed camera in the Columbia Mountains of British Columbia, Canada. Fractures were photographed at 250 frames per second in 21 compression tests, four rutschblock tests, three cantilever beam tests as well as on five skier-tested slopes. Theoretical slab avalanche release models generally assume propagation of a brittle shear fracture in an incompressible weak snowpack layer. However, displacement measurements of markers placed in the snow above the weak layer indicated that slope normal displacement (due to crushing of the weak layer) was directly caused by the fracture in the weak layer and independent of slope angle, whereas the slope parallel displacement following fracture was probably dependent on slope angle. Furthermore, displacement measurements from rows of markers placed in the snow above weak layers resulted in fracture speed measurements ranging from 17 to 26 m/s, in good agreement with the only other published fracture speed measurement known to the authors: 20 m/s. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1594 Avalanche forecast using numerical weather prediction in Indian Himalaya Singh A., Srinivasan K. and Ganju A. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (83-92) The integration of a nearest-neighbours method based avalanche forecast model with a mesoscale weather forecast model (MM5) has been attempted for avalanche forecasting in Indian Himalaya. The MM5 model simulates weather parameters up to day-4 over the entire western Himalaya. The paper describes the methodology of using MM5 model predictions and some empirical relations, to find the probability of avalanche occurrence up to day-4 at a spatial resolution of 5 km by applying the nearest-neighbours method. The nearest-neighbours model uses Euclidean weighted distance metric to find 10 nearest neighbours from the past data in terms of snow and weather parameters. Based on the avalanche occurrences associated with nearest-neighbours, an a priori probability of avalanche occurrence is derived. This approach has been tested for forecasting of avalanches in Chowkibal-Tangdhar road axis in Indian western Himalaya. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1595 Improvement of a numerical snow drift model and field validation Durand Y., Guyomarc’h G., M´erindol L. and Corripio J.G. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (93-103) For about 10 years, M´et´eo-France has developed and operated a real time operational suite aimed at snowpack simulation and avalanche risk forecasting: the numerical model chain SafranCrocus-Mepra (SCM). It presently includes only a crude formulation of snowdrift effects at large spatial scales (massif). This paper presents the improvements to a snow drift module suited to the SCM chain. The new version called SYTRON3 which aims at an improved simulation of snow drift effects at smaller spatial scales. It is coupled with the SCM environment, which provides hourly meteorological conditions and snow forcing. The main modifications concern the new parameterisation schemes, which are more realistic and more physically based. The increased number of vertical layers allows now to represent explicitly the three modes of movement during snow drift: creep, saltation and diffusion. The validation of this new version as well as comparisons with the previous version are performed at the Col du Lac Blanc test site (2700 m a.s.l., French Alps) by the use of digital photographs and field observations. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1596 Avalanche activity in an extreme maritime climate: The application of classification trees for forecasting Hendrikx J., Owens I., Carran W. and Carran A. Cold Regions Science and Technology 2005 43/1-2 (104-116) Classification trees were trained to determine periods of significant avalanche activity in terms of an avalanche day, based on meteorological parameters for the Milford Road, Fiordland, New 301 Zealand. Using a 10 year data set of meteorological parameters and over 1800 individual avalanche occurrences from the Transit New Zealand Milford Road Avalanche Programme we have described and statistically explored this avalanche regime and the relationship between storm and avalanche activity in this extreme climatic region. The Milford Road is located in the south western corner of New Zealand and is dominated by a maritime climate delivering in excess of 8 m water equivalent per year in precipitation, while winter storms can deposit up to 2 m of snow in one storm. As the avalanche climate is dominated by direct action avalanching, the meteorological parameters up to a maximum of 72 h preceding a significant avalanche period were examined. Standard meteorological parameters including air temperature, air pressure, wind speed and direction, snow depth and precipitation were obtained from two automatic weather stations located in the starting zone and at road level. These parameters as well as two derived wind drift parameters were used as the variables for predicting the avalanche days. Two 10 fold cross validated classification trees were created, and suggested for use in forecasting. The classification tree with highest accuracy of 85% predicted avalanche days less well at 79%. An alternative tree using only wind speed and wind speed and precipitation combined in a temperature sensitive wind drift parameter resulted in a lower overall accuracy of 78%, but permitted a higher rate of correct prediction for avalanche days at 86%. The alternative, more conservative tree also reduced the number of false negative cases (observed as avalanche days, but predicted as non-avalanche days) from 31 to 20 at a cost of increasing the false positive or false alarm rate. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1597 Geomorphological evidence for variations of the North Patagonian Icefield during the Holocene Glasser N.F., Jansson K.N., Harrison S. and Rivera A. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (263-277) Elucidating the timing and extent of former glacier fluctuations is important because of the palaeoclimatic inferences that can be drawn from such studies. Here we present new geomorphological evidence of the patterns of glacier behaviour around the North Patagonian Icefield during the Holocene. Mapping is based on visual interpretation of Landsat 7 ETM+ and Terra ASTER satellite images, including the contemporary glaciers, areas of ice-scoured bedrock, trimlines, glacial lineations, terminal moraines, sandur and fluvial sediments, deltas and ice-contact deposits and alluvial fans. Recession of the icefield is marked by three distinct moraine sets. These moraine sets are interpreted as marking terminal positions related to the "Little Ice Age" and two preceding, but as yet undated, phases of Holocene glacier expansion. Large arcuate terminal moraines in front of three of the western glaciers are interpreted as composite features, reflecting topographic limits to glacier expansion, indicating that caution is required in the interpretation of previous 14 C dates obtained from these moraines. There are strong contrasts in the patterns of glacier behaviour between the east and west sides of the North Patagonian Icefield, which cannot be attributed simply to an east/west differential in the rates of change of atmospheric temperature and precipitation. We argue here that glacier response to first-order climate forcing is tempered by second-order controls introduced by regional-scale topographic effects, notably glacier drainage basin extent and area, topographic controls on glacier snout morphology and differences in terminal environment (calving/non-calving) during glacier recession. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1598 Dating of Little Ice Age glacier fluctuations in the tropical Andes: Charquini glaciers, Bolivia, 16°S Rabatel A., Jomelli V., Naveau P. et al. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 2005 337/15 (1311-1322) Fluctuations of the Charquini glaciers (Cordillera Real, Bolivia) have been reconstructed for the Little Ice Age (LIA) from a set of 10 moraines extending below the present glacier termini. A lichenometric method using the Rhizocarpon geographicum was used to date the moraines and reconstruct the main glacier fluctuations over the period. The maximum glacier extent occurred in the second half of the 17th century, followed by nearly continuous retreat with three interruptions during the 18th and the 19th centuries, marked by stabilisation or minor advances. Results obtained in the Charquini area are first compared with other dating 302 SEDIMENTOLOGY performed in the Peruvian Cordillera Blanca and then with the fluctuations of documented glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere. Glacier fluctuations along the tropical Andes (Bolivia and Peru) were in phase during the LIA and the solar forcing appears to be important during the period of glacier advance. Compared with the Northern Hemisphere mid-latitudes, the major advance observed on these glaciers during the first half of the 19th century is not present in the tropical Andes. This discrepancy may be due to regional scale climate variations. © 2005 Acad´emie de sciences. Published by Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved. 1599 Ice-sheet extent of the Antarctic Peninsula region during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) - Insights from glacial geomorphology Heroy D.C. and Anderson J.B. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 2005 117/11-12 (1497-1512) We present marine geological and geophysical data for the Antarctic Peninsula that call for a larger ice-sheet reconstruction during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) than suggested by previous studies. Such glacial reconstructions are important for quantifying post-LGM sea-level rise and providing boundary conditions for general circulation models. Megascale glacial lineations on the continental shelf surrounding Antarctica provide documentation for grounded ice that was streaming. Swath bathymetry data (NBP02-01) reveal lineations in each of the major glacial troughs, except for Smith Trough, which features grooves and bedrock drumlins (0.5-3 km spacing, 1:20 elongation ratios) on crystalline bedrock. We place the maximum extent of ice at the seaward limit of the lineations, at or near (<10 km landward of) the shelf break. The occurrence of line-sourced gullies at the mouth of each glacial trough (except Vega Trough, Weddell Sea) supports the interpretation of ice grounded at the shelf break. Megascale glacial lineations imaged in this study and other areas surrounding Antarctica (including the Ross Sea, Pine Island Bay) have a consistent morphology, with elongation ratios of >80:1 and spacings of 200-600 m (mode of 300 m). In contrast, lineations ("bundles"; Canals et al., 2000) in the Gerlache-Boyd Trough exhibit larger spacing (1-5 km), and the upstream portions (
7 km) are carved directly into bedrock rather than till, as suggested by previously unpublished air gun (
120 Hz) seismic data. These features have yet to be dated; however, they are believed to have been active during the LGM. Radiocarbon dates in glaciomarine sediments (foraminifera and organic matter) from seven glacial troughs indicate that megascale glacial lineations were formed during the LGM. Other geomorphic features, such as the grounding zone wedge in the northwestern Weddell Sea, formed when the ice sheet was retreating. The initial retreat of the grounded ice from the outer shelf occurred by 18,500 cal yr B.P. The inner shelf was mostly ice free by 13,000 cal yr B.P. This is significantly earlier than numerical models, which suggest Antarctic deglaciation began at 12,000 cal yr B.P. This also suggests the peninsula area contributed to global sea-level rise associated with meltwater pulse (MWP) 1a. © 2005 Geological Society of America. SEDIMENTOLOGY Sediments and sedimentary processes - physical properties 1600 Statistical and geostatistical features of streambed hydraulic conductivities in the Platte River, Nebraska Chen X. Environmental Geology 2005 48/6 (693-701) This paper presents streambed hydraulic conductivities of the Platte River from south-central to eastern Nebraska. The hydraulic conductivities were determined from river channels using permeameter tests. The vertical hydraulic conductivities (K v ) from seven test sites along this river in south-central Nebraska belong to one statistical population. Its mean value is 40.2 m/d. However, the vertical hydraulic conductivities along four transects of the Ashland test site in eastern Nebraska have lower mean values, are statistically different from the K v values in south-central Nebraska, and belong to two different populations with mean values of 20.7 and 9.1 m/d, respectively. Finer sediments carried from the Loup River and Elkhorn River watersheds to the eastern reach of the Platte River lowers the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the streambed. Correlation coefficients between water depth and K v values along a test transect indicates a positive correlation - a larger K v usually occurs in the part of channel with deeper water. Experimental variograms derived from the vertical hydraulic conductivities for several transects across the channels of the Platte River show periodicity of spatial correlation, which likely result from periodic variation of water depth across the channels. The sandy to gravelly streambed contains very local silt and clay layers; spatially continuous low-permeability streambed was not observed in the river channels. The horizontal hydraulic conductivities were larger than the vertical hydraulic conductivities for the same test locations. © Springer-Verlag 2005. Sediments and sedimentary processes - transport 1601 RRS Charles Darwin Cruise 126, 11 Mar-20 Mar 2001. Piston coring of debris flows and turbidites west and south of the Canary Islands Masson D.G. Cruise Report of the Southampton Oceanography Centre 2002 -/40 (15p) The major cruise objective was to obtain sediment cores at various locations to the west and southwest of the Canary Islands with the aims of:  Sampling debris flow sediments in the Canary and Saharan debris flows  Obtaining dateable sediments immediately above and below the debris flow sediments  Sampling turbidite sediments associated with the debris flows  Sampling sediments on either flank of a sediment wave west of La Palma In addition, it was planned to  obtain seabed video footage, using the SHRIMP towed camera station, at several localities where downslope sediment transport was believed to be active at the present day, and undertake some test deployments of the SOC Scatterometer system. ©2003-2004 University of Southampton. 1602 Assessment of sediment yield of watersheds by reservoir survey and simulation modelling in Brazilian semiarid environment De Ara´ujo J.C. and Knight D.W. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (124-130) Reservoir survey is a reliable method for assessing sediment yield, which is a major environmental issue concerning impacts on water resources. The paper presents field surveys of one urban and six rural watersheds located in the Brazilian semiarid region, with a wide range of characteristics. Basin areas range from 3 to 1220 km2 ; reservoir capacity 0.5-126 Mm3 ; silting history 46-94 years; and hydrological regimes range from very dry "scrt˜ao" to mild mountain and coastal regions. Sediment yield assessment consisted of topo-bathymetric reservoir surveys; volume reduction computation; dry bulk density evaluation based on core samples; and trap efficiency estimation. Results showed per capita urban contribution to be 21 kg year-1 ; average sediment yield to be 426 t km-2 year -1 ; and reservoir-volume reduction at a rate of 2% per decade. The Hidrosed model was applied and field data were used for its validation. Hidrosed showed good agreement with field data, with Nash and Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient 0.81 for Maner SDR formulation. 1603 A theoretical exploration of catchment-scale sediment delivery Lu H., Moran C.J. and Sivapalan M. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-15) [1] This paper proposes a theoretical explanation of the variations of the sediment delivery ratio (SDR) versus catchment area relationships and the complex patterns in the behavior of sediment transfer processes at catchment scale. Taking into account the effects of erosion source types, deposition, and hydrological controls, we propose a simple conceptual model that consists of two linear stores arranged in series: a hillslope store that addresses transport to the nearest streams and a channel store that addresses sediment routing in the channel network. SEDIMENTOLOGY The model identifies four dimensionless scaling factors, which enable us to analyze a variety of effects on SDR estimation, including (1) interacting processes of erosion sources and deposition, (2) different temporal averaging windows, and (3) catchment runoff response. We show that the interactions between storm duration and hillslope/channel travel times are the major controls of peak-value-based sediment delivery and its spatial variations. The interplay between depositional timescales and the travel/residence times determines the spatial variations of total-volume-based SDR. In practical terms this parsimonious, minimal complexity model could provide a sound physical basis for diagnosing catchment to catchment variability of sediment transport if the proposed scaling factors can be quantified using climatic and catchment properties. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1604 Estimating sediment budgets at the interface between rivers and estuaries with application to the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta Wright S.A. and Schoellhamer D.H. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-17) [1] Where rivers encounter estuaries, a transition zone develops where riverine and tidal processes both affect sediment transport processes. One such transition zone is the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, a large, complex system where several rivers meet to form an estuary (San Francisco Bay). Herein we present the results of a detailed sediment budget for this river/estuary transitional system. The primary regional goal of the study was to measure sediment transport rates and pathways in the delta in support of ecosystem restoration efforts. In addition to achieving this regional goal, the study has produced general methods to collect, edit, and analyze (including error analysis) sediment transport data at the interface of rivers and estuaries. Estimating sediment budgets for these systems is difficult because of the mixed nature of riverine versus tidal transport processes, the different timescales of transport in fluvial and tidal environments, and the sheer complexity and size of systems such as the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. Sediment budgets also require error estimates in order to assess whether differences in inflows and outflows, which could be small compared to overall fluxes, are indeed distinguishable from zero. Over the 4 year period of this study, water years 1999-2002, 6.6 0.9 Mt of sediment entered the delta and 2.2 0.7 Mt exited, resulting in 4.4 1.1 Mt (67 17%) of deposition. The estimated deposition rate corresponding to this mass of sediment compares favorably with measured inorganic sediment accumulation on vegetated wetlands in the delta. 1605 Transport of gravel and cobble on a mixed-sediment inner bank shoreline of a large inlet, Grays Harbor, Washington Osborne P.D. Marine Geology 2005 224/1-4 (145-156) Gravel and cobble transport measurements were obtained by particle tracing experiments from a mixed sand, gravel and cobble beach at the head of a crenulate-shaped shoreline, Half Moon Bay in Grays Harbor, Washington. The direct measurements and results provide insight regarding the differential transport of gravel and cobble sized material on mixed-sediment beaches. The results are of relevance to the development of both predictive formulae for coarse-grained sediment transport and guidance for practical gravel and cobble beach design. Net alongshore transport of gravel and cobble is generally several times greater than the net cross-shore transport at Half Moon Bay. Larger and smaller particles both move preferentially alongshore; however, smaller particles tend to move across-shore more than larger particles. Particle transport distance during a tidal cycle increases with particle size (or mass) up to a point, beyond which the particle transport rate begins to decrease with increasing size. The direct relationship between transport rate and particle size may reflect the selective entrainment and the rejection (or overpassing) of larger particles, which are more exposed to fluid forces on the beach surface than smaller particles, which are sheltered within the matrix of larger particles, as well as the higher susceptibility to burial of smaller particles. The decrease in transport rate for the largest sizes may reflect the limited competency of the fluid forces to transport larger and heavier particles under the observed conditions. The direct transport measurements are consistent with the overall particle size and shape distributions observed 303 on this crenulate-shaped inner bank beach whereby the larger and flatter particles have tended to outrun the smaller and more spherical particles in the downdrift direction. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1606 Estimates of Australian dust flux into New Zealand: Quantifying the eastern Australian dust plume pathway using trace element calibrated 210 Pb as a monitor Marx S.K., Kamber B.S. and McGowan H.A. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005 239/3-4 (336-351) Weekly average atmospheric 210 Pb flux data collected between March 1989 and February 2001 are used to construct a record of Australian dust incursions onto the west coast, South Island, New Zealand. Dusts collected from New Zealand glaciers were found to contain a mixture of local New Zealand and long range Australian material, based on novel binary and tertiary mixing models of their ultra trace element chemistries. Trace element characteristics further allowed determination of the provenance of the long range dust component within Australia to better than 200 km resolution. 210 Pb analyses of these chemically characterised dust samples show that activity is related to the percentage of Australian dust in a linear fashion. However, 210 Pb activity of Australian dusts collected in New Zealand is orders of magnitude greater than that measured in the alluvial sediments of the provenance areas. Australian dusts collected in New Zealand are also highly enriched in 210 Pb compared to dusts collected in Australia. This shows that dust scavenges atmospheric 210 Pb which can therefore be used as an effective tracer of long range dust transport. Previously obtained average atmospheric 210 Pb flux data can thus be converted into the first record of long range Australian dust flux in New Zealand. Results show that the average atmospheric concentration of Australian dust in New Zealand is 5.3 g m-3 . There is a clear seasonality with the highest concentrations occurring in autumn-winter, preceding Australia’s major dust storm season, which occurs in winterspring. We propose that while meteorological factors control the occurrence of major dust storms, the availability of sediment in source areas is a major control on Australian dust flux in New Zealand. Dust flux is greatest after seasonal river flows when transport of extremely fine grained dust occurs. This is followed by transport of larger particles in the more spectacular winter-spring dust storms. Our results provide information on the characteristics and seasonality of dust transport in the Australian region, which had previously been difficult to quantify by other methods (e.g., satellite imagery). Results also attest to the effectiveness of 210 Pb as a tracer in this region. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1607 Process-based model linking pocket gopher (Thomomys bottae) activity to sediment transport and soil thickness Yoo K., Amundson R., Heimsath A.M. and Dietrich W.E. Geology 2005 33/11 (917-920) Burrowing organisms assist in shaping earth surfaces and are simultaneously affected by the environment they inhabit; however, a conceptual framework is not yet available to describe this feedback. We introduce a model that connects the population density of soil-burrowing animals to sediment transport via energy. The model, combined with available data from California hillslopes where soil erosion is driven by pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae), suggests that a gopher annually expends
9 kJ of energy, or
1% of reported burrowing energy expenditure, in generating sediment transport. The model is used to evaluate the case that gophers prefer to populate thicker soils. The results suggest that this behavior may drastically dampen the spatial and temporal variations of soil thickness and gopher populations, implying that burrowing organisms may create landscapes distinct from those affected by abiotic process. © 2005 Geological Society of America. 1608 Prograde Rayleigh wave particle motion Tanimoto T. and Rivera L. Geophysical Journal International 2005 162/2 (399-405) Fundamental mode Rayleigh waves generally show retrograde particle motion at the surface of the Earth. If there exists a thick sedimentary layer, however, reversal of the sign of vertical eigenfunction occurs near the surface, resulting in prograde 304 SEDIMENTOLOGY Rayleigh-wave particle motion at the surface. We show that, for structures similar to those found in the Los Angeles basin (with thickness up to 8 km), surface prograde motion may occur within the frequency band 0.05-0.3 Hz. Although it has been suggested that the effect of gravity on waves in unconsolidated surface layer may be important, partitioning of energy between the elatic and gravitational energy shows that the gravitational energy is less than 1 per cent and thus is not important. The phenomenon is caused by elastic effects, mainly caused by extremely slow shallow seismic velocities. Observation of prograde elliptical particle motion may be difficult, however, because particle motion is largely horizontal and high microseismic noise exists in the same frequency band. © 2005 RAS. 1609 Sediment suspension dynamics and a new criterion for the maintenance of turbulent suspensions Leeder M.R., Gray T.E. and Alexander J. Sedimentology 2005 52/4 (683-691) The vertical component of the turbulent flow acceleration term, @ (u
i u
j - is used to determine the net positive vertical force that may support a suspended sediment load. A dimensionless criterion, A, is proposed for the maintenance of suspension, defined as the ratio of the maximum vertical turbulent stress to immersed weight of the suspended load above a unit bed area. In order that a suspension be maintained: A=(v
2 -)max /m( -/ )g1 where v’ is instantaneous vertical turbulent velocity, and  are solid and fluid densities, respectively and m is the suspended load dry mass. The A criterion is dynamic, being a ratio of stresses and is analogous in this respect to Shields dimensionless stress criterion, , for the initiation of bedload motion. The new criterion is successful in predicting the maintenance of steady-state suspended sediment transport in open channel shear flow and deposition from non-uniform particulate density flows of wall jet type. © 2005 International Association of Sedimentologists. 1610 Sand grain threshold, in relation to bed ‘stress history’: An experimental study Paphitis D. and Collins M.B. Sedimentology 2005 52/4 (827-838) Besides particle size, density and shape, the erodibility of a sediment bed depends also upon the exposure to prethreshold velocities in the overlying flow. Such flow effectively rearranges the grains (at and below the bed surface), causing them to become more resistant to subsequent erosion. The effects of the ‘stress history’, leading up to the critical condition for sediment movement, are investigated for unidirectional flows generated in a recirculating laboratory flume. The sediment beds investigated consisted of cohesionless quartz sand grains, with mean grain diameters of 0-194 mm (fine sand), 0-387 mm (medium sand) and 0-774 mm (coarse sand), with narrow particle-size distributions. The critical (threshold) shear velocity (target value) for the three beds was established, within 2-5 min of increasing the flow from zero velocity. The subsequent experiments were performed under prethreshold velocities at 70% (for 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 min exposure duration), 80% (for 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 min exposure duration), 90 and 95% (for 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 and 120 min exposure duration) of the target value. Following exposure to these different prethreshold conditions, the flow was increased then to reach actual critical conditions, within a period of 2-5 min. The critical condition for the initiation of sediment movement was established using visual observation (supplemented by video recordings), according to the Yalin criterion. The results show that if the exposure duration to prethreshold velocities remains constant, then the critical shear velocity increases with increasing prethreshold velocity. Likewise, if the prethreshold velocity remains constant, then the critical shear velocity increases with increasing exposure duration. In some circumstances, the critical shear velocity was found to increase by as much as 27%. An empirical formula is proposed to account for the exposure correction to be applied to the critical shear velocities of sandsized sediment beds; this is prior to their inclusion into bedload transport formulae, for an improved prediction of the magnitude and nature of transport. © 2005 International Association of Sedimentologists. 1611 Bedload path length and point bar development in gravel-bed river models Pyrce R.S. and Ashmore P.E. Sedimentology 2005 52/4 (839-857) Low-sinuosity meandering gravel-bed flume experiments were employed to investigate spatial patterns of deposition, which point to patterns of channel development related to the pool and bar morphology. At channel-forming discharges, fluorescent bedload tracers indicate that deposition is typically focused around the point bar apex, downstream of the apex (contributing to downstream bar migration), and at the bar head/riffle surface. Seven flume experimental runs illustrate a sequence of point bar development related to the spatial patterns of tracer deposition, and the related path length distribution. At early stages of bar formation, transport is from the scour zone across the point bar head to the bar apex and bar margin downstream of the apex. As the point bar develops, bedload transport across the bar decreases, as transport along the channel thalweg increases and sediment is deposited along the bar margin. Deposition cells appear to move from downstream to upstream of the bar apex as this sequence of bar formation progresses. At low (non-channel-forming) discharges, transport occurs to the bar head/riffle surface with very little material being transported to the apex region or point bar interior. The implication is that there is an inherent connection between the loci of particle deposition and point bar formation, largely controlled by the morphology of the channel. © 2005 International Association of Sedimentologists. 1612 Wind forces and related saltation transport Leenders J.K., van Boxel J.H. and Sterk G. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (357-372) The effect of several wind characteristics on sand transport was studied in three experiments in north Burkina Faso, West Africa. The first experiment is used to analyse the relation between wind speed and shear stress fluctuations across height. The second experiment is used to study the relation of these wind characteristics with saltation transport for fourteen convective storms, registered during the rainy seasons of 2002 and 2003. The effect of sampling time is studied for two of these convective storms. The third experiment relates the turbulent structures of four convective storms to saltation transport. Wind speed measurements were undertaken with two sonic anemometers and sediment transport was measured by two saltiphones. The sampling frequency was either 8 or 16 Hz. The sonic frame of reference was rotated according to a triple rotation. Horizontal fluctuations showed a (fairly) good correlation with height because the wind speed at both sensors was affected by the same vortices. The correlation coefficients ranged from 0.42 (when the distance between the sensors was 1.75 m) to 0.92 (when the distance was 0.25 m). The instantaneous Reynolds’ stress had the weakest correlation (correlation coefficient of 0.05 at 1.75 m between the sensors and 0.56 at 0.25 m between the sensors), because the momentum at 2 m above the soil surface is transported by different eddies than those close to the ground. This also explains the fairly good correlation coefficients between the horizontal components of the wind and saltation compared to the poor correlations between instantaneous Reynolds’ stress and saltation. An increase in sampling time did not have much impact on these correlation coefficients up to sampling periods of about 30 s. However, this sampling interval would be too coarse to describe the vertical wind component adequately. The classification of the moments of shear stress into the turbulent structures, sweeps, ejections, inward and outward interactions, showed that the mean saltation flux is higher at sweeps and outward interactions than at ejections and inward interactions. Also, saltation occurred more often during sweeps and outward interactions than during ejections and inward interactions. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1613 Processes of soft-sediment clast formation in the intertidal zone Knight J. Sedimentary Geology 2005 181/3-4 (207-214) Muddy soft-sediment clasts found on the sandy beach at Formby Point, north-west England, are formed by wave erosion of late Holocene intertidal sediments that are exposed during summertime ridge and runnel development. Break-up processes of the intertidal sediments are strongly controlled by pre-existing bedding and surface desiccation cracks. Erosion of the intertidal sediments and formation of soft-sediment clasts contributes to the provision of fines into this dominantly sandy environment, but loss of the archaeologically significant Holocene intertidal SEDIMENTOLOGY sediments is a potentially important management issue along this coast. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Sediments and sedimentary processes - deposition 1614 Sediment and organic carbon focusing in the Shelikof Strait, Alaska Rember R. and Trefry J. Marine Geology 2005 224/1-4 (83-101) Profiles of excess 210 Pb and 137 Cs in sediment cores were used to determine sediment accumulation rates in Outer Cook Inlet and the Shelikof Strait, Alaska. In Outer Cook Inlet and the northern Shelikof Strait, sediment accumulation rates averaged 0.16 cm yr-1 and ranged from 0.10 to 0.21 cm yr-1 . In contrast, sediment accumulation rates were > 4 times higher in the central and southern Shelikof Strait where the average was 0.68 cm yr-1 with a range of 0.46 to 0.94 cm yr -1 . In addition to higher rates of sedimentation, higher activities of excess 210 Pb and higher levels of silt + clay, total organic carbon, Pb and Mn also were found in surface sediments from the central and southern Shelikof Strait relative to Outer Cook Inlet and the northern Shelikof Strait. These trends are directly related to the progressive sorting and focusing of sediments along the transport pathway from Cook Inlet to the Shelikof Strait. The flux of excess 210 Pb and organic carbon to the sediments increased by > 2- and 4.8-fold, respectively, from Outer Cook Inlet and the northern Shelikof Strait to the central and southern Shelikof Strait. Based on 13 C values for surface sediments, the amount of carbon derived from marine sources increased from
30% in Outer Cook Inlet and the northern Shelikof Strait to
60% in the central and southern Shelikof Strait. The good correlation between the accumulation rate of sediment organic carbon and excess 210 Pb fluxes (r = 0.93) suggests that scavenging of excess 210 Pb by organic carbon is an important process in this region. Modern sediment budgets for Outer Cook Inlet and the Shelikof Strait indicate that > 70% of the total sediment accumulation of 61  106 tons yr-1 is deposited in the central and southern Shelikof Strait. These sediment budgets are in good agreement with the calculated value of 70  106 tons yr-1 of riverine and erosional sediment transported into Outer Cook Inlet and the Shelikof Strait. Collectively, the data support focusing of finegrained sediments and organic carbon to the central and southern Shelikof Strait. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1615 Millennial-scale depositional cycles from the Holocene of the Po Plain, Italy Amorosi A., Centineo M.C., Colalongo M.L. and Fiorini F. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (7-18) The Holocene depositional history of southeastern Po Plain on time scales of 103 yr is reconstructed, based upon integrated sedimentological and micropalaeontological analyses of nine continuously-cored boreholes, about 40 m deep. Major palaeoenvironmental changes include the rapid landward migration of a barrier-estuary-lagoon system during the Early-Middle Holocene (transgressive systems tract-TST), followed by extensive delta progradation in the last 6000 yr (highstand systems tract-HST). Detailed facies analysis of cores combined with the identification of 12 microfossils (benthic foraminifer and ostracod) associations allow an ultra-high-resolution sequence-stratigraphic framework to be reconstructed. Particularly, eight small-scale, high-frequency cycles, about 3-5 m thick and spanning intervals of time of about 1000 yr, can be physically traced throughout the study area. Interpretation of these cycles, which are invariably bounded by sharp flooding surfaces and generally show internal shallowing-upward trends (parasequences), indicates that relative sea-level changes during the Holocene were episodic and punctuated by rapid phases of sea-level rise, followed by periods of stillstand (or decreasing sea-level rise). From seaward to landward locations, parasequence boundaries document beachbarrier migration, bay-head delta abandonment and increasing accommodation in the coastal plain. The ensuing phases of sealevel stillstands resulted in the progressive filling of the newly formed accommodation space, through beach progradation, extensive mud deposition in behind-barrier lagoonal (estuarine) and 305 marsh deposits, and aggradation in bay-head delta systems at the head of estuaries. Eustacy appears to be the major controlling factor of the retrogradational stacking pattern of parasequences within the TST. By contrast, a complex interplay of eustacy, sediment supply and subsidence, with an increasing influence of autocyclic mechanisms, such as channel avulsion and delta lobe abandonment, controlled facies architecture within the HST. The maximum flooding surface cannot be assumed to be synchronous, its timing being strongly dependent upon local variations in sediment influx and subsidence. This study shows that the micropalaeontologic characterization of mud-prone (coastal plain and estuarine) successions in terms of water depth and salinity can lead to very accurate sequence-stratigraphic interpretations, allowing identification of parasequence boundaries that may not be detected by conventional stratigraphic approach. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1616 The modern Po Delta system: Lobe switching and asymmetric prodelta growth Correggiari A., Cattaneo A. and Trincardi F. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (49-74) The modern Po Delta system, comprising five main delta lobes, has been investigated by integrating VHR seismic surveys, recorded offshore from water depths as shallow as 5 m to the toe of the prodelta in about 30 m, with accurate historical cartography extending back several centuries. Previous studies give sedimentological and geochronological information from precisely positioned sediment cores. This combined historical and stratigraphic reconstruction of the modern Po prodelta allows volumetric reconstructions indicating an average sediment load of 9.4 106 t yr-1 for Po di Pila and Po di Goro-Gnocca lobes. This estimate is remarkably consistent with the total sediment load of 11.5 106 t yr-1 available for parts of the last century from a gauge station at the apex of the delta plain (in Pontelagoscuro). These integrated stratigraphic studies allow to explain the key characters of the Po delta system: a) the marked asymmetry of the whole delta-prodelta system reflecting prevailing sediment dispersal to the south of each individual delta outlet; b) the shore-parallel overlapping of successive prodelta lobes fed by distinct river outlets of ever changing relative importance; c) the delta outlets being artificially forced in a fixed position so that natural avulsion is prevented and delta lobes undergo headland retreat leaving a marked erosion on the prodelta; d) the presence of prodelta lobes showing widespread "cut-and-fill" features (ranging from 100 to 300 m and depths up to 4-5 m filled with massive silt to very fine sand) offshore of short-lived very active distributary channels (e.g.: Po di Tolle lobe) and suggesting that, in some particular interval, short-lived episodes of submarine erosion are induced by catastrophic increases in river discharge (of natural origin or induced by human maintenance). The seismic stratigraphy of the modern Po Delta documents that markedly distinct prodelta architectures form when a newly activated lobe is located updrift (north, in this case) or downdrift (south) of the one that is retreating: in the first case the abandoned lobe becomes sheltered by the new, rapidly advancing, one; in the opposite case the retreating lobe is updrift and a substantial portion of the sediment is cannibalized and transported to the new lobe, downdrift. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1617 Distributary channels and their impact on sediment dispersal Syvitski J.P.M., Kettner A.J., Correggiari A. and Nelson B.W. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (75-94) A global analysis of world deltas, with details from a natural and an anthropogenic-influenced delta, demonstrates how distributary channels control the flux of sediment into the coastal ocean. The study addresses the range in the number of distributary channels across world deltas using remote sensing techniques. A power law relationship is found between the number of distributary channels and the length of river and, separately, the delta gradient. These relationships hold for all types of deltas whether controlled or strongly influenced by waves, river discharge, tides or ice (permafrost or sea-ice). Nature-controlled deltas, such as the Klinaklini delta, have distributary channels that act as overflow conduits that become active during flooding events. Anthropogenic-controlled deltas, like the Po delta, have distributary channels that are controlled for flood mitigation or 306 SEDIMENTOLOGY low flow maintenance. Anthropogenic influences greatly impact the natural rate of delta progradation through changes in sediment supply, controlling the position of distributary channels, and impacting subsidence from gas and groundwater extraction. Even with flood controls, the Po delta traps 16% of the sediment load in its channels that are becoming super-elevated at rates of 4 to 10 cm/yr, with respect to the delta plain. A new model is formulated and shown to predict accurately the sediment flux through each channel, along with their hydraulic properties. Deltas with high numbers of distributary channels produce hypopycnal plumes with reduced transport capacity. As a result, sediment diffuses out of the multi-channel deltas as a buoyantly driven plume, rather than as a momentum driven jet. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1618 The use of 7 Be to identify event and seasonal sedimentation near the Po River delta, Adriatic Sea Palinkas C.M., Nittrouer C.A., Wheatcroft R.A. and Langone L. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (95-112) In October 2000, a major flood event of the Po River occurred. The resulting seabed deposit was initially sampled in December 2000, and most sites were reoccupied on subsequent cruises over a 3-yr period. Using the maximum penetration depth of the shortlived radioisotope 7 Be (half-life 53.3 d), the flood deposit was found to be up to 15 cm thick. Individual depocenters of thick strata were located immediately adjacent to the distributaries at the river mouth in relatively shallow water (< 30 m). These flood deposit thicknesses are minimum estimates because the depth of 234 Th (half-life 24.1 d) exceeds that of 7 Be in physically stratified flood sediment, indicating that the first sediment deposited during the flood event likely originated from the river channel. 30-55% of the estimated sediment load delivered to the shelf during the flood event can be accounted for using 7 Be penetration depths. Seasonal deposition also can be quantified using 7 Be, after removing the effects of biological mixing. Seasonal deposition rates are a maximum of 6 cm yr-1 near the Pila distributary, decreasing to 2 cm yr-1 in the southern portions of the dispersal system. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1619 Fine-sediment mass balance in the western Adriatic continental shelf over a century time scale Frignani M., Langone L., Ravaioli M. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (113-133) To obtain a quantitative estimate of the sediment accumulating on the muddy belt extending along the western Adriatic continental shelf, a budget was calculated based on the mass accumulation rates measured from more than one hundred activity-depth profiles of 210 Pb. 137 Cs depth-distributions were used, when possible, to support 210 Pb results. 210 Pb profiles show quasi-monotonic declines in the foreset region of the central Adriatic clinoform. In the prodelta of the rivers Po and Isonzo, 210 Pb profiles are characterized by intervals of low and uniform activity, which are thought to be produced by flood deposition. Since the north Adriatic is shallow and occasionally affected by storms from Bora wind, sediments are not in steady-state and their accumulation is the net result of recurring deposition, resuspension and winnowing events. In the western Adriatic, mass accumulation rates range between 0.04 and 6.6 g cm-2 yr-1 . Peak values were recorded in the Po and Isonzo prodeltas and along a narrow belt between Pescara and the Gargano promontory. Furthermore, the latter depocentre is located immediately seaward of the offlap break (40-50 m water depth) and parallels that of the most recent sigmoid of the HST. The integration of mass accumulation rates throughout the mud wedge of the north and central Adriatic gave a value of
42.0 Tg yr-1 of sediment accumulating along the Italian coast. The balance between sediment accumulation and riverine sediment supply (
46.6 Tg yr-1 ) suggests an export of 4.6 Tg yr-1 to the south Adriatic basin and/or the Mediterranean Sea. The along-shore sediment transport is very effective and, in particular, 16.2 Tg yr-1 of sedimentary material (
35% of the riverine supply) is transferred from north to central Adriatic, through the Ancona section. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1620 Po River plume on the Adriatic continental shelf: Dispersion and sedimentation of dissolved and suspended matter during different river discharge rates Boldrin A., Langone L., Miserocchi S. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (135-158) Suspended matter and dissolved nutrients were studied in the prodelta of the Po River (northern Adriatic Sea) immediately after one of the greatest floods of the last century, which occurred in October 2000, and in four successive seasonal conditions. Hydrology, total suspended matter (TSM), particulate organic carbon (POC) and particulate nitrogen (PN) content, organic carbon stable isotopes ( 13 CPOC ), particle grain size spectra, phytoplankton, and dissolved inorganic nutrients (i.e., nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, phosphate, and silicate) were measured in different discharge conditions to describe processes occurring in the Po River delta. The main effect of high river discharge was a large volume of low salinity water at the surface that extended over the entire study area. The concentration of most sampled variables decreased along a dilution gradient from the Po River distributaries’ mouths to the offshore. For TSM at the surface, riverine input and dilution were the main factors affecting its distribution. At the bottom, however, increased TSM in the nearshore was due to rapid sinking of suspended matter at the river mouth, while resuspension and advection dominated the transport of near bottom sediments offshore at 15-20 m depth. In the offshore where resuspension was active, an increase in ammonium and decrease in oxygen supported the presence of regeneration processes occurring at the bottom. During the October 2000 flood event, high nutrient concentrations promoted new production, triggering an algal bloom in the southern region of the study area. The origin of particulate organic carbon in the river delta was then estimated from a mixing model based on 13 CPOC values and carbon : nitrogen (C / N) molar ratios, and as the contribution of three distinct sources of organic carbon were determined (i.e., marine, riverine, and terrestrial). The riverine end-member accounted for
50% of the surface POC and generally decreased towards the offshore. The terrestrial carbon contribution was generally the least abundant (20-28% at the surface and at depth, respectively) and exhibited peak values (30-40%) during the October 2000 flood. Last, the marine contribution was the most abundant at the bottom (
40%) and generally increased offshore. During the October 2000 flood, the fluvial contribution of particulate organic carbon, that is the terrestrial and riverine fractions, represented approximately 80% of the total particulate organic carbon in the Po River delta. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1621 Shallow gas and flood deposition on the Po Delta Orange D., Garca- Garca A., Lorenson T. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (159-177) Sediment cores acquired on the Po delta, northwestern Adriatic Sea, in water depths of 10 to 25 m yielded anomalous concentrations of methane up to 41,300 ppm. Of the 19 unique sites analyzed 5 sites (9 cores) had more than 90 ppm of CH4 and of those, 3 sites (4 cores) had more than 13,800 ppm methane. Compositional and isotopic analyses of the gas support a bacterial origin. Anomalous methane concentrations were found in kasten, gravity, and box cores; where more than one core type was acquired at a single location, all cores contained anomalous methane. Despite the regional high productivity in the Adriatic, all of the highest gas concentrations were found in the region associated with the thickest accumulation of recent flood deposits off the most active channel of the Po delta (Po di Pila). Cores acquired in this region contain primary sedimentary structures that indicate rapid burial of thick (> 10 cm) flood deposits and a relative lack of bioturbation down to the base of the flood layer. We propose that in the Po delta, flood deposits deliver significant amounts of terrigenous organic matter that can be rapidly buried on the prodelta, effectively removing this organic matter from aerobic oxidation and biological uptake, and leading to the potential for methanogenesis with burial. In areas unaffected by this high flux of organic matter and rapid/thick flood deposition, or in between flood events, our data indicate that the conditions for methanogenesis and gas accumulation have not been met. We suggest that in these areas, the physical and biological reworking of the surficial sediment between flood events may effectively oxidize and mineralize organic matter (derived from both marine SEDIMENTOLOGY and terrestrial sources) and limit bacterial methanogenesis in the subsurface. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1622 Numerical modeling of hyperpycnal plume Khan S.M., Imran J., Bradford S. and Syvitski J. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (193-211) When the density of sediment laden river water exceeds that of the ambient ocean water, the river plunges to the ocean floor and generates a hyperpycnal plume. Hyperpycnal plumes can travel significant distances beyond the continental shelf and may be sustained for hours to weeks. There are several Apennine Rivers in Italy that are likely to develop hyperpycnal discharges on the Western Adriatic shelf. Among them, River Tronto is a moderately ‘dirty’ river capable of producing 64 hyperpycnal flow events (lasting  6 h) during a 100 year period. Numerical simulations of hyperpycnal events have been conducted for the Adriatic shelf near the mouth of River Tronto using a twodimensional depth-integrated finite volume model to study the spreading of the plume and its interaction with the alongshore current. Simulation results indicate that the alongshore current has great impact on the spreading and deposition pattern of the hyperpycnal flow. Sedimentary deposits generated from a series of simulated hyperpycnal flow events have developed undulating bed forms. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1623 Pleistocene "muddy" forced-regression deposits on the Adriatic shelf: A comparison with prodelta deposits of the late Holocene highstand mud wedge Ridente D. and Trincardi F. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (213-233) The upper Pleistocene-Holocene stratigraphy of the Adriatic margin consists of a succession of depositional sequences separated by shelf-wide unconformities. The most recent of these depositional sequences encompasses the last ca. 25 kyr, and consists of lowstand, transgressive and highstand units formed, respectively, during the Last Glacial Maximum lowstand, the subsequent sea level rise and the modern highstand. Older deposits are grouped into four depositional sequences, each recording ca. 100 kyr glacio-eustatic cycles during an interval between ca. 450 and 25 kyr BP. Each of these Pleistocene sequences is composed dominantly by muddy progradational units deposited during prolonged phases of sea level fall; therefore, these sequences represent a unique example of well-preserved muddy forced-regression deposits. Detailed seismic-stratigraphic analyses show that forced-regression deposits composing the four sequences are not directly connected to nearshore and/or fluvio-deltaic environments. In contrast, typical forced-regression deposits defined in outcrop and reported in the literature consist of sand-rich, nearshore/deltaic facies preserved as patchy remnants of ancient shorelines. We suggest that muddy forced-regression deposits on the Adriatic shelf represent the offshore counterpart of shoreface deposits recognised in outcrop as the product of typical forced regressions. Interestingly, muddy forced-regression deposits on the Adriatic shelf bear clear similarities with the late Holocene highstand mud wedge, suggesting a common depositional mechanism through lateral advection of fine-grained sediment. In this view, subaqueous progradation of muddy deposits occurs below storm wave base, with a subaqueous roll-over point that, during proceeding sea level fall, likely positioned at decreasing distance from the time-equivalent shoreline. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1624 Evolution of the Rhˆone delta plain in the Holocene Vella C., Fleury T.- J., Raccasi G. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (235-265) The delta plain of the Rhone shows many sandy beach ridges cropping out at the surface. We propose here a radiocarbon chronology for the accumulation of the sedimentary bodies and an interpretation of the morphology of the mouth lobes that they form. Morphologies of the lobes depend on four principal factors: (1) the variation of the relative sea level, which constitutes the morphogenic base level, (2) the fluvial input (volume of water discharge and sedimentary input, number and position of the mouths), (3) marine dynamics (volume and direction of the longshore drift, dominant wave direction) (4) the accommodation space created by the rise of relative sea level, along with the paleobathymetry onto which the lobe will prograde imme- 307 diately in front of the delta and at sea. Our conclusions are: the main Holocene paleo-delta lobes of Ulmet and Saint Ferr´eol were contemporaneous, being deposited from 4000 to 2000 yr BP. However, the fluvial style of their downstream channel (meandering for Ulmet channel and linear for Saint-Ferr´eol) and the lobe morphologies of both channels are contrasted: rounded in the case of Ulmet and elongated for Saint-Ferr´eol. The role of the accommodation space is confirmed by two recent drillholes traversing the entire Holocene succession, which reveal a prior stage of sedimentary filling in the case of the Saint-Ferr´eol lobe, thus limiting the accommodation space and favouring a rapid and pointed progradation of this lobe. The decoupling between hydrological activity and progradation of lobe indicates the complexity of mechanisms in the large catchment basin of Rhˆone. However, the high rate of progradation of Saint-Ferr´eol lobe after 2900 BP is probably a consequence of the increase of human activity after this date. The variation of relative sea level remains an important factor controlling the evolution of the Rhone delta after 6000 BP. The local (?) stabilization of the relative sea level between 4585 BP and 3520 BP played an important role in the triggering of coastal progradation (SaintFerr´eol lobe, eastern margin Rhˆone delta). © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1625 High resolution stratigraphy and evolution of the Rhˆone delta plain during Postglacial time, from subsurface drilling data bank Boyer J., Duvail C., Le Strat P. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (267-298) This study is based upon a large set of core drilling data (lithology and well logs) of the Rhˆone delta plain extracted from the French geological survey (BRGM) databank. The main goals are to set up a sequence stratigraphy model of the postglacial sedimentary bodies of the Rhˆone delta plain and to evaluate the relative importance and influence of the main controlling factors and processes (subsidence, eustasy, sediment yield, climate, anthropic influence) that led to their formation. First, a detailed study (60 drill holes with tenth meters spacing) was performed on a restricted area (Saint Ferr´eol lobe, 1.5 km2 ). Correlation between well logs data and lithological data allows to identify the main sediment lithofacies and key surfaces, and to set up a detailed stratigraphic framework. Postglacial deposits are subdivided into a lower member of coastal plain and backbarrier deposits and an upper member of marine deposits (coastal barrier environments). Following, the analysis of 160 wells distributed on the whole delta plain depicts the large scale architecture of postglacial deposits. In the upper delta plain, fluviatile coastal plain and palustral deposits prevail. In the lower delta plain, the deposits are made of a lower part of coastal plain deposits organized into four units (T1-T4) stacked in a retrograding pattern. This lower member is truncated by an erosional surface progressively deepening seaward. Above, an upper member of marine deposits thickening seaward and coarsening upward is organized into five units (P1-P5) arranged in a prograding pattern. The core drilling data have been correlated with high resolution seismic data on the adjacent shelf and are interpreted in sequence stratigraphy terms. The retrogradational units (T1T4), with coastal plain deposits, are correlative of shelf units and constitute together trangressive parasequences deposited during phases of slowing down of postglacial sea level rise. The upper marine units (P1-P5), arranged in a prograding pattern, represent parasequences of the Highstand Systems Tract which have prograded since the period of reduced rate of sea level rise at the end of the Holocene. During this period, the evolution of the sedimentary Rhˆone system was controlled by major changes of the hydrologic regime. Periods of increased sediment discharge, aggradation of the floodplain and progradation of the coastline are correlated with the development of the deltaic lobes of the Rhˆone d’Ulmet (unit P3) and of the Rhˆone du Bras de Fer (unit P4). Unit P5 correlates with adjacent prograding shelf unit that developed seaward of the present Rhˆone river mouth. Comparison of sea level history between the Eastern part of the Rhˆone delta plain and the rocky coast to the east of Marseille suggests that tecto-subsident movements account for part of the changes in relative sea-level. Moreover, the truncation of transgressive and progradation surfaces, the unevenness of the MFS, the dilatation 308 SEDIMENTOLOGY of sedimentary record and deformations of key surfaces are also in favor of differential subsidence. 1626 Seismic stratigraphy of the Deglacial deposits of the Rhˆone prodelta and of the adjacent shelf Labaune C., Jouet G., Bern´e S. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (299-311) In order to achieve a synthesis of the stratigraphic organization of the Deglacial deposits of the inner/middle shelf in front of the Rhˆone delta plain, we merged high resolution (Mini-sparker and Sparker), and very high resolution (chirp and mud-penetrator) seismic data into a single seismic database. Thus, the merged seismic database improves the lateral correlation between eastern and western parts, separated by the Rhˆone Incised Valley deposits. As a result the interpretation of seismic units in relation to local and global environmental changes was refined. The Deglacial deposits rest on a basal erosional discontinuity capping a complex of Pleistocene prograding wedges. The identified units make up Transgressive and Highstand Systems Tracts, and are bounded by flooding surfaces. The main flooding surfaces are (1) the transgressive surface (D200) which forms the lower boundary of the Deglacial deposits and (2) the maximum flooding surface which forms the boundary between the Transgressive and Highstand Systems Tracts. Regarding the data set the study area is divided into three parts depending on the stacking pattern and main control factors. In the western area the units present an aggradational stacking pattern and the rate of sediment supply and dynamic conditions seems coupled with glacio-eustacy role on sedimentary units building and evolution. In the central area the units present an overall backstepping pattern mainly controlled by glacio-eustacy. In the eastern area the units present an aggradational stacking pattern and both the glacio-eustacy and rate of sediment supply have an important role. The lower parasequence of the Transgressive Systems Tract (U200) is due to the reworking of W¨urmian terraces. Above, the parasequence U300 is a transgressive body formed during a rapid sea-level rise. The two upper parasequences are interpreted as ancestral coastal systems with a backstepping pattern. The first coastal system (U400) is due to a decrease in the rate of sea-level rise that occurred during the Younger Dryas. The second coastal system (U500) may be due to a similar event or to an increased rate of sediment supply during a constant sea-level rise. Finally the Highstand Systems Tract is composed of three units: (i) unit U601, located to the West and interpreted as a subaqueous delta, (ii, iii) units U600 and U610, located to the East and interpreted as prograding deltaic lobes. 1627 Small rivers contribution to the Quaternary evolution of a Mediterranean littoral system: The western gulf of Lion, France Tesson M., Labaune C. and Gensous B. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (313-334) Along the Mediterranean coasts and the Atlantic French coast, former and actual research programs focused on major river systems, estuaries and deltas, characterized by a last Glacial relative sea level lowstand and incision and a well developed sedimentary incised valley infilling deposited during the following sea level rise and highstand. This paper presents the preliminary results of a program focused on a particular area of the Gulf of Lion coast with a thin sedimentary cover over the substratum and only minor rivers with non-apparent and important sedimentary contribution during the Late Quaternary. The results show that in this area the best Pliocene to Actual sedimentary record is preserved. The paper rests on the analysis of an extensive database of recent high resolution and very high resolution seismic reflection lines and previously published core data. Seismic data show that a major complex of paleovalleys connected with the Orb, Aude and Agly rivers is preserved on the inner shelf and adjacent coastal plain. On the inner shelf, the separated incised valleys merged in a unique broad and shoreparallel incision dipping southward. At the southward extremity, the incision turns eastward and seaward. The basal surface of this incision extends seawards under six to seven Late Quaternary depositional sequences preserved on the mid and outer shelf. The infilling of the complex of paleovalleys is characterized by aggrading deposits attributed to periods of relative sea level rise (transgressive systems tracts), organized into several subunits bounded by internal discontinuities locally deeply incising. The discontinuities are amalgamated surfaces, including successive sequence boundaries (indicative of phases of relative sea level falls) merged with transgressive surfaces (indistinct tidal and wave ravinement surfaces). The subunits are the part of Late Quaternary depositional sequences preserved in estuarine environments. They are the lateral equivalents of landward fluvial terraces and seaward coastal and prodelta¨ıc deposits on the shelf. Using borehole dataset, the underlying and eroded deposits below the basal unconformity are correlated with Pliocene deposits outcropping landward in the hinterland. The top of the incised valleys complex is capped by the last Glacial lowstand surface of erosion (18 ky B.P.) reworked by the postglacial transgressive surface (TS), dissociated near the shoreline into a tidal and a wave ravinement surfaces. Above the TS, the very high resolution (VHR) seismic data in the lagoons, the tidal channels and cores, reveal in details the stratigraphic architecture of the deposits. At the base, a small wedge constitutes the postglacial transgressive systems tract (TST) locally thinning in the areas distant of the sediment point sources. The TST is capped by a flat surface of wave reworking (maximum flooding surface or mfs) prolongating under the Leucate lagoon and merging offshore at the seafloor. Boreholes and VHR seismic lines trough the coastal barrier and in the lagoon show that the shoreline probably migrated far landward at the end of the transgression. When the rate of sea level rise decreased strongly, the shoreline migrated seaward and prograding and aggrading sandy material, with landward muddy lateral equivalent facies, deposited early highstand systems tract (HST) above the MFS. Offshore, fine material deposited as a sigmoidal blanket of mud originating in part from the north-east and Rhˆone river under oceanic circulation (equivalent to a subaqueous prodelta). Subsequently, the modern beach barrier built up by wave reworking of the early HST. This new study of the western part of the Gulf of Lion inner shelf and littoral illustrates an incised valley complex and thus presents the best preserved example of the sedimentary record of the effects of the relative sea level changes during the Pliocene to Actual period. For the first time, the land to sea transition is preserved and the Late Quaternary depositional sequences are in a great part observed. The last post Glacial deposits present a simplified but very different organisation compared to a record front of the adjacent Rhˆone river. Consequently a synthesis is now possible. 1628 Formation of the Aude, Orb and Herault prodeltas and their characterisation using physicochemical and sedimentological parameters Pauc H. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (335-343) The formation of Mediterranean prodeltas depends on microtidal estuarine dynamics. The study of the Aude estuary and others shows the usual presence of a salt wedge which induces the formation of two turbidity maxima created by two different processes [Pauc, H. 1997. Fluvio-marine interface in a microtidal mediterranean estuarine environment. The nephelo¨ıd layer supply problem. Journ. Rech. Oc´eanogr. 22 (3), 83-90]. The first process is a loss of charge due to the annulment of the current momentum, driving sedimentation of the silt-size material. The second process is flocculation, which results in deposition of fine sediment. The end results of the combination of these two processes is a sedimentary sequence with two distinct sediment units: silt below and clay minerals above. Granulometrical and mineralogical analysis of the sediment body enables the zone of sedimentation of each type of material to be determined, and hence the style of sedimentation to be inferred. Illite, quartz and dolomite are of detrital origin and accumulate close to the river mouths; while smectite is deposited by both dynamical and flocculation processes, and accumulating over the surface of the prodelta and also seaward by some 30-40 m depth. Calcite is of biogenic origin, and is found further offshore, associated with muddy sediments only. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1629 Early muddy deposits along the Gulf of Lions shoreline: A key for a better understanding of land-to-sea transfer of sediments and associated pollutant fluxes Roussiez V., Aloisi J.- C., Monaco A. and Ludwig W. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (345-358) Large quantities of sediment introduced by rivers especially during flood events lead to the formation of prodeltaic structures characterized by fine-grained deposits in the proximal area of the SEDIMENTOLOGY shelf. According to their mean grain size, it is largely admitted in the literature that these deposits mainly stand below the storm wave base. In the Gulf of Lions (NW Mediterranean), however, our data show that these muddy sediments also exist above the storm wave limit, in the uppermost unit of the Holocene prism. The purpose of this work is therefore to draw a detailed sedimentological and geochemical portrait of these units, and to discuss the processes involved in the sedimentation and remobilization of these sediments. Our results show that the fine particles accumulate earlier in the inner-shelf in front of the nearby rivers, in association with the chemical elements which are commonly associated with this grain size fraction (e.g. organic carbon, radionuclides, and heavy metals). This accumulation probably mainly occurs during storm and flood events. The early deposits are then exposed to resuspension events and can actively participate to the distribution of fine-grained sediment in the entire margin by advective transfers via the benthic nepheloid layer. These fine-grained nearshore prodeltas are a common feature of the Mediterranean deltaic systems and mark the frontal processes that occur at the continent/sea interface of non-tidal seas. Our results especially point out the potential use of heavy metals as markers of the tracking of riverine sediments, which is naturally an important condition when evaluating the ultimate fate of landderived pollutants in the marine realm. But also more fundamental studies on the understanding of sedimentological processes and reconstruction of margin stratigraphies should consider these deposits as functional units for the distribution of platform sediments. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1630 Development of the Kura delta, Azerbaijan; a record of Holocene Caspian sea-level changes Hoogendoorn R.M., Boels J.F., Kroonenberg S.B. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (359-380) Late Holocene deposits of the Kura delta indicate an alternating dominance of deltaic and shallow marine environments. These major environment shifts are controlled by the high frequency sea-level changes of the Caspian Sea. The level of the Caspian Sea, now at 27 m below Global Sea Level (GSL), changes at rates of up to a hundred times as fast as global sea level, allowing observation of sedimentary processes on a decadal scale that would take millennia in an oceanic environment. The modern Kura delta is a river-dominated delta with some wave action along its north-eastern flank, and without tidal influence. Morphological and hydrological changes have been monitored for over 150 years, continuing up to the present day using remote sensing imagery. Offshore sparker survey data, onshore and offshore corings, biostratigraphical analysis and radiometric dating enable a reconstruction of the Holocene Kura delta. Four phases of delta progradation alternating with erosional transgressive surfaces have been identified, representing just as many cycles of sea-level fall and rise. The first cycle is represented by lowstand deposits truncated by a transgressive surface (TS1) at ca. 80 m below GSL. TS1 is overlain by several metres of laminated clays and silts, deposited during a Late Holocene forced regression (H1). These deposits are truncated by the prominent reflector (TS2), corresponding to the Derbent lowstand around 1500 yr BP and subsequent transgression. This transgressive surface is overlain by prograding shallowing upwards deposits, H2, in turn truncated by a third transgressive surface (TS3), correlated with a lowstand of ca. 32 m below GSL. The last phase, H3, comprises an onshore progradational unit followed by an aggradational unit with an offshore veneer of clays and silts, corresponding to the formation of the modern Kura delta that started at the beginning of the 19th century. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1631 Internal structure and evolution of the Late Quaternary sequence in a shallow embayment: The Amvrakikos Gulf, NW Greece Kapsimalis V., Pavlakis P., Poulos S.E. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (399-418) The Late Quaternary stratigraphic pattern of the Amvrakikos Gulf in the eastern Mediterranean has been studied on the basis of the analysis of high-resolution seismic profiles and short sediment cores. Lowstand, transgressive and highstand systems tracts have been identified that are configured in a major depositional sequence of a fifth-order sea level cycle. During the last glaciation, when the sea level was lowered by
55 m relative 309 to its present position (ca. 50 ka BP), the Amvrakikos Gulf was probably emerged, giving rise to: (a) subaerial erosion and fluvial incision in the western shallow part of the Gulf; and (b) development of a paleo-lake in the eastern deepest domain. Until the early phase of the post-glacial transgression (ca. 11-50 ka BP), a paleo-river, characterized by a dense network of V-shaped valleys, was draining the western part of the Gulf and flowing into the Ionian Sea. In the isolated eastern part, lowstand lacustrine deposits (deltaic and prodeltaic units) accumulated within the paleo-lake. At the latter stage of the last post-glacial transgression (ca. 11 ka BP), seawater entered the Gulf and the transgressive systems tract was deposited, consisting of incised-channel fills, beach-shoreface deposits and delta/prodelta wedges. Buried terraces have been identified also within this transgressive tract that reveal a step-like sea level rise. Since ca. 6 ka BP, when the sea level reached its present-day position, a distal prodeltaic unit has been deposited and overlain by prograding deltaic wedges. The spatial distribution of these wedges provides evidence of a continuous shifting of the river mouths during Holocene. The recent sedimentation patterns are related to the terrigenous inputs primarily from the Arachthos River, located in the northeastern part of the Gulf, and secondarily from the Louros River, located in the northwestern part. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1632 Stratigraphic signature of the Vesuvius 79 AD event off the Sarno prodelta system, Naples Bay Sacchi M., Insinga D., Milia A. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (443-469) Sedimentological and chemical analysis of gravity core samples, along with the interpretation of very high resolution, single channel seismic reflection profiles acquired off the Sarno prodelta system (southeastern Naples Bay), document the sedimentary facies and seismic stratigraphic signature of the tephra deposit erupted by Vesuvius during the plinian eruption of 79 AD. The 79 AD pyroclastic deposits sampled off the Sarno prodelta system revealed significantly different characters with respect to both the subaerial succession documented from the type sections of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Oplontis and the more distal pyroclastic fallout deposits that were recovered from the outer continental shelf off the northern Salerno Bay. This was likely to be expected as, in proximal subaqueous settings, both primary deposition and reworking of tephra are known to be influenced by the hydrodynamics of the water itself (induced by the pyroclastic currents entering the sea) as well as by the early instability of pyroclastic bedforms due to the exceptionally high sediment yield during volcanic eruption. According to the data illustrated and discussed in this study, we suggest that the 79 AD tephra deposit sampled off the Sarno prodelta is likely to be the result of a number of syn-eruptive genetically-related depositional and/or erosional mechanisms associated with (1) anomalous waves (tsunami) and currents generated by the entrance of pyroclastic flows and surges into the sea; (2) subaqueous density flows evolved from the impact of hot pyroclastic currents into the seawater; (3) failure of water-logged, cohesionless pumice deposits, due to instability of pyroclastic bedforms rapidly accumulating on the seafloor. Seismic interpretation revealed that the Upper Holocene sequence off the Sarno prodelta system is affected by extensive creep involving the whole post-79 AD succession. Deformation due to creep is documented by slumping of semi-consolidated strata over a basal surface represented by the lithologic discontinuity between the base of the 79 AD tephra deposits and the underlying hemipelagite. Seismic data also suggest that gravitational instability of this area has been induced, or enhanced, by significant volcanotectonic deformation and local uplift of the seafloor that ostensibly predated the eruptive event. The results of this research may be relevant to studies of other eruption events in close proximity to coastlines in terms of wave- and/or current-generated sedimentary features as a possible explanation of unusual subaqueous facies architecture. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1633 Mediterranean river systems of Andalusia, southern Spain, and associated deltas: A source to sink approach Liquete C., Arnau P., Canals M. and Colas S. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (471-495) The northern shores of the semi-isolated Mediterranean Sea with 310 SEDIMENTOLOGY its low tidal range and a relatively voluminous fluvial supply of sediments constitute an ideal delta forming environment. In this paper, we examine the present-day and multi-decadal behaviour of 26 river systems from Andalusia, southern Spain, forming deltas in the Alboran Sea, the westernmost basin in the Mediterranean Sea. Eastern, Central and Western Andalusian watersheds have been defined based on geomorphological, climatological and hydrological characteristics. A comprehensive data set has been compiled, including satellite images, aerial photographs, a digital elevation model, thematic maps, time series of precipitation, temperature and water discharge, and the damming history of individual river basins. This data set has been used to analyse basin morphology and hydrology, and anthropogenic impact. Several modelling approaches have been applied to obtain the water budget and mean annual sediment yield of 12 of the 26 studied river systems. In addition, the periodicities of water discharge events and their possible link with North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) fluctuations have been also studied. A decreasing trend has been observed in most water discharge time series during the last decades, which has been attributed to natural factors. Although it could have been expected that the diminution of water discharge may have caused a reduction in sediment load, calculated sediment discharge time series do not show any significant tendency. In general, sediment yield shows an opposite relationship with basin area. A comparative analysis of Spanish Mediterranean deltas indicates that in terms of sediment transport Andalusian river systems are quite efficient despite the small size of their catchments. Repetitive flood events and the consequent suspension plumes off river mouths play a major role in the development of deltaic and prodeltaic bodies. Nowadays, 42% of the study area is regulated, although to date the effect of dam building is hardly noticeable on river mouths. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1634 Characterization of deltaic sediment bodies based on in situ CPT/CPTU profiles: A case study on the Llobregat delta plain, Barcelona, Spain Lafuerza S., Canals M., Casamor J.L. and Devincenzi J.M. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (497-510) This article describes a preliminary study on the Llobregat delta, Spain, which includes the construction of a 3D model from cone penetration tests (CPT) and piezocone tests (CPTU) in order to establish the architectural stacking pattern of deltaic sediment bodies. The sediment facies identified from boreholes have been characterized by using their mechanical behaviour and have been used to identify the depositional sequence of the Llobregat delta. Within the general architectural frame, flood plain silts and silty sands, crevasse sands, fluvial channel sands, sand ridges, delta front silts and clays, and prodelta silts and clays have been characterized as a function of cone tip resistance (qc ) and sleeve friction (fs ). From the sediment facies characterization, a depositional sequence constituted by three systems tracts is proposed. The sequence is divided into: a lowstand systems tract (LST) represented by fluvial gravels, a transgressive systems tract (TST) constituted by a fining-upward sequence with a thin sand sheet below silts and clays, and the highstand systems tract (HST) represented by three prograding wedges displaying coarseningupward sequences. We emphasize the simplicity, speed, high spatial resolution and low cost of CPT/CPTU grids as a new tool enabling us to reconstruct the three-dimensional structure of deltaic environments for sedimentological and stratigraphical purposes. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1635 Origin of depositional sequences from T´emara caves (Morocco) based on heavy minerals and quartz grains exoscopy (French) (Origine du remplissage s´edimentaire des grottes de T´emara (Maroc) d’apr`es l’´etude des min´eraux lourds et l’´etude exoscopique des grains de quartz) Niftah S., Debenath A. and Miskovsky J.- C. Quaternaire 2005 16/2 (73-83) Quaternary deposits of the areas of Rabat and Casablanca (Morocco) have been intensively investigated. We focus here on depositional sequences from the caves of El Mnasra (Casino), Ouled Bouchikha (Les Contrebandiers) and El Harhoura II in the area of T´emara. The sequences are correlated with isotopic stages 3 and 2. Exoscopic study under ESEM (Environmental Scan- ning Electron Microscope) of quartz grains selected throughout the different sequences has helped to describe sediment transport processes, Sediments originating from various areas of the Moroccan Meseta and Middle Atlas, were carried by wind and river transport, and then deposited along the coastal continental shelf They followed there a complex evolutionary process before completing their transport which ended in the T´emara caves. 1636 Sedimentological study of sediment from an hypersaline system of oriental Tunisia in recent quaternary: Mok´ nine sebkha (French) (Etude du remplissage s´edimentaire d’un syst`eme hypersalin de la Tunisie orientale au cours du quaternaire r´ecent: La sebkha de Moknine) Chairi R. Quaternaire 2005 16/2 (107-117) Results from a detailed sedimentological study of sediments from Moknine sebkha indicate two different deposit episodes. The first is characterized by an abundance of mud and organic matter which is good preserved in clay level. The second episode is qualified by the progradation of clay and organic matter to the centre. This evolution is controlled by two important factors such as dissymetry of basin topography and the abundance of rivers on the West. In the past, the sebkha is widened than actual. The abundance of clay in the base of the sequence at the periphery and in intermediate zone gives evidence. Clay level is rich on smectite which is more deposit in the center of the sebkha and contains high quantity of organic matter. Organic matter fraction is dominated by autochthonous material indicated by high values of hydrogen index and n-alkanes centred on nC18 and nC22. 1637 Sedimentation model for the quaternary intramontane Bhimtal-Naukuchiatal Lake deposits, Nainital, India Shukla U.K. and Bora D.S. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 2005 25/6 (837-848) The Bhimtal-Naukuchiatal Lake was created due to blocking of the valley by a huge debris flow along a narrow outlet at about 40 ka BP. The lake basin was filled intermittently due to fluvio-lacustrine and colluvial processes that deposited a thick sequence of interbedded mud and gravel. In the basin fill sequence five major lithofacies, most of them divisible into subfacies, have been identified and assigned to specific depositional environments. The coarsening upward (CU) mud-silt cycles represent sedimentation in a lake setting. The clasts-and mud-supported gravels consists of fining upward (FU) and CU sequences, respectively, indicating deposition by channel processes and debris flows. Having basin wide extent, the pedogenic mottled, clayey silt unit represents an important tectonic event when the lake was temporarily drained and sediments were sub-aerially exposed. Fluctuating arid-semiarid to humid climatic conditions and repeated tectonic activity may have governed the mode of sedimentation and ultimately the basin fill history. © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1638 History of sedimentary infilling and faulting in Subic Bay, Philippines revealed in high-resolution seismic reflection profiles Cabato Ma.E.J.A., Rodolfo K.S. and Siringan F.P. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 2005 25/6 (849-858) Subic Bay sediments and faults identified in seismic-reflection profiles were dated using sea-level curves. The oldest sedimentary packages are marine sediments subaerially exposed and eroded 20 ka. Fluvio-marine to wholly marine sediments were deposited during the ensuing transgression, and prograding units were deposited during stillstands or minor sea-level falls. Faults within the bay have three age ranges. The oldest set cuts through the pre- 18 O Stage 2 rock units, >18 ka; a second disrupts 10.211.3 ka sediments; and the youngest, which cut the uppermost sedimentary package, show that movements occurred about every 2 ky, most recently about 3 ka. Northwest-southeast faults that parallel onshore structures associated with Paleogene emplacement of the Zambales Ophiolite Complex to the west and north likely represent rejuvenated tectonism. The northern coastline and north-south-trending axial bay islands appear related to a lineament that dissects Mt Pinatubo farther northeast. A breach in the caldera of Mt Natib is the most likely source of a presumed pyroclastic deposit in the eastern bay that is associated with sediments about 11.3-18 ka, indicating that a Natib eruption SEDIMENTOLOGY occurred much more recently than previously documented for this volcano. © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1639 Bar and dune development during a freshet: Fraser River Estuary, British Columbia, Canada Villard P.V. and Church M. Sedimentology 2005 52/4 (737-756) Bi-weekly multi-track sonar surveys collected along a 2-km reach of the estuarine South Arm of the Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada, during seasonal high flows document the initiation, development and interaction of dune and bar morphologies. Bedforms of several scales developed in well-delineated fields. Bedforms that appear to fit accepted equilibrium depth-scaling developed in the main channel during rising discharge when there was little local aggradation. During the rising stage, a bar also formed along the tidal shelf of the channel, migrated downstream and expanded into the main channel. Dunes that formed along the bar crest, a region of rapid deposition, lagged flow conditions and were larger than expected based on depth-scaling relations. The larger dunes developed simultaneously, although bar growth lagged dune development and was initially partially obscured by the more rapidly developing dune field. It appears that rapid deposition enhances dune development along the channel tidal shelf to dimensions larger than would be expected by simple depth-scaling rules. Smaller dunes that fit equilibrium depthscaling relations re-established themselves throughout the study area during falling discharge when there was again little or no aggradation. Bed-material transport rates estimated from the migration rates of the large dunes suggest that, at high flows, the dunes transport the majority of the material found within the bar. © 2005 International Association of Sedimentologists. 1640 Quantification of the dry aeolian deposition of dust on horizontal surfaces: An experimental comparison of theory and measurements Goossens D. Sedimentology 2005 52/4 (859-873) Eight techniques to quantify the deposition of aeolian dust on horizontal surfaces were tested in a wind tunnel. The tests included three theoretical techniques and five measurement techniques. The theoretical techniques investigated were: the gradient technique, the inferential technique without grain-shape correction, and the inferential technique corrected for grain shape. The measuring techniques included the following surrogate surfaces: a water surface, a glass surface, a metal surface, a vertical array of metal plates, and an inverted frisbee filled with glass marbles. The efficiency of the techniques was investigated for the sediment as a whole (all grain sizes together) as well as for a large number of grain sizes extending from 1 to 104 m. The surrogate surfaces showed more or less comparable catch efficiencies, although the water surface nearly always caught the highest quantities of dust and the marble-filled frisbee and the vertical array of metal plates the lowest quantities of dust. The dust fluxes calculated by theoretical methods were markedly different from those obtained by direct measurements. The fluxes calculated by the inferential technique approximated those of the direct measurements only for grain sizes between 30 and 40 m. For smaller and coarser grains, deviations from the measured fluxes were high. The gradient method, in its turn, provided extremely low calculated fluxes for grains in all size classes investigated. The latter technique was not considered very reliable for the dust used in the tests. © 2005 International Association of Sedimentologists. 1641 Effects of calculation procedure and sampling site on trap method estimates of sediment resuspension in a shallow lake Horppila J. and Nurminen L. Sedimentology 2005 52/4 (903-913) Resuspension estimates given by two different trap methods in a shallow lake were compared. The sensitivity of the methods to errors in estimates of gross sedimentation and organic fraction of trapped material was explored. The methods were label method, in which resuspension is estimated by determining the organic fraction of surface sediment, suspended seston and trapped material, and SPIM/SPM method, where the relationship between settling particulate inorganic matter (SPIM) and total settling particulate matter (SPM) is used. During the whole 111 day study period, according to the label method, at a sheltered station 1949 g m-2 dry weight of sediment was resuspended, whereas SPIM/SPM gave an estimate of 1815 g m-2 . The difference in 311 the estimates was probably due to mineralization loss of organic material in the traps during the two week exposure periods. Sensitivity analysis showed that of the two methods, the label method was more sensitive to variations in the organic content of trapped material. At a wind-exposed station, the total amounts of resuspended matter given by the label method and by the SPIM/SPM method were 4966 g m-2 and 4971 g m-2 , respectively. Due to wind effects, escape of trapped material took place, which caused underestimation of gross sedimentation and compensated the effects of mineralization loss to diminish the difference between the methods. Of the two methods, the SPIM/SPM method seems thus more suitable for lakes, where bacterial activity is high. If cyanobacterial blooms take place, the label method is probably more reliable, providing that the exposure time of sediment traps is kept adequately short. © 2005 International Association of Sedimentologists. 1642 Recent evolution of a Mediterranean deltaic coastal zone: Human impacts on the Inner Thermaikos Gulf, New Aegean Sea Kapsimalis V., Poulos S.E., Karageorgis A.P. et al. Journal of the Geological Society 2005 162/6 (897-908) The Inner Thermaikos Gulf is located in the northwestern Aegean Sea, receiving water and sediment fluxes from the Axios, Aliakmon, Gallikos and Loudias Rivers. The geomorphological and sedimentological evolution of the system is reconstructed for the last 150 years (1850-2000), on the basis of detailed analysis of historical bathymetric charts. Late Holocene history is considered within the context of changing riverine sediment supply and human activities. Three evolutionary stages are identified. Stage I (1850-1916) corresponds to a natural phase of rapid deltaic progradation and sea-floor deposition, with an average sediment accumulation rate of 6.5  106 m3 a-1 . During Stage II (19461956), human interference (e.g. artificial changes in river delta plains, realignment of channels and land reclamation schemes) to the deltaic system increased sediment delivery to the coastal waters by a factor of three; this, in turn, enhanced the progradation of the active river mouth areas. In contrast, Stage III (1956-2000) is characterized by significant coastline (deltaic) retreat and erosion of the adjacent sea floor (net loss of 2.5  106 m3 a-1 ); this was as a result of extensive river damming, which trapped a significant part of the sediment moving seaward. Furthermore, these human impacts have affected the character of the surficial seabed sediments of the Gulf, by reducing the proportion of mud. The response of the deltaic margin of the Inner Thermaikos Gulf to various anthropogenic interventions seems to be analogous to that of other deltas in the Mediterranean region where large drainage projects, the development of irrigation networks and dam construction have taken place within their river basins. 1643 Sudden enhancement of sedimentation flux of210 Pbex as an indicator of lake productivity as exemplified by Lake Chenghai Wan G., Chen J., Xu S. et al. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/4 (484-495) The fundamental assumption of 210 Pb sediment dating is the stable flux of 210 Pbex , which was derived from atmosphere and then transferred into sediments via lake water. When the sedimentation rate is relatively constant, the 210 Pbex activity in sediments will be exponentially reduced with sedimentation age. 210 Pb ex in lake water is incorporated into sediments mainly via organic particulates. If the sedimentation flux of organic matter in lake water is suddenly increased, 210 Pbex will be significantly deposited and then transferred into sediments. On the one hand such sudden purification effect is obviously unfit for the fundamental assumption of 210 Pb dating; on the other hand, the sudden enhancement of 210 Pbex flux would be indicative of the conspicuous variation of primary productivity of lake water. This problem will be discussed in accordance with the variation trend of 210 Pbex in the vertical profile of recent sediments of Lake Chenghai, Yunnan Province. The sediment core was collected from the deep-water area of Lake Chenghai in June 1997. The vertical profile of 137 Cs activity is characterized by a tree-peak pattern. This profile gave reliable ages, and also showed the stability of sediment accumulation in the recent ten years. The vertical profile of 210 Pbex activity displays a specific distribution 312 SEDIMENTOLOGY of peaks, and is similar to the vertical profile of Corg . This phenomenon seems to be related to the mechanism of constraining the transfer of 210 Pbex into lake sediments. The average atomic ratios of Horg /Corg and Corg /Norg in Lake Chenghai sediments are 5.51 and 7.04, respectively, indicating that the organic matter was predominantly derived from the remains of endogenic algae. In terms of the three-stage evolutionary characteristics of organic matter in sediments, i.e., "deposition-decomposition-accumulation", the sedimentation fluxes (F(Corg)) of organic carbon (Corg ) since 1970 were calculated by modeling. The sedimentation fluxes of 210 Pb ex (F(210 Pbex )) in different years display good synchronous relations with the sedimentation flux of organic carbon (F(C org )), especially in the years of 1972-1974 and 19861989. The variation of F(Corg ) led to the variation of F(210 Pb ex ); the variation of F(210 Pbex ) reflects, to some extent, the historical variation of lake productivity. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. 1644 Hydraulic behavior of tsunami backflows: Insights from their modern and ancient deposits Le Roux J.P. and Vargas G. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (65-75) Tsunamis are unpredictable, catastrophic events, and so present enormous difficulties for direct studies in the field or laboratory. However, their sedimentary deposits yield evidence of a wide variety of hydrodynamic conditions caused by flow transformations on a spatial and temporal scale. Tsunami deposits ranging from the Miocene to modern times identified at different localities along the Chilean coast are described to provide a database of their characteristics. Among the typical features associated with tsunami deposits are well-rounded megaclasts eroded from coastal alluvial fans or beaches by very dense, competent flows. Sand injections from the base of these flows into the substrate indicate very high dynamic pressures, whereas basal shear carpets suggest hyperconcentrated, highly sheared flows. Turbulence develops in front of advancing debris flows, as indicated by megaflutes at the base of scoured channels. © Springer-Verlag 2005. Sediments and sedimentary processes - diagenesis 1645 Facies-related diagenetic alteration in lacustrinedeltaic red beds of the Paleogene Ergeliin Zoo Formation (Erdene Sum area, S. Gobi, Mongolia) Dill H.G., Khishigsuren S., Melcher F. et al. Sedimentary Geology 2005 181/1-2 (1-24) The Late Eocene Ergeliin Zoo Formation, Mongolia, was subdivided into four facies associations/stratigraphic units which are characterized by various carbonate minerals: (I) mud-sand flat (low-Fe dolomite, high-Mg calcite), (II) delta front (high-Mn dolomite, low-Mg calcite), (III) delta plain (high-Mn calcite, low-Mg and moderate-Fe calcite), (IV) calcretes (high-Mg calcite). Besides carbonate minerals, prevailing among the cement minerals, some sheet silicates (Ca smectite, palygorskite, illite), apatite and Fe oxide-hydroxides occur in the siliciclastics of these lacustrine-deltaic red beds. The prodelta/mud-sand flat deposits (unit I) were dolomitized and cemented by high-Mg calcite during evaporative pumping at times of low lake-stand under redox conditions greater than 0 and intrastratal solutions of strong alkalinity. Manganoan dolomite is fairly widespread in the delta front sediments (unit II), the Mn content of which is likely to have been derived from decomposition of vertebrate remains. The Mn/Fe ratio in the carbonate minerals was controlled by the redox conditions and the shallow burial depth. In the porous delta front sediments Eh values around zero and pH values slightly above 7 occurred as a result of basinward fluid movements (high-Mn dolomite, high-Fe dolomite, low-Mg calcite). Fluid movement was locally impeded by finer-grained delta plain deposits (unit III), intertonguing with arenaceous aquifers (low Mg-moderate Fe calcite, high-Mn calcite). Higher up on the delta plain with deposits laid down in an environment transitional between distal alluvial and deltaic (unit IV), closed lake basin conditions reappeared as fluids emerged from the distal alluvial-fluvial deposits or were driven by capillary force to ascend and form calcretes abundant in Mg-bearing calcite. The climatic conditions in the Erdene Sum area, Mongolia, are likely to have been semi-arid transitional into arid. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1646 Early diagenesis impact on precise U-series dating of deep-sea corals: Example of a 100-200-year old Lophelia pertusa sample from the northeast Atlantic Pons- Branchu E., Hillaire- Marcel C., Deschamps P. et al. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005 69/20 (4865-4879) Deep-sea coral has proved useful for paleoceanographic reconstructions and for documenting 14 C-ages of water masses using 230 Th-ages. However, for precise and accurate U-series dating, further information on coral-age structure, growth rate and diagenetic evolution is still needed. To document such processes, we used U-Th-226 Ra systematics in a 40 cm diameter, Lophelia pertusa specimen collected in 1912 from the Eastern Atlantic (Sea of the Hebrides). External parts of the specimen are thought to have been alive when collected whereas more internal parts were likely dead. The "live-collected" and "dead" parts of the skeleton were sampled and analyzed for their 230 Th, 232 Th, 234 U, 238 U, 226 Ra and Ba contents by thermal ionization and multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. 230 Th/234 U ratios in the most recent parts yielded ages of 86 6 a and 92 9 a, in agreement with the date of recovery. The older parts yielded 230 Th ages ranging from 169 15 to 211 10 a (n = 5), but had a 31% higher U content than more recent parts of the skeleton. This raises concerns about the possibility of secondary diagenetic U uptake, although an environmentally controlled U/Ca shift between coral growth stages cannot be ruled out. 226 Ra/Ba measurements were made, and model- 226 Ra/Ba ages averaging 250 12 yr were calculated for the older part, assuming a constant initial 226 Ra/Ba ratio in bottom waters. These ages are slightly older than 230 Thages, suggesting either that 226 Ra/Ba ratios of ambient-seawater changed over time or that a diagenetic phenomenon have affected the U-series system, or both. Scanning electron microscope observations revealed bioerosion and secondary biomineralization in the older part of the coral skeleton, supporting the hypothesis that diagenetic processes may have influenced the ages obtained by the U-series toolbox. Modeled U-series ages for such an open system are discussed. However, a comparison between 14 C- and 230 Th-ages performed on both pristine and bioeroded parts of the coral gives coherent values (ca 450 a) for the preindustrial 14 C-reservoir age of North Atlantic waters. It remains to be determined, however, whether diagenesis occurs rapidly over a short period of time, or whether it continues for longer periods. In the latter case, diagenetic processes would hamper paleoceanographic interpretations as well as the precise calculation of 14 C ages of deep-water masses, based on comparative U/Th- and 14 C-chronologies. Copyright © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. 1647 Vertical variations in bassanite distribution patterns in near-surface sediments, southern Egypt Mees F. and De Dapper M. Sedimentary Geology 2005 181/3-4 (225-229) Nile valley sediments of the El Ada¨ıma area in southern Egypt contain bassanite (CaSO4 0.5H2 O), associated with gypsum (CaSO4 2H2 O), in the upper
1 m of the deposits. The presence of bassanite at this site, formed by dehydration of gypsum, is marked by variations in mode of occurrence with depth. In the lowest bassanite-bearing interval, bassanite occurs mainly along the contact between gypsum crystals in pores, which is related to the protection of bassanite from rehydration in those parts of the gypsum aggregates. At a higher level, bassanite occurs along the sides of lenticular gypsum crystals in the sediment matrix. Near the top of the studied sequence, bassanite mainly appears as inclusions in gypsum crystals, which represents a texture that developed by repeated dehydration and rehydration. Elsewhere in the upper part of the deposits, bassanite occurs as aggregates of small crystals in pores, without associated gypsum, which was entirely dehydrated to bassanite in these parts. These vertical variations in bassanite distribution patterns record differences in the diagenetic history of the deposits between depth intervals. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. SEDIMENTOLOGY Sedimentary geochemistry 1648 Recent variations in sediment organic carbon content in Lake Soyang (Korea) Khim B.- K., Jung H.M. and Cheong D. Limnology 2005 6/1 (61-66) Four gravity cores were taken from Lake Soyang, which was created by the construction of an artificial dam in 1973. The variation of organic carbon content of the bottom sediments since the construction was interpreted using a variety of sedimentological and geochemical measurements. Based on the textural properties of sediments and the total organic carbon (TOC) content, it is clear that sediment organic carbon has been deposited very consistently throughout the postconstruction period, except for local sudden inputs caused by summer flooding events near fish farms or farmland areas. The autochthonous input resulting from the enhanced primary production led by phytoplanktons each year is likely to become a major problem at downstream sites within Lake Soyang. The vertical variation of 13 C values of sediment organic matter also reflects the fact that the level of autochthonous supply of organic carbon becomes high downstream. © The Japanese Society of Limnology 2005. 1649 Dynamics of redox changes of iron caused by lightdark variations in littoral sediment of a freshwater lake Gerhardt S., Brune A. and Schink B. Biogeochemistry 2005 74/3 (323-339) Depth profiles of oxygen concentration and the redox status of acid-extractable iron were measured in littoral sediment cores of Lake Constance incubated under a light-dark regimen of 12 h. While oxygen penetrated to 3.4 0.2 mm depth in the dark, photosynthetic oxygen production shifted the oxic-anoxic interface down to 4.0 0.2 mm or 5.9 1.6 mm depth, at low or high light intensity, respectively, and caused a net oxygen efflux into the water column. After a light-dark or dark-light transition, the oxygen concentration at the sediment surface reached a new steady state within about 20 min. The redox state of the bioavailable iron was determined in 1-mm slices of sediment subcores. After a dark period of 12 h, 85% of the acid-extractable iron (10.5 mol cm-3 total) in the uppermost 8 mm was in the reduced state. Within 12 h at low or high light intensity, the proportion of ferrous iron decreased to 82 or 75%, respectively, corresponding to net rates of iron oxidation in the range of 244 and 732 nmol cm-3 h-1 , respectively. About 55 or 82% of the iron oxidation at low or high light intensity occurred in the respective oxic zone of the sediment; the remaining part was oxidized in the anoxic zone, probably coupled to nitrate reduction. The areal rates of iron oxidation in the respective oxic layer (21 or 123 nmol cm-2 h-1 at low or high light intensity, respectively) would account for 4 and 23% of the total electron flow to oxygen, respectively. Light changes caused a rapid migration of the oxic-anoxic interface in the sediment, followed by a slow redox reaction of biologically available iron, thus providing temporal niches for aerobic iron oxidizers and anaerobic iron reducers. © Springer 2005. 1650 Redox changes of iron caused by erosion, resuspension and sedimentation in littoral sediment of a freshwater lake Gerhardt S. and Schink B. Biogeochemistry 2005 74/3 (341-356) Depth profiles of oxygen concentration and the redox status of acid-extractable iron were measured in littoral sediment cores of Lake Constance after mechanical removal of surface sediment, mixing, and re-deposition. In undisturbed sediment cores, oxygen penetrated down to 2.9 0.4 mm or 4.6 0.4 mm depth, respectively, after 12 h of incubation in the dark or light; causing a net diffusive flux of 108 20 nmol cm-2 h -1 oxygen into or 152 35 nmol cm-2 h-1 out of the sediment. The uppermost 20 mm layer of the undisturbed sediment cores contained 10.2 0.7 mol cm-3 ferrous and 3.8 1.1 mol cm-3 ferric iron. After erosion, the oxic-anoxic interface in the newly exposed sediment was shifted to about 2 mm depth within 30 min, causing an oxygen flow into the sediment. During the following 12 h, oxygen penetrated deeper into the sediment, and in the light oxygen was produced photosynthetically. Ferrous iron was largely oxidized within two days after erosion. The oxidation rates were higher in oxic than in anoxic sediment layers, and decreased with time. 313 This oxidation process took the longer and was confined closer to the surface the more reduced the exposed sediment had been before. Resuspension of eroded sediment in aerated lake water did not cause a significant oxidation or reduction of iron. After re-deposition, the oxic-anoxic interface in the re-sedimented material shifted to about 2 mm depth within 30 min, causing an oxygen flow into the sediment. During the following 12 h, the oxygen penetration depth and the oxygen flow rate into the re-deposited sediment did not change any further, and no oxygen was produced in the light. Ferric iron was reduced during the first day after re-deposition, and partly re-oxidized during the second day. The extent of reduction was stronger and the extent of oxidation weaker the more reduced the resuspended sediment was before. Oxic conditions in the sediment surface were established faster and ferrous iron was oxidized to a larger extent after erosion of sediment than after resuspension and sedimentation. © Springer 2005. 1651 Trace metal profiles in the varved sediment of an Arctic lake Outridge P.M., Stern G.A., Hamilton P.B. et al. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005 69/20 (4881-4894) Varved (annually-laminated) sediments offer a rare and physically undisturbed archive of past trace metal deposition and limnological conditions. Here, a high-resolution 1,300 year record of metal accumulation is presented from a varved lake sediment on Devon Island in the Canadian High Arctic. Down-core concentration profiles of Cd, Cu and Zn were positively correlated (P < 0.01) with organic C (Cd, Zn) or with leachable Fe (Cu), while distinct sub-surface peaks of these metals coincided with those of Fe, S and other redox-sensitive elements such as Co, Cr and U. The fluxes of these metals since 1854 were correlated with elements such as Ca, Al and La (P < 0.001) which are predominantly of local geological origin. Furthermore, the Cd, Cu and Zn patterns did not match concurrent records in Greenland Summit ice over the last century, nor global industrial emission histories. These facts suggest that inputs from local geological sources, coupled with some degree of post-depositional mobility or association with organic matter inputs, explain the metals’ sedimentary profiles, which were apparently not affected by longrange atmospheric metal pollution. Mercury concentrations were strongly correlated with total diatom abundance over the last 400 yrs, especially during the 20th Century when a two-fold increase in Hg concentrations and a four order-of-magnitude increase in diatoms occurred in tandem. Since 1854, 81% of the variation in Hg flux was associated with diatom and Ca fluxes. A similar correspondence between Hg and diatoms was found in a second lake nearby, confirming that the relationship was not unique to the main study lake. Recent Hg increases in Arctic and sub-Arctic lakes have been attributed to global anthropogenic Hg emissions. We propose an alternative hypothesis for High Arctic lakes: the recent Hg increases may be partly or entirely the product of elevated rates of Hg scavenging from the water column caused by markedly greater algal productivity, which in turn was driven by accelerating climate warming during the 20th Century. Given the important environmental assessment and policy implications if the alternative hypothesis is true, the possible effects of climate warming on sedimentary Hg fluxes in this region deserve further study. Copyright © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. 1652 Sea bottom anoxia in the Archipelago Sea, northern Baltic Sea - Implications for phosphorus remineralization at the sediment surface Virtasalo J.J., Kohonen T., Vuorinen I. and Huttula T. Marine Geology 2005 224/1-4 (103-122) The effects of the hydrophysical environment on oxygen conditions and P remineralization at sediment surface were studied in the Archipelago Sea, northern Baltic Sea. At 94 sites, the water column was profiled for conductivity, temperature and oxygen, and the topmost sediment was collected for P and C fractions and (oxy)hydroxide Fe analysis. The near-bottom water and sediment parameters as well as visual observations on the vertical colour distribution in the sediment cores were used to statistically classify the sediment surfaces into oxic, anoxic and suboxic (fluctuating oxygen conditions) bottoms. The anoxic bottoms occurred in the basins with water depths less than 47 m, and the suboxic bottoms were most common in the basins with depths 314 SEDIMENTOLOGY between 20-60 m, while the oxic bottoms dominated in the depths over 60 m. It was concluded that the preferential development of oxygen deficiency in the shallow basins results from the combined effects of complex topography and seasonal temperature stratification on both vertical and lateral bottom water exchange. In the anoxic bottoms, C / P ratios suggest enhanced release of P compared to the oxic and suboxic bottoms. In the suboxic bottoms, high inorganic P concentrations and the strong coupling between P and Fe suggest active transformation of organic P to the inorganic P phases, probably due to the fluctuating oxygen conditions. Differences in the spatial distribution of the P, C and Fe were insignificant except for detrital P, which decreased seawards. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1653 Revisiting the rare earth elements in foraminiferal tests Haley B.A., Klinkhammer G.P. and Mix A.C. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005 239/1-2 (79-97) Are the rare earth elements (REEs) in foraminifera a valuable proxy for use in paleoceanographic and climate change studies? In order to investigate this, we attempted a comprehensive study of REEs in planktonic and benthic foraminifera. Several different cleaning protocols were tested. Although the hydroxylamine used to clean all foraminifera in this study removes an unidentified source of REE contamination, it seems to remobilize metal oxides that are otherwise unaffected in flow-through dissolution. The calculated REE distribution coefficients, KD(REE) s, are between 100 and 500 for both planktonic and benthic foraminifera. These KD s are high compared to other elements in biogenic calcite but can be explained through a general model of element incorporation during foraminiferal calcification. From data taken from eight core tops in the southeast Pacific, we conclude that the REEs in planktonic foraminifera are, indeed, useful as a proxy for upper ocean water mass and mixed layer biogenic productivity. Alternatively, the REEs in benthic foraminifera are useful as a proxy for carbon flux to the sea floor. These proxies should be robust down core unless the sediments have undergone anoxic diagenesis, which stabilizes Fe carbonate thus overprinting the primary REE signature. However, it is clear from REE distributions in foraminiferal tests if anoxic conditions have occurred. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1654 Fluid sources, fluid pathways and diagenetic reactions across an accretionary prism revealed by Sr and B geochemistry Teichert B.M.A., Torres M.E., Bohrmann G. and Eisenhauer A. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005 239/1-2 (106-121) ODP Leg 204, which drilled at Hydrate Ridge, provides unique insights into the fluid regime of an accretionary complex and delineates specific sub-seafloor pathways for fluid transport. Compaction and dewatering due to smectite-illite transition increase with distance from the toe of the accretionary prism and bring up fluids from deep within the accretionary complex to sampled depths ( 600 mbsf). These fluids have a distinctly non-radiogenic strontium isotope signature indicating reaction with the oceanic basement. Boron isotopes are also consistent with a deep fluid source that has been modified by desorption of heavy boron as clay minerals change from smectite to illite. One of three major horizons serves as conduit for the transport of mainly fluid. Our results enable us to evaluate fluid migration pathways that play important roles on massive gas hydrate accumulations and seepage of methane-rich fluids on southern Hydrate Ridge. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1655 Elemental composition of calcites in late Quaternary pedogenic calcretes from Gujarat, western India Khadkikar A.S. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 2005 25/6 (893902) Pedogenic calcretes commonly exhibit clotted micrite, circumgranular calcite (grain coats) and microspar/spar veins. The three calcite-types with different dimensions were analyzed for their magnesium content to determine the relationship between crystal elongation and magnesium incorporation. The results show a very low MgO content for grain coats and microspars and high values for clotted micrite indicating that the ideal kinetic model does not hold true and several variables govern the end composition of calcites. The magnesium concentrations of meteoric calcites are genetically linked to the evolutionary history of the soil and climate. Grain coats, which are elongated calcites, contain the least amount of Mg and is related to the initial stages of pedogenesis wherein the limiting factor is the Mg/Ca ratio of the parent fluid. Lower magnesium contents arise due to smaller quantities of Mg being released during incipient weathering. Micrite morphology and composition is controlled by the greater availability of Mg ions through weathering, higher pCO2 in soil due to increased time-dependent soil respiration, which causes a rise in calcite precipitation rates and clay authigenesis. This in turn exerts a physical control on morphology by occluding pore space and providing numerous nuclei for calcite precipitation. The wide variability in spar cements is inherently controlled by inhomogeneties in parent fluid compositions with lower-thanmicrite values on account of slower precipitation rates. © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1656 Characterization and origin of Fe3 +- montmorillonite in deep-water calcareous sediments (Pacific Ocean, Costa Rica margin) Gaudin A., Buatier M.D., Beaufort D. et al. Clays and Clay Minerals 2005 53/5 (452-465) Millimetric to centimetric green grains widespread in pelagic calcareous sediments recovered at a water depth of 3000 in near the Costa Rica margin were studied by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Samples were collected, during the Ticoflux II expedition, from the upper bioturbated part of four sedimentary cores (0.13-3.75 in below seafloor). The sediments are calcareous and siliccous nanofossil oozes (coccoliths, diatoms, radiolarians, etc.). Green grains show generally a concentric zoning with a green rim in which smectite largely predominates over pyrite and a black core in which pyrite is prevalent. Observations by SEM indicate that this zoning results from a progressive inward alteration and replacement of the accumulations of pyrites by smectites. The high-resolution TEM observations of the smectite-pyrite interfaces suggest that the replacement of pyrites by smectite occurs through a dissolution-precipitation process with the formation of a gel. The pyrite matrix is composed of a huge number of very small (0.5-2 m) pyrite octahedra, a typical texture resulting from the pyritization of organic material in early diagenetic environments. The accurate mineral ogical and crystal chemical characterization of the smectites indicate that they are Fe3+ -montmorillonites (Fe3+ -rich smectite with a dominant octahedral charge, rarely recorded in the literature). The formation of such Fe3+ -montmorillonites forming green grains could be explained by two successive diagenetic redox stages: (1) reducing stage: early pyritization of the organic matter by microbial reduction within reducing micro-environments; (2) oxidizing stage: Fe3+ -montmorillonite crystallized in space liberated after dissolution of pyrite connected with the rebalancing of the redox conditions of the micro-environments with the oxidizing surrounding sediments. Copyright © 2005, The Clay Minerals Society. 1657 REE and
Nd of clay fractions in sediments from the eastern Pacific Ocean: Evidence for clay sources Liu J., Shi X., Chen L. et al. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/5 (701-712) Clay fractions in the non-calcareous surface sediments from the eastern Pacific were analyzed for clay minerals, REE and 143 Nd/ 144 Nd. Montmorillonite/illite ratio (M/I ratio), total REE contents (
REE), LREE/HREE ratio and cerium anomaly ( Ce) may effectively indicate the genesis of clay minerals. Clay fractions with M/I ratio >1, Ce <0.85,
REE >400 g/g, LREE/HREE ratio 4, and REE patterns similar to those of pelagic sediments are terrigenous and autogenetic mixed clay fractions and contain more autogenetic montmorillonite. Clay fractions with M/I ratio <1, Ce=0.86 to 1.5,
REE=200 to 350 g/g, LREE/HREE ratio 6 and REE distribution patterns similar to that of China loess are identified as terrigenous clay fraction. The 143 Nd/144 Nd ratios or Nd values of clay fractions inherit the features of terrigenous sources of clay minerals. Clay fractions are divided into 4 types according to Nd values. Terrigenous clay minerals of type I with the Nd values of -8 to -6 originate mainly from North American fluvial deposits. Those of type II with the Nd values of -9 to -7 are mainly from the East Asia and North American SEDIMENTOLOGY fluvial deposits. Those of type III with Nd values of -6 to -3 could come from the central and eastern Pacific volcanic islands. Those of type IV with Nd values of -13 to -12 may be from East Asia eolian. The terrigenous and autogenetic mixed clay fractions show patchy distributions, indicating that there are volcanic or hot-spot activities in the eastern Pacific plate, while the terrigenous clay fractions cover a large part of the study area, proving that the terrigenous clay minerals are dominant in the eastern Pacific. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. 1658 Trace elements in streambed sediments of small subtropical streams on O’ahu, Hawai’i: Results from the USGS NAWQA program De Carlo E.H., Tomlinson M.S. and Anthony S.S. Applied Geochemistry 2005 20/12 (2157-2188) Data are presented for trace element concentrations determined in the <63 m fraction of streambed sediment samples collected at 24 sites on the island of O’ahu, Hawai’i. Sampling sites were classified as urban, agricultural, mixed (urban/agricultural), or forested based on their dominant land use, although the mixed land use at selected sampling sites consisted of either urban and agricultural or forested and agricultural land uses. Forest dominated sites were used as reference sites for calculating enrichment factors. Trace element concentrations were compared to concentrations from studies conducted in the conterminous United States using identical methods and to aquatic-life guidelines provided by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. A variety of elements including Pb, Cr, Cu and Zn exceeded the aquatic-life guidelines in selected samples. All of the Cr and Zn values and 16 of 24 Cu values exceeded their respective guidelines. The potential toxicity of elements exceeding guidelines, however, should be considered in the context of strong enrichments of selected trace elements attributable to source rocks in Hawai’i, as well as in the context of the abundance of finegrained sediment in the streambed of O’ahu streams. Statistical methods including cluster analysis, Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test, correlation analysis, and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to evaluate differences and elucidate relationships between trace elements and sites. Overall, trace element distributions and abundances can be correlated to three principal sources of elements. These include basaltic rocks of the volcanic edifice (Fe, Al, Ni, Co, Cr, V and Cu), carbonate/seawater derived elements (Mg, Ca, Na and Sr), and elements enriched owing to anthropogenic activity (P, Sn, Cd, Sn, Ba and Pb). Anthropogenic enrichment gradients were observed for Ba, Cd, Pb, Sn and Zn in the four streams in which sediments were collected upstream and downstream. The findings of this study are generally similar to but differ slightly from previous work on sediments and suspended particulate matter in streams, from two urban watersheds of O’ahu, Hawai’i. Inter-element associations in the latter were often stronger and indicated a mixture of anthropogenic, agricultural and basaltic sources of trace elements. Some elements fell into different statistical categories in the two studies, owing in part to differences in study design and the hydrogeological constraints on the respective study areas. 1659 Sequential Factor Analysis as a new approach to multivariate analysis of heterogeneous geochemical datasets: An application to a bulk chemical characterization of fluvial deposits (Rhine-Meuse delta, the Netherlands) Van Helvoort P.- J., Filzmoser P. and Van Gaans P.F.M. Applied Geochemistry 2005 20/12 (2233-2251) Sequential Factor Analysis (seqFA) is presented here as an enhanced alternative to multivariate factorial techniques including robust and classical Factor Analysis (FA) or Principal Component Analysis (PCA). A geochemical data set of 145 sediment samples from very heterogeneous, mainly riverine, deposits of the Rhine-Meuse delta (The Netherlands) analyzed for 27 bulk parameters was used as a test case. The innovative approach explicitly addresses the priority issues when performing PCA or FA: heterogeneity and overall integrity of the data, the number of factors to be extracted, and which optimum minimal set of key variables to be included in the model. The stepwise decision process is based on quantitative and objectively derived statistical criteria, yet also permitting arguments based on geochemical expertize. The results show that seqFA, preferably in combination with robust methods, yields a highly consistent factor model, and 315 is favorable over classical methods when dealing with heterogeneous data sets. It optimizes rotation of the factors, and allows the extraction of less distinct factors supported by only a few variables, thus uncovering additional geochemical processes and properties that would easily be missed with other approaches. The identification of key variables simplifies the geochemical interpretation of the factors, and greatly facilitates the construction of a geochemical conceptual model. For the case of the fluvial deposits, the conceptual model effectively describes their bulk chemical variation in terms of a limited number of governing processes. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1660 Late Holocene geochemical history inferred from Sambhar and Didwana playa sediments, Thar Desert, India: Comparison and synthesis Roy P.D., Smykatz- Kloss W. and Sinha R. Quaternary International 2005 144/1 (84-98) The Sambhar and Didwana playas from the eastern margin of the Thar Desert (annual precipitation of 300-450 mm) have been investigated for mineralogy, major and trace element geochemistry of near surface sediments. Geochemical data and evaporite mineralogy of sediments from the playa surface and shallow depths provide insight to the present-day geochemical processes and the different vertical phases of pore water activity. Detrital minerals from both the playas reflect igneous and metamorphic source rocks in their catchments. The zeolite type mineral, analcime (NaAlSi2 O6 H2 O) is assumed to be authigenic in origin, a product of chemical reaction between the hypersaline brine and detrital feldspars. The evaporite mineralogy is dominated by halite, calcite and dolomite. Major differences between the evaporite mineralogy of the surface sediments of two playas are the occurrence of trace amounts of the H2 O-bearing carbonate, trona (Na3 H(CO3 )2 2H2 O), in the Didwana and K- and Mgbearing sulphate and chloride minerals e.g. polyhalite (K2 MgCa2 (SO4 )4 2H2 O), carnallite (KMgCl3 6H2 O), and sylvite (KCl) in the Sambhar. Based on the distribution of major and trace elements, the surface sediments from both playas are divided into three geochemical zones. Fed by river and rainwaters, the playa surfaces show enrichment of insoluble cations and hydrolysates in the outermost zone and soluble oxides and cations in the innermost zone. Further, the shallow depth profiles are also divided into distinct geochemical zones based on the elemental ratios. The sub-recent zone I reflects low chemical weathering and higher aeolian input, the middle zone II indicates relatively higher weathering index and zone III, enriched in evaporites, also shows low chemical weathering. Despite the fact that the Sambhar and Didwana are separated only by
50 km, they show significant differences in terms of evaporite mineralogy and inorganic composition of surface sediments. We interpret this to be a manifestation of local variations in precipitation, inflow and aeolian influx. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. Sedimentary environments terrestrial 1661 Sedimentation problems and management strategies of Sanmenxia Reservoir, Yellow River, China Wang G., Wu B. and Wang Z.- Y. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-17) [1] Reservoir sedimentation management is of critical importance for the sustainable development of surface water resources. Sanmenxia Dam, located on the middle reach of the Yellow River, in China, is notorious for its severe sedimentation problems. Because of the alarming rate of loss of reservoir storage capacity and the unacceptable negative impact induced by the rapid upstream extension of sediment deposited in the river’s backwater region, the dam has been reconstructed to provide high sediment releasing capacity, and the dam operation has been changed in order to achieve a balance between sediment inflow and outflow. As a result, the dam is still providing the basin with flood control, irrigation, and hydropower generation, even though some benefits are lower than the original design. Complex sedimentation processes in response to the dam reconstruction and changes 316 SEDIMENTOLOGY of dam operation are discussed in this paper. The engineering experiences and management practices of Sanmenxia Dam are valuable assets to the sustainable use of reservoirs built on sediment-laden rivers. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1662 Sediment provenances and drainage evolution of the Neogene Amazonian foreland basin Roddaz M., Viers J., Brusset S. et al. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005 239/1-2 (57-78) During the Middle-Late Miocene, tidal sedimentation was the rule in the Amazon foreland basin. The Amazon foreland basin became emerged in the Late Miocene-Pliocene times. In this study, trace element chemistry (n = 104) and Nd-Sr isotopic systematic (n = 30) are used to constrain the provenance of the Miocene tidal sediments and of the Late Miocene-Pliocene fluvial sediments. Neogene Amazonian foreland basin sediments are the result of a mixing between Andean andesitic volcanic rocks and cratonic shield rocks. The south Amazonian foreland basin (SAFB) sediments are the result of long-term weathering, recycling, and erosion of the Brazilian shield and Andean Paleozoic/Mesozoic rocks also Brazilian shield in provenance. Compared with north Amazonian foreland basin (NAFB) sediments, SAFB sediments are more felsic. NAFB sediments have 3 distinct signatures: i) an upper crust signature with trace element characteristics similar to PAAS and UCC and with Nd(0) values between - 8 and - 11.9; ii) an arc andesitic rock signature with high Cr/Th ratios, low Eu anomalies, low Th/Sc ratios and Nd(0) values between - 3 and - 5; and iii) a cratonic signature with high Eu anomalies and Zr/Sc ratios and with a very low Nd(0) value (-15.5). Our data indicate that most of the basic detritus came from the Ecuadorian Andes. In the distal part of the NAFB, the successive uplifts of the Iquitos forebulge were responsible for Late Miocene to Pliocene divide between Andean and cratonic drainage systems. The modern "Amazon River" drainage network is no younger than the Pliocene. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1663 Distribution of high-level alluvial deposits in the valley and ridge of Polk County, southeastern Tennessee: Implications for river history and drainage evolution Mills H.H., Sumners D.N., Hart E.A. and Li P. Southeastern Geology 2005 44/1 (37-44) Surficial mapping based on digital soil maps along the Hiwassee and Ocoee Rivers in western Polk County, Tennessee, shows almost 100 square kilometers of alluvium. By far the most extensive is high-level alluvium resting on carbonate bedrock, mainly on the Knox Group. This old alluvium covers rolling topography at elevations of roughly 15 m or greater above the modern river level (ARL), extending to 80 m ARL locally. It is highly weathered, with B horizons having clay percentages exceeding 50 percent and Munsell hues of typically 2.5YR. Sandstone clasts, where present, generally are decomposed. Deposits lower than 15 m ARL occur on floodplains and low terraces are much less weathered, with clay percentages less than 30 and colors no redder than 7.5YR. Pebbles and cobbles of vein quartz attest to the origin of most alluvium in the Blue Ridge province. Such clasts become less common with increasing height ARL, and at the highest levels regolith consists of scattered quartz clasts mixed with carbonate residuum. Alluvial deposits generally occur within 4 km of the main rivers. An exception is a band of high-level alluvium extending from the Ocoee south-southwesterly to the Conasauga River near the Tennessee-Georgia border. This band crosses a prominent divide between the Tennessee and Coosa River basins where only small, local streams flow today. Its presence suggests either that the Conasauga, currently a tributary to the Coosa, once flowed north to the Tennessee River, or else that the Ocoee, now a tributary of the Tennessee, once flowed south to the Coosa. 1664 Deposition of playa windblown dust over geologic time scales Pelletier J.D. and Cook J.P. Geology 2005 33/11 (909-912) Thick eolian deposits are commonly observed beneath desert pavements downwind of dust-emitting playas. These deposits play an important role in piedmont-surface evolution, controlling surface hydrologic conductivity and rates of pedogenesis. To better understand the factors controlling the spatial distribution of eolian deposition, we developed a numerical model that treats deposition from spatially distributed playa sources using analytic point-source solutions for deposition from a Gaussian plume. The model also accounts for complex downwind topography. As a test case, model predictions were compared to eolian deposit thicknesses on Eagle Mountain piedmont, southern Amargosa Valley, California, which receives dust from nearby Franklin Lake playa. The close relationship between the model predictions and mapped thicknesses suggests that eolian transport and deposition can be modeled from basin to regional scales within this framework. These results have important implications for hydrologic, pedogenic, and air-quality problems. © 2005 Geological Society of America. 1665 Fractal river networks of Southern Africa Stankiewicz J. and de Wit M.J. South African Journal of Geology 2005 108/3 (333-344) Fractals and scaling laws abound in nature, and it is said that geometry of river networks and basins is an epitome of this. This study investigates how, in the southern section of the tectonically unique African continent, scaling parameters and deviations from ‘perfect fractal patterns’ relate to parameters like geomorphology through which the river flows, and the underlying geology. A number of river network scaling laws and scaling parameters have been put forward, but it has been suggested that all river networks can be divided into universality classes represented by just 2 of these scaling parameters. One of these is the fractal dimension of individual streams, usually labelled d and having a value of
1.1. The other parameter, Hack’s exponent h, expresses the dependence of stream length (l) on drainage area (a) via Hack’s Law l = cah . There is no universal value for h. Different networks often have different values for h, and inside a given network the parameter is often observed to change with scale. We use the natural laboratory of networks in southern Africa to investigate the variations in Hack’s exponent and find evidence to confirm the existence of scaling regimes. We attempt to explain these variations in scaling using the regime model of Dodds and Rothman (2000). At the smallest scale we find that non-convergent mountain streams exist in different settings, but their spacing is determined by underlying rock type. in this type of drainage a
1, and hence h  1. Once streams begin to converge, the value of h drops, and is inversely correlated to the roughness of the underlying topography. This trend stops once basin sizes reach a threshold value, above which basins may be self-similar. This threshold varies in individual networks. In the smoothest topographies it occurs as low as 400 km2 , but can occur as high as 1400 km2 in other networks. While we have identified a number of guidelines for correlating scaling parameters with basin settings, there exist significant variations around these guidelines which we can only attribute to randomness, or small variations in the initial conditions during the initial formation of the river basins. © 2005 Geological Society of South Africa. 1666 A lithofacies terrain model for the Blantyre Region: Implications for the interpretation of palaeosavanna depositional systems and for environmental geology and economic geology in southern Malawi Dill H.G., Ludwig R.- R., Kathewera A. and Mwenelupembe J. Journal of African Earth Sciences 2005 41/5 (341-393) The Blantyre City Area is part of the African savanna in southern Malawi. Sedimentological, geomorphological, chemical and mineralogical studies were conducted to create a lithofacies terrain model. The project involves mapping, cross-sectioning, grain size, heavy mineral analysis, XRD and the study of sedimentary textures under the petrographic microscope. These classical techniques were combined with GIS-based field and office works. The combined efforts led to 2-D maps and 3-D block diagrams that illustrate the geomorphological and sedimentological evolution of the landscape in southern Malawi during the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The results obtained through integrated geomorphological-sedimentological studies form the basis for land management (planning of residential areas, waste disposal sites, assessment of bearing capacity of rocks), geohazard prediction (delineation of high risk zones in terms of mass flow and inundation) and the evaluation of high-place (ceramic raw materials) and high-unit value (placers of precious metals SEDIMENTOLOGY and gemstones) mineral commodities in the study area. The study addresses regional and general aspects alike. In regional terms, the study aimed at unraveling the evolution of landforms at the southern end of the East African Rift System during the most recent parts of the geological past. Four stages of peneplanation were established in the working area. Planation was active from the Cretaceous to the Quaternary (stage I: early to mid-Cretaceous, stage II: early Tertiary, stage III: early to midTertiary, stage IV: mid- to late Tertiary). During the most recent parts of the Quaternary, strong fluvial incision was triggered by the base-level lowering of the Shire River. Geomorphological alteration of the landscape goes along with a phyllosilicate-sesquioxide transformation from minerals indicative of more acidic meteoric fluids (e.g., gibbsite, kaolinite) to those typical of more alkaline conditions (e.g. smectite, vermiculite, hydrobiotite). In addition, the investigation is to provide some characteristic features suitable for the recognition and interpretation of terrestrial environments resembling the present-day savanna in the ancient sedimentary record: (1) Conspicuous bimodality in the grain-size distribution. (2) High degree of gravel roundness. (3) Boulder fields (basal conglomerates) with fitting breccias and no rotation of structural elements. (4) Poor to very poor sorting of siliciclastics. (5) Stratification is rare; if present only in sandy beds with antidune and tabular cross-bedding at low angle prevailing over crossbedding at high angle. (6) Grading rare; in arenaceous deposits poorly developed FU sequences, in rudites poorly developed CU sequences, locally with surface armoring. (7) Directional sedimentary structures in coarse-grained deposits are unimodal. Fabric types: a(t)b(i) and a(p)b(i); shear planes indicative of slide may be present. (8) Ribbon-shaped architectural elements prevail over channel-like types. Bounding surfaces/unconformities are uneven to wavy and more widespread than scour-and-pool structures. (9) Fine-grained carbonaceous interbeds are restricted to shallow depressions. (10) Etch marks such as tafonis, flutes, honeycomb textures are common. (11) Placer deposits of metallic and non-metallic mineral commodities are abundant. (12) Alucretes and ferricretes of bog iron (ferrihydrite & gt; goethite) and lateritic (goethite > ferrihydrite) types are common, calcitic freshwater limestones and gypcretes are scarce. (13) Kandite-group minerals "in" (relic), smectite-group minerals "in", vermiculite "in" (recent), mica-group minerals "out". © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Sedimentary environments - coastal and shallow marine 1667 The interplay of eustasy, climate and human activity in the late Quaternary depositional evolution and sedimentary architecture of the Po Delta system Stefani M. and Vincenzi S. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (19-48) The late Pleistocene and Holocene environmental evolution and sequence stratigraphic architecture of the Po Delta region, Northern Italy, are examined. The study units record the depositional evolution from lowstand continental accumulation to marine transgression and highstand progradation. Interpretation of the high-resolution, three-dimension geological mapping of the central Po Delta area was framed within the evolution of the whole of the delta region, stretching from Venice Lagoon to the South of Ravenna. The development of the delta lobes was correlated with the fluvial drainage history. A discussion on the different auto and allocyclic mechanisms controlling the depositional evolution and a quantitative estimation of the changing depositional rates are also provided. Outcrop study was based on field surveying and on the analysis of aerial photography, topographic micro-relief, historical cartography, archaeological and historiographic data. Subsurface analysis was based on stratigraphic coring and cone penetration testing. During the last glacial lowstand, the modern coastal region was the site of middle alluvial plain sedimentation. Deglaciation and early transgression were associated with an erosive disconformity development. In the modern coastal area, transgressive accumulation started between 10 and 9000 yr BP. Back-stepping fluvial and brackish marsh deposits were followed by delta-estuarine sand bodies, influenced by the last 317 important eustatic rise pulses. Transgression climaxed at about 5500 yr BP, during a warm climate phase. Early highstand saw the growth of large sand spits and barrier islands, progressively turning the previous bays into confined lagoons. At about 35003000 yr BP, a particularly active meteo-marine regime profoundly affected the depositional dynamics. Etruscan and Roman times were characterised by a warm climate and by riverine stability associated with the development of a large delta lobe. At around 1500 yr BP, transition toward moister and cooler conditions and the abandoning of the Roman Empire hydraulic works coincided with important drainage network instability. The modern delta lobe was induced 400 years ago by an artificial fluvial-mouth cut. The early evolution of the lobe recorded very high accumulation rates. The modern fragile environmental situation is characterised by strong coastal erosion and difficult management. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1668 Event beds in the recent prodelta stratigraphic record of the small flood-prone Bonea Stream (Amalfi Coast, Southern Italy) Budillon F., Violante C., Conforti A. et al. Marine Geology 2005 222-223/1-4 (419-441) Seismic interpretation of about 150 km of high resolution Sonar Chirp lines, matched with cores collected off the Bonea Stream mouth (Salerno Bay, Southern Tyrrhenian Sea) were used in the detection of event beds interlayered in the pelitic Late Holocene shelf wedge. Grain fabric, textures and absolute dating of core sediment allowed to identify the most recent event bed as being the coarse deposit that settled following the disastrous flood of the Bonea Stream in 1954 A.D. Below this event bed, three others, consisting of sharp-based and graded sand layers, were recognized as well. Their lithology, texture and lateral geometry point to a diverse dynamic of deposition, involving the reworking and winnowing of fluvial and littoral sand such as seastorm-induced, downflow currents. The unusual thickness of tempestite sandy layers has been linked to the large availability of sand delivered to the coastal system by recurrent floods in the area and to the fast burial rate. Magnetic susceptibility correlations calibrated by a dated core, by 210 Pb and 137 Cs geochronology and by the 1822 A.D. Vesuvius tephra and seismic stratigraphic evidences, led to constrain these events to the last 1000 yr. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1669 Autogenic cyclicity of foreset sorting in experimental Gilbert-type deltas Kleinhans M.G. Sedimentary Geology 2005 181/3-4 (215-224) Gilbert-type deltas are commonly characterised by steep foreset bedding. Changes in the foreset characteristics such as grain size, grading, alternating sand and gravel are often interpreted as records of changes of base level or sediment input due to diurnal, seasonal or climatic forcing. To aid such interpretations, an important question is to what extent cyclicity in the foreset characteristics can be explained by autogenic processes rather than exogenic forcing. Experimental deltas were generated with gravelly sand under constant boundary conditions and a varying width-depth ratio of the feeder system. The foresets of the narrow feeder system are regular and show gradual upward fining. The foresets of the wide feeder system, in contrast, show quasi-cyclic patterns of coarsening and fining during the delta progradation. The cyclicity is caused by the emergence of a channelised point feeder system with migrating gravel side bars, which distributes the sand and gravel laterally in a non-uniform manner. This spectacular change of foreset architecture is fully explained by the autogenic response of the feeder system to the width. These experiments are contrasted with experiments and data from literature in the framework of the delta classification of Postma [Postma, G., 1990. Depositional architecture and facies of river and fan deltas: a synthesis. In: Colella, A. and Prior, D.B. (eds), 1990. Coarse-grained Deltas. Spec. Publ. 10 of the Int. Ass. of Sedimentologists, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, UK, 13-28]. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 318 SEDIMENTOLOGY Sedimentary environments - oceanic 1670 Sedimentary architecture of a Plio-Pleistocene protoback-arc basin: Wanganui Basin, New Zealand Proust J.- N., Lamarche G., Nodder S. and Kamp P.J.J. Sedimentary Geology 2005 181/3-4 (107-145) The sedimentary architecture of active margin basins, including back-arc basins, is known only from a few end-members that barely illustrate the natural diversity of such basins. Documenting more of these basins types is the key to refining our understanding of the tectonic evolution of continental margins. This paper documents the sedimentary architecture of an incipient back-arc basin 200 km behind the active Hikurangi subduction margin, North Island, New Zealand. The Wanganui Basin (WB) is a rapidly subsiding, Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary basin located at the southern termination of the extensional back-arc basin of the active Central Volcanic Region (TVZ). The WB is asymmetric with a steep, thrust-faulted, outer (arc-ward) margin and a gentle inner (craton-ward) margin. It contains a 4-km-thick succession of Plio-Pleistocene sediments, mostly lying offshore, composed of shelf platform sediments. It lacks the late molasselike deposits derived from erosion of a subaerial volcanic arc and basement observed in classical back-arc basins. Detailed seismic stratigraphic interpretations from an extensive offshore seismic reflection data grid show that the sediment fill comprises two basin-scale mega-sequences: (1) a Pliocene (3.8 to 1.35 Ma), sub-parallel, regressive "pre-growth" sequence that overtops the uplifted craton-ward margin above the reverse Taranaki Fault, and (2) a Pleistocene (1.35 Ma to present), divergent, transgressive, "syn-growth" sequence that onlaps: (i) the craton-ward high to the west, and (ii) uplifted basement blocks associated with the high-angle reverse faults of the arc-ward margin to the east. Along strike, the sediments offlap first progressively southward (mega-sequence 1) and then southeastward (mega-sequence 2), with sediment transport funnelled between the craton- and arcward highs, towards the Hikurangi Trough through the Cook Strait. The change in offlap direction corresponds to the onset of arc-ward thrust faulting and the rise of the Axial Ranges at ca 1.75 Ma, resulting in 5100-5700 m of differential subsidence across the fault system. Sedimentation has propagated south- to southeast-ward over the last 4 Myrs at the tip of successive backarc graben, volcanic arcs and the associated thermally uplifted parts of the North Island, following the southward migration of the Hikurangi subduction margin. Subsidence occurred by mantle flow-driven flexure, the result of active down-drag of the lithosphere by locking of the Hikurangi subduction interface and sediment loading. The WB is considered to be a proto-back-arc basin that represents the intermediate stage of evolution of an epicratonic shelf platform, impacted by active margin processes. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Applied sedimentology 1671 Manganese and iron accumulation in a eutrophic, submontane dam reservoir - The role of speciation Szarek-Gwiazda E. Oceanological and Hydrobiological Studies 2005 34/3 (125-139) The manganese and iron in the water and sediments of the submontane, eutrophic Dobczyce Dam Reservoir (southern Poland) was partitioned. Manganese and iron occurred mainly in the particulate phases in the water. In the sediments, approximately 77% of Mn was bound to exchangeable carbonate and easily reducible fractions, whereas approximately 90% of Fe was bound to moderately reducible fractions and residues. The cumulation coefficient (K) indicated that Mn, the more "mobile" element, accumulated in lower amounts in the sediments (K=7200) than did Fe (K = 51000). Element partitioning in the sediments was an important factor in determining the level of accumulation. 1672 Occurrence of pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and heavy metals in sediments from the Dniester River, Moldova Sapozhnikova Y., Zubcov E., Zubcov N. and Schlenk D. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 2005 49/4 (439448) The aim of this study was to evaluate sediments of the Dniester River, in the former Soviet republic of Moldova, for the occurrence of agricultural pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and heavy metals. In October 2001, sediment samples were collected at three locations of the Dniester River: upstream, downstream, and at the tributary of the River Byk. DDT and its metabolites were observed most frequently. Total DDT sediment concentrations ranged from 8.2 to 34.7 ng/g dry weight with the highest average concentration detected at the tributary location. Heptachlor epoxide (< 0.2-3.0 ng/g dry weight), chlordane (< 0.1-6.1 ng/g dry weight), endrin (< 0.2-2.5 ng/g dry weight), phosalone (< 0.2-1.1 ng/g dry weight), and methylparathion (< 0.2-16.8 ng/g dry weight) were also detected. Total PCB concentrations observed in sediments ranged from 68 to 763 ng/g dry wt. Total average PCB concentrations were significantly (p  0.004) higher for sediments from the downstream sampling sites compared to the upstream samples. Tetra- and trichlorobiphenyls accounted for 84 and 88% of the total residues measured in the downstream and tributary locations, respectively. In contrast, heptachlorobiphenyls were the prevailing homologues in sediments from the upstream sampling site, contributing 51% of the total PCB concentration. Predominant PCB homologues were: trichlorobiphenyl congener 28 and 37, tetrachlorobiphenyl congeners 44, 49, 52, 74, 77, and 81, and
heptachlorobiphenyl congener 170. Sediment concentrations of DDE (19.7 ng/g dry weight) in the tributary, heptachlor epoxide (3.0 ng/g dry weight) in the downstream, and nickel (128-170 g/g dry weight) in all locations exceeded Probable Effect Levels (PELs) established for sediment quality in fresh water, indicating probable environmental stress and the potential for adverse effects to benthic organisms in the Dniester River. © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 1673 Impact of highly basic solutions on sorption of Cs+ to subsurface sediments from the Hanford site, USA Ainsworth C.C., Zachara J.M., Wagnon K. et al. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005 69/20 (4787-4800) The effect of caustic NaNO3 solutions on the sorption of 137 Cs to a Hanford site micaceous subsurface sediment was investigated as a function of base exposure time (up to 168 d), temperature (10°C or 50°C), and NaOH concentration (0.1 mol/L to 3 mol/L). At 10°C and 0.1 M NaOH, the slow evolution of [Al]aq was in stark contrast to the rapid increase and subsequent loss of [Al]aq observed at 50°C (regardless of base concentration). Exposure to 0.1 M NaOH at 10°C for up to 168 d exhibited little if any measurable effect on sediment mineralogy, Cs+ sorption, or Cs+ selectivity; sorption was well described with a twosite ion exchange model modified to include enthalpy effects. At 50°C, dissolution of phyllosilicate minerals increased with [OH]. A zeolite (tetranatrolite; Na2 Al2 Si3 O10 2H2 O) precipitated in 0.1 M NaOH after about 7 days, while an unnamed mineral phase (Na14 Al12 Si13 O51 6H2 O) precipitated after 4 and 2 days of exposure to 1 M and 3 M NaOH solutions, respectively. Short-term (16 h) Cs+ sorption isotherms (10-9 -10-2 mol/ L) were measured on sediment after exposure to 0.1 M NaOH for 56, 112, and 168 days at 50°C. There was a trend toward slightly lower conditional equilibrium exchange constants ( log Na Cs Kc
0.25) over the entire range of surface coverage, and a slight loss of high affinity sites (15%) after 168 days of pretreatment with 0.1 M base solution. Cs+ sorption to sediment over longer times was also measured at 50°C in the presence of NaOH (0.1 M, 1 M, and 3 M NaOH) at Cs+ concentrations selected to probe a range of adsorption densities. Model simulations of Cs+ sorption to the sediment in the presence of 0.1 M NaOH for 112 days slightly under-predicted sorption at the lower Cs+ adsorption densities. At the higher adsorption densities, model simulations under-predicted sorption by 57%. This under-prediction was surmised to be the result of tetranatrolite precipitation, and subsequent slow Na ! Cs exchange. At higher OH concentrations, Cs+ sorption in the presence of base for 112 days was unexpectedly equal to, or greater than that expected for pristine sediment. The precipi- SEDIMENTOLOGY tation of secondary phases, coupled with the fairly unique mica distribution and quantity across all size-fractions in the Hanford sediment, appears to mitigate the impact of base dissolution on Cs+ sorption. Copyright © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. 1674 Trace metal distribution and enrichment in benthic, estuarine sediments: Southport Broadwater, Australia Burton E.D., Phillips I.R. and Hawker D.W. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (369-383) The distribution and enrichment of selected trace metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sn, Zn) in benthic sediments of the Southport Broadwater, a semi-enclosed coastal body of water adjacent to the Gold Coast city, south-eastern Queensland, Australia, was studied with the objective of assessing the extent and degree of sediment contamination. Sediment samples from the 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm depth intervals of 32 sites within the Southport Broadwater and surrounding residential canals were analysed for particle size distribution, pH, organic C and ‘near-total’ major (Al, Ca, Fe, Mn) and trace (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sn, Zn) metal contents. Sediment contamination for each trace metal was assessed by (1) comparison with Australian sediment quality guidelines, (2) calculation of the index of geoaccumulation based on regional background values, and (3) geochemical normalisation against Al (i.e. the abundance of alumino-silicate clay minerals). Based on this approach, the results indicate that submerged sediments in the study area are not presently enriched with Cd, Cr or Ni, with the spatial distribution of these metals being very well explained by the abundance of alumino-silicate clay minerals. However, several sites were strongly enriched with Cu, Pb, Sn and Zn, arising from sources related to either urban runoff or vessel maintenance activities. The study indicates that several varying approaches are needed for a satisfactory assessment of contaminant enrichment in estuarine sediments. © Springer 2005. 1675 Seasonal variations of racte metal chemical forms in bed sediments of a karstic river in Lebanon: Implications for self-purification Korfali S.I. and Davies B.E. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (385-395) Although Lebanon has abundant water, its rivers are polluted and aquifer water mismanaged. Effective river water usage requires an understanding of the geochemistry of polluting metals in catchments. Climate is "Mediterranean": Wet winters and dry summers. Active sediment flushing is restricted to winter high discharge episodes. Except in winter, water column pollutants are removed by precipitation or sorption to the surface of static bed sediments. Hence (1) does winter flushing of contaminated sediment and replacement by clean sediment favour self purification? (2) does the distribution of metals between extractable fractions change seasonally and thereby affect metal bioavailability? Results on the distribution of metals are reported for Fe, Pb, Zn, Cu and Cd in bed sediments from Nahr Ibrahim (a karstic river) for summer and winter. A Tessier-like sequential extraction scheme was applied to samples (< 75 m) for five locations along a 13 km stretch to the sea. Water pH was above 8.2 at all locations implying a very low solubility for Fe. Sediment was derived from catchment soils and limestone. Total sediment Fe increased in winter at all sites following deposition of eroded soil from upstream. Cadmium, Cu and Pb derived from polluting sources; the sources of Zn were more complex. Dilution by clean sediment explained winter reductions in total Cd, Cu and Pb; Zn changes were less consistent. Iron occurred mostly (> 77% sum of fractions) in the residual fraction compared with 6-31% for pollutants; residual Cu and Zn showed a small increase in winter whereas Cd and Pb did not change. All readily exchangeable metals decreased in winter and the carbonate bound forms predominated in both seasons. Nahr Ibrahim has a high capacity for self purification and metal resolubilisation from sediment will be limited by the solubility of carbonate forms. © Springer 2005. 1676 Geochemical distribution and bioavailability of heavy metals and oxalate in street sediments from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: A preliminary investigation McAlister J.J., Smith B.J., Neto J.B. and Simpson J.K. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (429-441) As urbanisation accelerates within less-economically developed countries, populations in cities such as Rio de Janeiro are sub- 319 ject to numerous health risks relating to "heavy metal", sewage and vehicle pollution. These risks apply especially to children, through inhalation and dermal contact with pollutant-rich street sediments that reflect contamination from atmospheric deposition and act as effective sinks for heavy metals and oxalates. To assess the nature and extent of these risks street sediments were collected from industrial, commercial, residential and recreational areas with varying traffic densities within Rio de Janeiro. A modified selective extraction procedure was used to study the geochemical partitioning and bioavailability of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb and C2 O-4 . Oxalate partitioning has not been studied by traditional sequential methods and results from this procedure highlight the potential bioavailability of both oxalates and "heavy metals", especially Pb and C2 O-4 in industrial and recreational areas. © Springer 2005. 1677 Transformation of arsenic compounds in modern intertidal sediments of Iriomote Island, Japan Masuda H., Yamatani Y. and Okai M. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 2005 87/2 (73-81) The arsenic accumulation process in intertidal sediments of Iriomote Island, Japan, is analyzed as a naturally balanced arsenicfixation system. Major and minor element chemistry is analyzed by X-ray fluorescence photometry, mineralogy is investigated by X-ray diffractometry, and four arsenic compounds are characterized by hydrogen-generated atomic absorption photometry. It is found that arsenic is accumulated by iron hydroxides/oxides precipitated following the decomposition of humic acids in the shallower sediment, and is subsequently incorporated into iron sulfide minerals at depth. The arsenic is immobile during incorporation into arsenic-bearing phases, suggesting that arsenic is unlikely to be released into the porewater under natural conditions in early diagenesis. The formation and decomposition of arsenicbearing organic compounds appear to be associated with the formation and decomposition of arsenic in oxyhydroxides/oxides, suggesting that microbial activity may play an important role in controlling the behavior of arsenic and arsenic-bearing phases in the sediment column. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1678 Preliminary magnetic studies of lagoon and stream ´ Area (Argentina) - Magnetic pasediments from Chascomus rameters as indicators of heavy metal pollution and some results of using an experimental method to separate magnetic phases Chaparro M.A.E., Lirio J.M., Nu˜nez H. et al. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (30-43) Magnetic properties of lagoon and stream sediments from Chascom´us area (Buenos Aires Province) and the relevance of various magnetic parameters as giving pollution status are studied in the present work. This work is focussed on magnetic parameters, such as concentration-dependent (magnetic susceptibility, saturation anhysteric and isothermal remanent magnetisation) and feature-dependent parameters (S-ratio, coercivity of remanence, anhysteric susceptibility/magnetic susceptibility-ratio), as pollution indicators. Firstly and most importantly, different magnetic parameters and chemical measurements were correlated in order to investigate their goodness, obtaining the best results for feature-dependent magnetic parameters. Coercivity of remanence correlate very well with chemical variables, showing correlations at high level of significance up to 0.9094, and the anhysteric susceptibility/magnetic susceptibility-ratio also shows very good correlations (up to 0.8376). Some results and advantages of using a new experimental method in order to discriminate hard and soft magnetic phases are also shown. This method uses alternately backfield isothermal remanent magnetisation and alternating field demagnetisation. From the experimental separation, the presence of hard magnetic phases in some samples was confirmed. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1679 The influence of fly and bottom ash deposition on the quality of Kastela Bay sediments Orescanin V., Barisic D., Lovrencic I. et al. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (53-64) The objective of this study was chemical and radiological characterization of Kastela Bay sediments exposed to numerous anthropogenic sources like deposition of fly and bottom ash enriched 320 SOILS in radionuclides and heavy metals, chemical plant, cement plant, iron plant, shipyard, electroplating facility, untreated industrial and domestic waste waters as well as heavy traffic. Totally, 33 samples of the mixture of fly and bottom ash, 12 sediment cores ranging from 0 to 40 cm and nine surface sediment samples were analyzed. Enrichment in heavy metals in the mixture of fly and bottom ash was ranging from 1.5 to 36 times compared to flysch soil while 226 Ra and 238 U were up to 50 times enriched compared to average activities characteristic for surrounding soils developed on the Middle and Upper Eocene flysch. Maximum 238 U activity was approximately 32 times higher and 226 Ra approximately 40 times higher in the Kastela Bay sediment compared to mean value determined for Adriatic sediments. The highest enrichment in sediment cores compared to background values were found for Zn (35.6 times), Pb (16 times), Cr (9.1 times) and Ni (4 times) © Springer-Verlag 2005. (GSUE) project was initiated in 1992 and to date, 21 cities have been mapped. Urban sampling is based upon the collection of top (0.05 to 0.20 m) and deeper (0.35 to 0.50 m) soil samples on a 500 m grid across the built environment (one sample per 0.25 km2 ). Samples are analysed for c. 46 total element concentrations by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, pH and loss on ignition as an indicator of organic matter content. The data provide an overview of the urban geochemical signature and because they are collected as part of a national baseline programme, can be readily compared with soils in the rural hinterland to assess the extent of urban contamination. The data are of direct relevance to current UK land use planning, urban regeneration and contaminated land legislative regimes. An overview of the project and applications of the data to human health risk assessment, water quality protection and contaminant source identification are presented. © 2005 AAG/ Geological Society of London. 1680 Impact of human activity on the estuary of the Qiantang River and the reclamation of tidal flats and river regulation Feng L.- H. and Bao Y.- X. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (76-81) The swing of the main channel of the Qiantang River is controlled by the high-water and low-water changes in the river, as well as the impact of large-scale reclamation of tidal flats. Its evolution in modern times is the result of the combined functions of natural and man-made factors. This paper analyzes the cause of the formation of the South Channel and Xisan Tidal Furrow and proposes the regulation principle of "To regulate the river and reclaim tidal flats by taking the advantage of local topography". It is suggested to cut off the South Channel and Xisan Tidal Furrow completely to restrict the swing of the main channel and to increase the reclamation area of the tidal flat at the same time. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1683 G-BASE: Baseline geochemical mapping of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Johnson C.C., Breward N., Ander E.L. and Ault L. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 2005 5/4 (347-357) The Geochemical Baseline Survey of the Environment is a longestablished, high-resolution regional geochemical mapping project run by the British Geological Survey. A project initially stimulated by mineral exploration and to assist geological mapping has successfully evolved into a survey that has many environmental applications. Much of the current demand for surface geochemical data is driven by legislation. The geochemical mapping, originally based on the collection of drainage samples, has expanded to include soils and a further suite of determinands in stream waters. The methodology of the project and application of the baseline data are described and issues common to worldwide geochemical mapping programmes are discussed. © 2005 AAG/ Geological Society of London. SOILS Regional and survey 1681 Sub-continental-scale geochemical mapping: Sampling, quality control and data analysis issues Reimann C. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 2005 5/4 (311-323) During 1996/97, c. 1500 samples of agricultural soils from ten northern European countries (western Belarus, Estonia, Finland, northern Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, northwestern Russia and Sweden) were collected from the Ap and B/C-horizons at 750 sites. The sample sites were evenly spread over a 1 800 000 km2 area, giving an average sample density of one site per 2500 km2 . The <2 mm fractions (Poland: <1 mm) of all samples were analysed for up to 62 chemical elements following ammonium acetate, aqua regia and HF extractions, and for total element concentrations by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Electrical conductivity, pH (water extraction) and loss on ignition (1030°C) were also determined. Each method was applied to all the samples in one laboratory only. The analytical results were evaluated and mapped using exploratory data analysis techniques. Even at this low sample density, regional-scale geochemical patterns emerge for all elements. These patterns show the influence of factors such as geology, agriculture, pollution, topography, marine aerosols and climate, and their relative importance for the observed element concentrations in the soils. Low-density geochemical mapping of agricultural soils is a viable tool to study the geochemical processes that determine the element distribution in soils at a sub-continental scale. © 2005 AAG/ Geological Society of London. 1682 GSUE: Urban geochemical mapping in Great Britain Fordyce F.M., Brown S.E., Ander E.L. et al. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 2005 5/4 (325-336) The British Geological Survey is responsible for the national strategic geochemical survey of Great Britain. As part of this programme, the Geochemical Surveys of Urban Environments 1684 Geochemical mapping at the Geological Survey of Sweden Lax K. and Selinus O. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 2005 5/4 (337-346) Geochemical mapping has been carried out for several decades at the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU). Two kinds of sampling media dominate: glacial till (soil geochemical programme) and aquatic vegetation (biogeochemical mapping). Data from these mapping programmes have been used for various applications such as discoveries of contaminated land and research in environmental, medical and mineral exploration. The main goal of the geochemical mapping programmes has been to produce consistent and high quality data. Therefore, both programmes have been subject to various changes to increase their usefulness for decision-makers and planners. The number of parameters determined has increased, partial leach analysis has migrated from a combination of AAS/ ICP-AES techniques to ICP-MS, urban geochemistry projects have been incorporated, and additional terrestrial sediments have been added to the regional soil geochemical survey. An increasing number of new applications have also been implemented for emerging societal needs. This paper gives an overview of the mapping programme and examples of products for use in society as well as strategies for the future. © 2005 AAG/ Geological Society of London. 1685 Dynamic changes of soil ecological factors in Ziwuling secondary forest area under human disturbance (Chinese) Zhou Z. and Shangguan Z. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1586-1590) As a widespread natural phenomenon, disturbance is considered as a discrete event occurred in natural ecosystems at various spatial and temporal scales. The occurrence of disturbance directly affects the structure, function and dynamics of ecosystems. Forest logging and forestland assart, the common human disturbances in forest area, have caused the dynamic changes of forest soil ecological factors in a relatively consistent environment. A study on the dynamics of soil bulk density, soil organic matter, soil microbes and other soil ecological factors under different human disturbance (logging and assart, logging but without assart, control) were conducted in the Ziwuling secondary forest area. The results indicated that human disturbance had a deep impact on the soil ecological factors, with soil physical and chemical SOILS properties become bad, soil organic matter decreased from 2.2% to 0.8%, and soil stable aggregates dropped more than 30%. The quantity of soil microbes decreased sharply with enhanced human disturbance. Soil organic matter and soil microbes decreased more than 50% and 90%, respectively, and soil bulk density increased from 0.9 to 1.21 gcm-3 with increasing soil depth. Ditch edge level also affected the dynamics of soil factors under the same disturbance, with a better soil ecological condition at low-than at high ditch edge level. Methods 1686 Development and evaluation of a simplified mechanistic-stochastic method for field-scale solute transport prediction Lee J. and Casey F.X.M. Soil Science 2005 170/4 (225-234) Field-scale solute transport is extremely complex due to the variability of soil properties. In this paper, a mechanistic-stochastic procedure for predicting field-scale solute transport was developed and evaluated. The mechanistic-stochastic method was based on a stream-tube model, which makes predictions using field estimates of shallow soil mobile water contents (m ) determined with a multiport permeameter. This procedure was evaluated for its ability to predict solute transport in a field soil. A field leaching experiment was conducted using fluorinated benzoic acid tracers that were applied to the surface at 12 plots in a field under pivot irrigation. Soil cores were taken to 1.5m depth at 1, 8, 18, and 36 days after initial tracer application to determine tracer redistribution. The mechanistic- stochastic method was compared with the observed data and against another stochastic method, a transfer function model (TFM), to evaluate its ability to predict solute redistribution for each sampling date. The proposed method had satisfactory predictions of the mean solute concentration redistributions from the leaching experiment and compared well against the predictions made by the TFM. The coefficients of determination ranged from 0.57 to 0.92 for the mechanistic-stochastic method and 0.29 to 0.99 for the TFM. The mechanistic-stochastic method can be greatly simplified, making it practical and desirable over the TFM, which required extensive subsoil leaching data for its calibration. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. 1687 Influence of soil moisture on near-infrared reflectance spectroscopic measurement of soil properties Chang C.- W., Laird D.A. and Hurburgh Jr. C.R. Soil Science 2005 170/4 (244-255) Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS), a nondestructive analytical technique, may someday be used to rapidly and simultaneously quantify several soil properties in agricultural fields. The objectives of this study were to examine the influence of moisture content on the accuracy of NIRS analysis of soil properties and to assess the robustness of a NIRS multivariate calibration technique. Four hundred agricultural soil samples (<2 mm) from Iowa and Minnesota were studied at two moisture levels: moist and air-dried. The soil properties tested included total C, organic C, inorganic C, total N, CEC, pH, texture, moisture, and potentially mineralizable N. About 70% of the Iowa samples were selected for the calibration set, and the rest of the Iowa samples and all of the Minnesota samples were assigned to validation set I and validation set II, respectively. Calibrations were based on partial least-squares regression (PLSR), using the first differentials of log (1/R) for the 1100 to 2500-nm spectral range. The results for the calibration set and validation set I indicated that NIRS-PLSR was able to predict many soil properties (total C, organic C, inorganic C, total N, CEC, % clay, and moisture) with reasonable accuracy for both the air-dried (R2 > 0.76) and moist (R2 > 0.74) soils. The results for validation set II showed that NIRS-PLSR was able to predict some properties of soils (total C, organic C, total N, and moisture content) from a different geographic region, but other soil properties in validation set II were not accurately predicted. Although NIRS-PLSR predictions are slightly more accurate for air-dried soils than for moist soils, the results indicate that the NIRS-PLSR technique can be used for analysis of field moist samples with acceptable accuracy as long as diverse soil samples from the same region are included in the 321 calibration database. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. 1688 A new in situ method to analyze mineral particle reactions in soils Birkefeld A., Schulin R. and Nowack B. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/9 (3302-3307) We developed a simple method to monitorthe transformation of particles in soils under in situ conditions. The particles were fixed on small polymer supports (2 cm x 2 cm) with a thin film of epoxy resin. Attached to these carriers, the particles could be put into close contact with soil at a chosen site and easily recovered after extended periods of time. The method was tested with lead oxide and copper concentrate in the field. Quartz and copper oxide particles were used in preliminary laboratory experiments. The used particles sizes ranged from 20 to 200 m. Laboratory and field experiments with acidic and calcareous soils showed that the PbO and Cu concentrate coated polymer supports were stable under field conditions for at least one year. Nondestructive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy was used to quantify the metals before and after exposure. Scanning electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy as well as micro-Raman spectroscopy was used to identify signs of dissolution and newly formed mineral phases. The mineral dissolution rate could be determined under field conditions. The new method has the potential to be used in other environmental media such as sediments or water to study the reactions of a variety of particles larger than 20 m. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1689 Soil water estimation using electromagnetic induction Akbar M.A., Kenimer A.L., Searcy S.W. and Torbert H.A. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (129-135) Two published salinity models (designated the Rhoades and Mualem-Friedman models, respectively) were examined for application to real-time soil water estimation using apparent soil electrical conductivity. Field data were collected at two sites representing a range of soil types in central Texas: high shrinking-swelling Vertisols in Temple (the Heiden Clay site) and clay loam soils at the Texas A&M University Research Farm near College Station (the Westwood Scl site). The Rhoades-Corwin model developed for the Heiden Clay site yielded an R2 of 0.72 following calibration, predicted soil water within 0.02 g g-1 during validation, and was deemed generally applicable for real-time soil water estimation. The Rhoades-Corwin model developed for the Westwood Scl site gave an R2 of 0.65 following calibration but could not be validated at the site and therefore was not considered applicable for real-time soil water estimation. A modified version of the Rhoades-Corwin model yielded a calibrated R2 of 0.91 at the Westwood Scl site with validation predictions within 0.02 g g -1 . The Mualem-Friedman model predicted soil water within 0.05 g g-1 at the Heiden Clay site and was considered appropriate for real-time soil water estimation. At the Westwood Scl site, the Mualem-Friedman model could not be evaluated since saturation data were not available. Both models show promise for use for real-time, non-invasive soil water content estimation using apparent electrical conductivity, but additional testing is needed. 1690 Comparison of three extraction methods for 17 -estradiol in sand, bentonite, and organic-rich silt loam Chun S., Lee J., Geyer R. and White D.C. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 2005 40/5 (731-740) Extraction is an important procedure for samples that contain soil because other compounds in soil may affect analysis of estrogens. This study was conducted to evaluate three different extraction methods for 17 -estradiol in soil. Sand, bentonite, and organicrich silt loam were spiked with 1 mg kg-1 of 17 -estradiol as a model compound of estrogens. 17 -estradiol and its metabolites, estrone and estriol, were extracted using (i) a modified Bligh and Dyer extraction, (ii) a pressurized fluid extraction, and (iii) a diethyl ether extraction, and measured by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. There were significant differences in the extraction efficiency for 17 -estradiol among the extraction methods and the soils: the efficiencies ranged from 10% to 97%. 322 SOILS Overall, the diethyl ether extraction method had the largest efficiency of 17 -estradiol with 45% and 57% for bentonite and silt loam, respectively. Transformation of 17 -estradiol to estrone and estriol in the different extraction methods was less than 3.6% during the extraction procedures. This study underlined the importance of sample preparation for estrogen analysis in soil samples. Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc. 1691 Effect of agricultural antibiotics on the persistence and transformation of 17 -estradiol in a Sequatchie loam Chun S., Lee J., Geyer R. et al. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 2005 40/5 (741-751) A laboratory incubation study was conducted to investigate the effect of agricultural antibiotics (sulfamethazine, tylosin, and chlortetracycline) on the persistence and transformation of 17 estradiol in Sequatchie loam. We measured concentrations of 17 -estradiol and its primary metabolite (estrone) in soils spiked with antibiotics and 17 -estradiol. Dehydrogenase activity (DHA) was also measured as an indicator of the total microbial activity of the soils. The presence of antibiotics significantly decreased transformation of 17 -estradiol to estrone. There was a positive correlation between the DHA and the concentrations of estrone in soil spiked with 17 -estradiol only, implying that the reaction is mainly catalyzed by dehydrogenases. However, the positive correlation was weakened in soil spiked with 17 estradiol and antibiotics together. We recommend that any study evaluating the fate and transport of estrogenic hormones in soil should include the effect of agricultural antibiotics because antibiotics and estrogenic hormones are commonly excreted together in environmental samples. Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc. 1692 Soil identification and chemometrics for direct determination of nitrate in soils using FTIR-ATR mid-infrared spectroscopy Linker R., Shmulevich I., Kenny A. and Shaviv A. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (652-658) The use of mid-infrared attenuated total reflectance (ATR) spectroscopy enables direct measurement of nitrate concentration in soil pastes, but strong interfering absorbance bands due to water and soil constituents limit the accuracy of straightforward determination. Accurate subtraction of the water spectrum improves the correlation between nitrate concentration and its 3 vibration band around 1350 cm-1 . However, this correlation is soil-dependent, due mostly to varying contents of carbonate, whose absorbance band overlaps the nitrate band. In the present work, a two-stage method is developed: First, the soil type is identified by comparing the "fingerprint" region of the spectrum (800-1200 cm-1 ) to a reference spectral library. In the second stage, nitrate concentration is estimated using the spectrum interval that includes the nitrate band, together with the soil type previously identified. Three methods are compared for estimating nitrate concentration: integration of the nitrate absorbance band, cross-correlation with a reference spectrum, and principal component analysis (PCA) followed by a neural network. When using simple band integration, the use of soil specific calibration curves leads to determination errors ranging from 5.5 to 24 mg[N]/kg[dry soil] for the mineral soils tested. The cross-correlation technique leads to similar results. The combination of soil identification with PCA and neural network modeling improves the predictions, especially for soils containing calcium carbonate. Typical prediction errors for light non-calcareous soils are about 4 mg[N]/kg[dry soil], whereas for soils containing calcium carbonate they range from 6 to 20 mg[N]/kg[dry soil], which is less than four percent of the concentration range investigated. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1693 Modification and application of a soil ATP determination method Wen G., Voroney R.P., Curtin D. et al. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (1999-2006) Accurate estimation of microbial adenosine 5
-triphosphate (ATP) is a pre-requisite to quantify the impact of varying environments on microbial activity of soil. We investigated the effectiveness of a high efficiency soil ATP determination method (PA) [Webster, J.J., Hampton, G.J., Leach, F.R., 1984. ATP in soil: a new extractant and extraction procedure. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 4, 335-342] in 10 Ontario (Canada) soils collected along a 100 m transect and spanning a textural class gradient ranging from a sandy loam to clay loam with increasing organic matter. Modifications of the method involved using an extract of autoclaved soil to make the standard curve, as it was found that the light emitted by ATP luciferin-luciferase bioluminescence reaction in the pure extractant was different from that in the extracts. Replacing Tricine with Tris buffer in the assay significantly improved the light emission. On an average, the internal standard calibration method (ISM) measured a smaller amount of extracted ATP (1199 ng ATP g-1 soil) and a lower recovery of ATP spike (82.4 7.2%) than did the standard curve method (SCM) (1246 ng ATP g-1 soil and 91.2 4.5%, respectively) (P<0.05 for both comparisons). However, the average total estimated ATP was higher with ISM (1474 102 ng ATP g-1 soil) than with SCM (1373 88 ng ATP g-1 soil) (P<0.07). While the recovery rates determined using SCM were consistent among the soils tested, the rates measured using ISM was negatively correlated with soil clay and organic matter content, implying that the latter assay was affected by the soil properties. Our results confirmed that the recovery rates obtained by the PA method were the highest among those reported, when only SCM was used. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1694 Nematodes as bioindicator of soil health: Methods and applications (Chinese) Li Y., Wu J., Chen H. and Chen J. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1541-1546) This paper summarized the advantages of using nematodes as soil health bioindicator. A review of commonly used indices and analyzing methods by means of nematodes was presented, with emphases on Maturity Index, as well as the indices and analyzing methods based on their trophic groups. Compared with other indices, Maturity Index can reflect the stressed degree of soil more sensitively, and the indices and analyzing methods based on their trophic groups can well reveal the state of soil health based on ecosystem functioning. The applications of nematodes as bioindicator in agriculture, forest, grassland, and other ecosystems were also outlined. In view of some practical limitations in the methods, prospective researches and applications were suggested, i.e., intensify the ecological studies to advance the understanding on the characteristics of soil nematodes, such as their life histories and feeding habits, consummate the indication system by integrating various nematode indices and analyzing methods, and extend the applications of soil nematodes in different ecosystems and in different regions at large scales. Genesis and formation 1695 The role of fire and nutrient loss in the genesis of the forest soils of Tasmania and southern New Zealand McIntosh P.D., Laffan M.D. and Hewitt A.E. Forest Ecology and Management 2005 220/1-3 (185-215) The dominant soil patterns in forested or previously forested landscapes in southern New Zealand and Tasmania are described. Soil properties on adjacent sunny and shady aspects in hill country of the South Island of New Zealand are compared to soil properties under adjacent ‘dry’ and ‘wet’ eucalypt forest in Tasmania. A soil contrast index or SCI is defined for comparing soil contrasts on parent materials of different absolute nutrient contents. Three soil groups are defined using the SCI. Group 1 soil pairs are stable New Zealand soils in which exchangeable Ca + Mg + K values are higher on drier sunny aspects than on moister shady aspects. Group 2 soil pairs are New Zealand soils in which soils on sunny aspects display evidence of topsoil erosion by wind; consequently some soil pairs on dry (sunny) aspects have lower levels of exchangeable Ca + Mg + K than soils on moister (shady) aspects. Group 3 soil pairs are Tasmanian. Soils on drier sites (under dry eucalypt forest) invariably have lower exchangeable Ca + Mg + K values than soils on moister sites (under wet eucalypt forest), which is the reverse of the pattern in SCI Group 1 soils in New Zealand. Except on clay-rich parent materials, Tasmanian soils under dry forest generally have texture-contrast profiles and a mean C/N ratio in topsoils (A1 horizons) of 29. Soils under SOILS wet forest generally have uniform or gradational texture profiles and a mean topsoil C/N ratio of 15. The texture-contrast soils show strong clay eluviation with sand or sandy loam textures in upper horizons and clayey textures in lower horizons. However, in New Zealand texture-contrast soils are all but absent, and do not occur in the previously forested areas described in this paper. Topsoils (Ah horizons and soils sampled to 7.5 cm depth) in New Zealand areas sampled in this study have a mean C/N ratio of 15, regardless of whether they occur on sunny or shady aspects. We propose that the frequency and spatial occurrence of fire are the dominant processes causing: (1) the marked difference in levels of nutrients and different topsoil C/N ratios in soils of Tasmania; (2) the development of texture-contrast soils under dry forests in Tasmania; and (3) the difference between soil patterns in New Zealand and Tasmania. Fire depletes nutrients in forests by causing losses to the atmosphere, losses by runoff, and losses by leaching. Nutrient loss by fire encourages fire-tolerant vegetation adapted to lower soil nutrient status, so frequent fire is a feedback mechanism that causes progressive soil nutrient depletion. By destroying organic matter and diminishing organic matter supply to the soil surface fire inhibits clay-organic matter linkages and soil faunal mixing and promotes clay eluviation. Fire frequency is likely to have increased markedly with the arrival of humans at ca. 34 000 years B.P. in Tasmania and ca. 800 years B.P. in New Zealand. We argue that texture-contrast soils have not formed in New Zealand because of the short history of frequent fires in that country. A corollary of this conclusion is that texture-contrast soils in Tasmania are, at least in part, anthropogenic in origin. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1696 Soils developed on volcanic materials in the island of Thera, Greece Moustakas N.K. and Georgoulias F. Geoderma 2005 129/3-4 (125-138) Samples were taken of soils formed on volcanic material, primarily composed of rhyodacitic pumice, on the island of Thera, Greece (South Aegean Sea, Southeastern Mediterranean), and analyses for physical and chemical properties carried out. These soils are characterised as having a coarse texture, low organic matter content, low cation exchange capacity (CEC) and soil moisture retention, but a high pH despite the acidic nature of the parent material. Extraction with sodium dithionite-citrate, acid ammonium oxalate, sodium pyrophosphate and hot 0.5 M NaOH showed that, in contrast to soils usually forming on volcanic material worldwide, soils lack noncrystalline minerals like allophane, imogolite, ferrihydrite and iron and aluminium humus complexes. The only noncrystalline mineral present and, in great quantities, is amorphous silica. Winds, prevailing practically all year round, transfer droplets of seawater to these soils which in combination with the great porosity, relatively high sodium content of the parent material and low rainfall are the primary factors in the poor development of these soils and high pH. No andic properties are apparent and, hence, these soils cannot be classified as Andisols. The major factors determining soil genesis on the island of Thera would appear to be the nature of the parent material and the climate. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1697 Exploring pedogenesis via nuclide-based soil production rates and OSL-based bioturbation rates Wilkinson M.T. and Humphreys G.S. Australian Journal of Soil Research 2005 43/6 (767-779) New dating techniques are available for soil scientists to test fundamental pedogenic ideas. Recent developments in applications of terrestrial in situ cosmogenic nuclides (TCN) from bedrock and saprolite allow the derivation of soil production rates, at scales ranging from local (sub-hillslope) to catchment wide, generally averaged over timescales of 104 -105 years. Where soil depths are relatively constant over time, soil production rates equal transport rates and are thus essential to establishing sustainable erosion rates. TCN also allow the form of the soil production function to be compared to theoretical models - a difficult task previously. Furthermore, parameterised soil production functions can now be incorporated into numerical surface process models to test landscape evolution ideas. Bedrock and saprolite conversion to soil is demonstrably dependent on the overlying soil depth, and there is general agreement that weathering 323 declines exponentially beyond maximum soil production, consistent with theory. Whether maximum soil production occurs under a finite or non-existent soil cover at particular sites remains unresolved. We suggest that, in general, soil production from saprolite declines exponentially with increasing depth, while production from bedrock follows a humped function. Estimates of the role of flora, fauna and processes such as freeze-thaw that mix soil mantles to depth, have been limited prior to optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating techniques. Recently derived OSL mixing rates extend the magnitude of previous partial, short-term bioturbation rates. In fact, bioturbation appears to be the most active pedogenic process operating in many soils, with freeze-thaw environments a noted exception. Although bioturbation far outweighs soil production, it does not always lead to homogenisation as is often reported. We maintain that the aboveground component of bioturbation, i.e. mounding, may alone, or particularly when combined with particle sorting via rainwash processes, lead to horizonisation and texture contrast soils in those materials that can be sorted such as mixtures of sand and clay. Together, TCN- and OSL-based estimates of hillslope soil transport and bioturbation, suggest significant rates of downslope soil mantle movement coupled with rapid mixing, contrary to in situ soil development models. © CSIRO 2005. 1698 Formation and properties of aridic soils of Azraq Basin in northeastern Jordan Khresat S.A. and Qudah E.A. Journal of Arid Environments 2006 64/1 (116-136) Aridisols occupy a wide and significant part of Jordan. The majority of soils in the Azraq Basin, northeastern Jordan, are aridisols. A database on aridisols and land characteristics in northeastern Jordan is needed to allow rational planning of land and water resources utilization. The objectives of this paper are to: characterize the main soil types in the area, and identify the main processes contributing to their genesis and evolution. For this purpose eight representative profiles were selected for this study and soil samples were collected and their chemical and physical properties were examined in the laboratory. The natural vegetation is desert shrubs and short grasses. The sparseness of the vegetation resulted in low SOM content and the presence of ochric epipedons in all of the studied soils. The genesis of these soils accounts for the accumulation of calcium carbonate, soluble salts, and gypsum in the subsoil. Carbonate, clay eluviation-illuviation, and salt accumulation are the dominant pedogenic processes in these soils. Silt content increased toward the surface indicating eolian activity. Clay content increased with depth indicating illuviation of clay. Clay illuviation and argillic horizon development within these soils is assumed to be a relict feature from presumably more humid climates during the Quaternary. Desert pavements cover the surfaces of these soils and provide a unique obstacle for agricultural development. The major restrictions to agricultural land use in the area are very low infiltration rate, low permeability, and high erodibility. Proper management practices should be adopted if such soils are to be cultivated. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1699 Soil-landform development of a part of the fold belt along the eastern coast of Bangladesh Sharif Hossain Khan Md., Parkash B. and Kumar S. Geomorphology 2005 71/3-4 (310-327) The evolution of landforms and soils from the Jaldi and Maiskhali anticlines and adjoining areas in a part of the coastal region of the north-south trending fold belt of Bangladesh during the Late Quaternary Period has been investigated. Based on the degree of soil development and luminescence dating, eight soil geomorphic units have been deciphered and grouped into four members (I-IV) of a morphostratigraphic sequence for the study area. Various soil geomorphic units included in different member/sub-members are: Member I - river floodplains and active tidal flats (< 500 years); Member II - distal Piedmont Plains and old tidal flats (0.5-2 ka); Member III - proximal Piedmont Plains (6-10 ka); and Member IV - Mainland Higher and Lower Hillocks and Island Hillocks (> 15 ka). Member IV is further subdivided into Sub-member IVa - Island Hillocks (15-18 ka); Sub-member IVb - Mainland Lower Hillocks (23-25 ka); and Sub-member IVc - Mainland Higher Hillocks (30-35 ka). The youngest and poorly developed soils of Member I show features related to 324 SOILS hydromorphism. Moderately developed soils of Members II and III show a fersiallitisation stage of pedogenesis. Member IV includes ‘strongly developed soils’ with a ferrugination stage of pedogenesis. These soils also exhibit degradation and poor birefringence of argillans and ferriargillans, indicating a significant change in conditions of pedogenesis, probably related to a paleoclimatic change from a subhumid to semiarid phase (40 ka to about 16 ka) to a hot humid to subhumid phase (16 kapresent). Parent material composition and physiography also have affected the pedogenesis in the area. Based on ages and heights above the mean sea level for the five terraces recognized in the study area, the overall base-level rise rates calculated are about 3.6 mm/year (18 ka-present) for the Maiskhali Island and 2.86 mm/year (35 ka-present) for the mainland (Jaldi anticline). These base level changes represent combined effects of eustatic sea level and tectonic uplift due to folding. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Physical properties 1700 The effect of soil water content and microbial activity on restoring the structure of a Vertisol Kostopoulou S.K. and Zotos A. Soil and Tillage Research 2005 82/2 (203-209) Soils with high clay content are susceptible to structural damage, if they are intensively cultivated. The structure of soils of the Vertisol group has the tendency to restore as a result of wetting and drying. Samples of a remoulded clayey soil were exposed to seven successive wetting/drying (w/d) cycles, in order to study the change of some structural features of the newly formed aggregates. To assess the effect of soil water content and microbial activity, two different matric water potential ranges were used under sterile and non-sterile conditions. Aggregate size distribution depended on both the water potential range and microbial activity and approached to a steady state with increasing cycle number. The water stability of the 2-1 mm aggregates was affected by the activity of soil micro-organisms under wet conditions and by forces of mechanical nature when the soil was reaching dryness. All cases resulted in aggregates of reduced water stability with respect to the natural aggregates. The <50 m aggregated particles initially preserved stability, but after a number of w/d cycles they collapsed at a rate, depending mainly on the water potential range. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1701 Andic soils of the Inland Pacific Northwest, USA: Properties and ecological significance McDaniel P.A., Wilson M.A., Burt R. et al. Soil Science 2005 170/4 (300-311) Holocene tephra from the cataclysmic eruption of Mount Mazama in southwestern Oregon is an important component of many soils east of Cascade Mountains in the Pacific Northwest region. This article examines ecologically important properties of these tephra-influenced soils. Characterization data from 886 soil horizons (384 pedons) of the region meeting criteria for andic soil properties or subgroup classification as andic or vitrandic intergrades in Soil Taxonomy were used to compare morphological, chemical, and physical properties. Mazama tephra typically comprises a significant portion of a surface mantle with textures ranging from silt loam in areas distal to the tephra source to very gravelly loamy coarse sand in proximal locations. Tephra has been mixed to varying degrees with other parent materials across the region. On average, volcanic glass only comprises 31.1% of the 0.05 to 2-mm fraction and has a bimodal distribution, suggesting that some tephra was deposited with significant quantities of dust or, that since deposition, considerable reworking and mixing of glass has occurred. Oxalate-extractable Al ranges from 0.04 to 5.4% and provides the best indicator of colloidal surface activity as indicated by P retention. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) determined at field pH (ECEC) averages 7.8 cmolc kg-1 and is less than one-third the CEC determined at pH 8.2, indicating considerable variable charge and relatively low capacity of these soils to store and supply nutrient cations. Mineralogical data suggest that a reduced pool of secondary Al may be limiting allophane formation in soil horizons with less tephra influence. Volumetric water-holding capacity of ash-influenced horizons is as much as twice that of underlying horizons and underscores the importance of tephra in seasonally dry, forested ecosystems of the Inland Northwest region. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. 1702 The fate of the recombinant DNA in corn during composting Guan J., Spencer J.L. and Ma B.- L. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 2005 40/3 (463-473) In order to make regulations that safeguard food and the environment, an understanding of the fate of transgenes from genetically modified (GM) plants is of crucial importance. A compost experiment including mature transgenic corn plants and seeds of event Bt 176 (Zea mays L.) was conducted to trace the fate of the transgene cryIA(b) during the period of composting. In bin 1, shredded corn plants including seeds were composted above a layer of cow manure and samples from the corn layer were collected at intervals during a 12-month period. The samples were tested for the transgene persistence and microbial counts and also the compost was monitored for temperature. In bin 2, piles of corn seeds, surrounded by sheep manure and straw, were composted for 12 months. A method combining nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and southern hybridization was developed for detection of the transgene in compost. The detection sensitivity was 200 copies of the transgene per gram of dry composted corn material. Composting commenced on day 0, and the transgene was detected in specimens from bin 1 on days 0 and 7 but not on day 14 or thereafter. The transgene in corn seeds was not detectable after 12 months of composting in bin 2. Temperatures in both bins rose to about 50°C within 2 weeks and remained above that temperature for about 3 months, even when the ambient temperature dropped below -20°C. Extracts from compost were inoculated onto culture plates and then were incubated at 23 to 55°C. Within the first 2 weeks of composting in bin 1, the counts of bacteria incubated at 55°C increased from 3.5 to 7.5 log10 , whereas those incubated at 23°C remained at about 7.5 log10 . The counts of fungi incubated at 45°C increased slightly from 2.5 to 3.1 log10 , but those incubated at 23°C decreased from 6.3 to 3.0 log10 . The rapid degradation of the transgene during composting of Bt corn plants suggested that the composting process could be used for safe disposal of transgenic plant wastes. 1703 Traditional and new deep soil tillage techniques in Italy Pezzi F. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (13-17) A study evaluated the performance of traditional and alternative implements for deep tillage. Three implements were compared, a plow and two PTO-driven machines (spading machine and rotary chisel), along with two soil depths, 0.30 and 0.40 m, and two forward speeds. Tests were done on a level plot, containing silty-clay soil. Forward speed, wheel slip, fuel consumption, and energy at the PTO and drawbar were measured. Cloddiness of the tilled soil was evaluated. The two PTO-powered implements did not show advantages in terms of capacity, but they gave better results in fuel consumption and in soil pulverization. Economic evaluation showed lower unit costs (17% to 28%) for the spading machine. © 2005 American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1704 Characterization of apparent soil electrical conductivity variability in irrigated sandy and non-saline fields in Colorado Farahani H.J., Buchleiter G.W. and Brodahl M.K. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (155-168) Recent advances in apparent soil electrical conductivity (ECa ) sensor technology have provided the opportunity to rapidly map soil spatial variability for site-specific management. However, characterizing (or identifying the causes of) the ECa variability has remained difficult, with ECa and soil property (such as soil water and clay content) relationships showing a wide range of varying strength across fields. In this study, our objective was to characterize the main soil properties that alter ECa and evaluate the temporal variability of ECa and soil property relationships SOILS using multi-year measurements (1998 to 2003) in three centerpivot irrigated fields in eastern Colorado. Results show that for the irrigated sandy and non-saline fields, ECa maps may be viewed as surrogate maps for soil water content (w ), clay, cation exchange capacity, and/or organic matter content due to their strong correlations (with correlation coefficients between 0.66 and 0.96). The experimental linear functions of ECa versus soil properties changed over time when soil solution concentration (ECw ) changed considerably. That finding was supported by theory (the dual-pathway EC a model) showing the relationship between ECa and soil stable properties (such as clay content) to be governed by the status of the soil transient properties of ECw and w at the time of the ECa mapping. The temporal effect of varying soil temperature on ECa could be significant but was not accounted for due to lack of temperature data. Results collectively suggest that because of the lack of reliability of using empirical ECa and soil property relationships for predictive purposes over time, on-site calibration of ECa versus soil properties of interest are needed at each ECa mapping. 1705 Freezing of subarctic hillslopes, Wolf Creek basin, Yukon, Canada Carey S.K. and Woo M.- K. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 2005 37/1 (1-10) Freezing processes were monitored at five sites within the Wolf Creek basin, Yukon, Canada during the winter of 1998-1999. Ground temperatures were measured using thermocouples in hillslopes that had frost status ranging from permanent to seasonal. The timing of freezing and ground thermal regimes varied among the five sites and was controlled by (1) the variation in surface soil temperature, (2) frost status (seasonal vs. permanent), (3) moisture content of the active layer, (4) properties of the soil profile, and (5) the presence/absence of subsurface drainage. On slopes with permafrost, cooling was rapid and two-sided freezing closed the active layer several months after the onset of freezing. On a slope with seasonal frost only, dry soil conditions allowed frost to penetrate to depth. In contrast, a slope with seasonal frost that had continuous drainage, frost depths were shallow due to heat advected from flowing water. A simple one-dimensional conduction model with latent heat was used to simulate freezing processes. Model performance varied among the slopes, and results indicate that (1) conduction is the predominant heat transfer mechanism during freezing, (2) latent heat is the principal factor controlling frost front descent, and (3) lateral flow significantly retards frost penetration because of heat advection. This information is valuable in assessing spatial variability within tile-based models and in predicting freezing, which defines an effective end-of-season on lateral hydrological processes. © 2005 Regents of the University of Colorado. 1706 The effect of wildfire intensity on soil aggregate stability in the Cadiretes Massif, NE Spain ´ Ubeda X. and Bernia S. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (3745) This paper reports on the changes in soil aggregate stability after a wildfire, with the focus on the effects of fire intensity on soil structure. The aggregate stability of soils burned at different fire intensities was tested using the TDI method. The samples were taken from three areas burned at three fire intensities and the results of the aggregates were compared with those from an unburned forest. The study area is located in the Cadiretes massif, northeast Spain. The analyses were undertaken just after the fire in 1994, and again in 1995 and 1997. The most stable aggregates compared to those from the control area were those sampled just after the fire. The disaggregation was highest in 1995 and lowest in 1997. The fire did not disturb the stability of the aggregates immediately after burning. After the fire the aggregates did not become unstable and, in contrast, they were even more stable than those sampled in the control forest. 1707 Nearreal time variability of soil moisture and temperature under different land use and cover: The Alabama Mesonet Tsegaye T.D., Metzl R., Wang X. et al. Journal of Environmental Hydrology 2005 13/- (13p) The Alabama Mesonet (ALMNet) has been established to pro- 325 vide near-real-time data to conduct research that aims to ensure the security, quality, and quantity of the Nation’s natural resources. The ALMNet is made up of eleven combination meteorological/soil profile stations and twelve soil profile stations positioned at 23 locations in eight counties. The stations are included in the USDA NRCS SCAN network. Meteorological and soil profile data collected by ALMNet include temperature (air and soil), humidity, solar radiation, wind (speed and direction), soil heat flux, soil moisture and precipitation. The objectives of the ALMNet are to: (i) serve as a validation site for current and future satellite missions of monitoring soil moisture (e.g. the Aqua satellite) and archive both atmospheric and hydrologie related data: (ii) study soil moisture and temperature variability at different time scales and under different land use and land cover: (in) model soil water content and temperature from observable climate data and compare model estimates in terms of energy partitioning: (iv) strengthen outdoor research and training facilities for both undergraduate and graduate students: and (v) establish an Online Internet Service for extension agents, farmers and interested individuals to visualize climate related data. Our long-term vision is to complete detailed hydrological and meteorological process analyses for northern Alabama and southern Tennessee in collaboration with scientists from NASA, USDA and other Universities. We also hope to expand the recording sites throughout Alabama as our resources permit. 1708 Determining long-term effective groundwater recharge by analyzing vertical soil temperature profiles at meteorological stations Cheviron B., Gu´erin R., Tabbagh A. and Bendjoudi H. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-6) [1] Vertical water seepage in soils results in convective heat transport that modifies the temperature profiles and their variations with time; consequently, there is a relationship between temperature profile variations with time and the vertical Darcy velocity associated with the seepage. Considering the annual sinusoidal time variation of the temperature at the soil surface, it can be shown that convective heat transport has a significant effect on the amplitude damping with depth and a negligible effect on the phase lag with depth of the temperature time signal. Standard meteorological stations constitute a relatively dense network, and we show that their routinely collected data can be used to determine an average value of the vertical Darcy velocity, uZ , representing the effective annual recharge over long time periods (several years). A new procedure for determining uZ from these temperature records is presented. First, the layering of the medium is determined by an electrical sounding. Then the thermal properties of each layer are inferred from the phase lag with depth. Finally, uZ is calculated from the amplitude damping. After having tested this approach with synthetic data, we used the 1984-2001 Abbeville (Somme, France) data to determine the average recharge over six 3-year periods. The results are in good agreement with classical meteorological recharge estimates and show a significant increase in the recharge during the last 3year period, consistent with the observed phreatic 2001 flood event. Specific temperature measurements at appropriate depths and time steps could drastically improve the sensitivity of the method. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1709 Influence of water regime and N availability on the emission of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide from tropical, semi-arid soils of Chiapas, Mexico Ponce- Mendoza A., Boeckx P., Gutierrez- Miceli F. et al. Journal of Arid Environments 2006 64/1 (137-151) The concentration of nitrous oxide (N2 O) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in the atmosphere has increased considerably over the last century, but few studies are available showing their production from soils in semi-arid areas. Soils from the tropical semiarid Central Depression of Chiapas were sampled from fields cultivated with maize (MAI treatment), under canopy of Acacia angustissima (TIMBRE) or outside the canopy of the trees (OUT), adjusted to 40%, 60%, 80% or 100% of water-holding capacity (WHC) and amended with 0, 15 or 50 mg (NH4 NO3 )-N kg-1 dry soil. The production of N2 O, CO2 and concentrations of NH +4 , and NO-3 were monitored in the laboratory under aerobic conditions. Production of N2 O in the first 3 days was significantly larger from the MAI and OUT soils, compared to the TIMBRE 326 SOILS soil, while the addition of 50 mg inorganic N doubled the production of N2 O. In all treatments, soil at 100% WHC had the largest production of N2 O. The emission of CO2 was significantly larger from soils at 60% and 80% WHC compared to the soil at 40% and 100% WHC, although the addition of inorganic N had no significant effect on CO2 emission. The application of inorganic N and the absence of vegetation increased the production of N2 O. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1710 Quantitative characteristics of soil aggregates under different vegetations in upper reach of Minjiang River (Chinese) Ning L., Shi H., Zhou H. and Liu S. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1405-1410) Quantitative analysis on the soil aggregates under dark coniferous forest, coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest, fargesia under the gap of dark coniferous forest, and sclerophyllous oaks (Quercus semicarpifolia) at Wolong Natural Reserve in the upper reach of Minjiang River showed that wet-sieving soil aggregates were of logarithmic-normal distribution, and the geometric mean diameters were negatively correlated to geometric standard deviation. The aggregates under coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest and sclerophyllous oaks had larger sizes than those under other vegetations. The range of fractal dimension of soil aggregates was 2.40-2.78, along with more aggregates less than 0.25 mm in size. The fractal dimension of soil aggregates under dark coniferous forest and fargesia were larger than that under other vegetations. The soil aggregates with 3-1 mm and 1-0.5 mm in size had a higher stability, while those with > 10 mm and 0.5-0.25 mm in size were in adverse. The aggregate stability index of soil under coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest was the highest, followed by that under sclerophyllous oaks, fargesia under the gap of dark coniferous forest, and dark coniferous forest, which meant that coniferous and broadleaf mixed forest and sclerophyllous oaks were favorable for soil aggregate stability. Significant correlations were found among the three quantitative characteristics, which could be used to indicate the stability of soil aggregates. Soil water 1711 Preferential water flow in a glacial till soil Jansson C., Espeby B. and Jansson P.- E. Nordic Hydrology 2005 36/1 (1-11) Measured and simulated response of runoff during snowmelt has suggested that preferential water flow occurs as part of the infiltration process in glacial till. However, only a few quantitative studies have been presented. TDR measurements of soil water content were performed during the growing period in a till slope (7-10%) outside Stockholm. Soil cores were used to determine the water retention curve and the saturated hydraulic conductivity. A physically based one-dimensional model was used to simulate soil water dynamics in the slope. Two simulation approaches were used: a strict one-domain Darcian approach and a two-domain approach accounting for a bypass of the matrix flow system. The measured response of soil water content occurred within the first few hours after rainfall. This was best represented by the two-domain approach, while the response for the one-domain approach was significantly delayed with time and depth. The general behaviour of the soil water content throughout the season was, however, best simulated with a one-domain approach. The results indicated that preferential flow patterns through the unsaturated zone does not need to be considered to describe the seasonal pattern in glacial till soil. However, the results also point out that the purpose of the simulation is decisive when choosing a simulation approach, depending on whether the general soil water content over the season or the instant behaviour immediately after rainfall is of major interest. © IWA Publishing 2005. 1712 Development and field validation of the pestfate model in southern Ontario Bera P., Prasher S.O., Madani A. et al. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (85-100) A new pesticide movement model called PESTFATE (PESTicide Fate and Transport in Environment) has been developed by combining DRAINMOD, a well-known water table management model, and the pesticide submodel of PESTFADE. The pesticide sorption in the new model is based on two different techniques, namely, conventional mechanism and a new two-stage sorption method called Gamble kinetics. The model was validated by comparing the simulated midspan water table depths and atrazine [2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopapylamino-1, 3, 5-triazine] concentrations against an independently collected dataset from a research site in southern Ontario. The experimental field consisted of 16 plots with two different water table management and four different tillage practices, replicated twice. Only the plots with conventional tillage and controlled drainage were used in this study. The model performed well in predicting the daily water table depths. Although the intercept and slope of the regression between the observed and predicted water table depths were significantly different from 0 and 1, respectively, the model efficiencies for 1992, 1993, and 1994 were 28%, 81%, and 64%, respectively, which shows a better accuracy for the last two years of the study. The normalized standard errors were within 15% to 20%, which indicates good model performance for water flow simulation. However, the correlation between the observed and simulated pesticide concentrations with both the conventional and Gamble kinetics was poor. Moreover, the Gamble kinetics did not significantly improve pesticide simulations (P < 0.05) as compared to the conventional method. The experiments were conducted on Brookston clay loam soil, which is known for developing soil cracks and consequently preferential flow. This could be one of the reasons for poorer model performance, especially with the Gamble kinetics. This was not the case in previous studies, which reported better simulation results with the new sorption mechanism, so the model requires additional field testing before any concrete conclusions can be drawn about its performance. There is also a need to test the model with other pesticides. © 2005 American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1713 Hydraulic conductivity of a silt loam soil as affected by sample length Fuentes J.- P. and Flury M. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (191-196) Soil hydraulic conductivity is often measured with small laboratory samples. Due to sampling artifacts or spatial variability, small-scale laboratory samples may not yield representative conductivity measurements. The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of sample length on the saturated and nearsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K). An undisturbed soil core of 9 cm diameter and 25 cm length was extracted from the A horizon of a no-till, silt loam soil, and K was determined at hydraulic heads (matric potential heads) of 0, -4, -8, -12, -16, and -22 cm-H2 O under steady-state flow conditions. The core was then dissected incrementally from the bottom in 5 cm segments. At each dissection step, the remaining core and the cutoff core were re-saturated, and K was determined. Measured K varied considerably with core length, with the saturated conductivity being much more variable than the unsaturated conductivities. The use of consecutive 5 cm core segments to determine the effective K resulted in an underestimation of the conductivity compared to direct measurements on longer cores, possibly caused by smearing or compaction of cut surfaces during core dissection. Effective K determined from 5 cm core segments matched well with directly measured K only at hydraulic heads more negative than -16 cm-H2 O. The results of this study highlight that small cores on the order of a few cm may not be representative of a larger soil profile such as the plow layer or crop root zone. © 2005 American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1714 Economic analysis of subsurface drip irrigation lateral spacing and installation depth for cotton Enciso J.M., Colaizzi P.D. and Multer W.L. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (197-204) Cotton lint yield, seed mass, fiber quality parameters, gross return, and net return were compared for subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) lateral spacing and installation depth in a clay loam soil in western Texas for three seasons. Drip laterals were spaced either in alternate furrows (2 m) or beneath every planted bed (1 m), and installation depths were either 0.2 or 0.3 m beneath the soil surface. Net return was gross return minus fixed and variable SOILS costs. Fixed costs included the annual payment for financing the initial investment of SDI materials and installation (5.00% interest over 10 years), the annual land lease, and the annual depreciation of the SDI system. Variable costs were those associated with cotton production and were similar for the two drip lateral spacings. Lint yield, seed mass, and gross and net returns were significantly greater for the 1 m lateral spacing in the first two seasons, but these parameters were significantly greater for the 2 m lateral spacing in the third season. These parameters were consistently greater (either numerically or significantly) for the 0.3 m lateral depth in all seasons. Most fiber quality parameters were not significantly different, and no consistent trends were observed. Lint yields ranged from 640 to 1,635 kg ha-1 , and net returns ranged from -$395 to $1,005 ha-1 . The low lint yield and resulting net loss were due to a germination failure in the second season for the alternate furrow spaced laterals. Additional seasons of study are required before conclusions might be drawn concerning the most economic lateral spacing for cotton production in the Trans-Pecos region of Texas, but the 0.3 m lateral depth resulted in greater net returns than the 0.2 m lateral depth. 1715 A precise irrigation system with an array of nozzles for plug transplant production Ohyama K., Murase H., Yokoi S. et al. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (211-215) A precise irrigation system with a 6 x 12 array of needle-like nozzles was developed for plug transplant production using 72cell plug trays. When a command for irrigation is given to the system, all of the nozzles are directly inserted into the corresponding cells at the same time to discharge a predetermined amount of water or nutrient solution. The amount of irrigated water from each nozzle (Q) can be controlled by adjusting the discharge time to keep the solenoid valve open (T) and by discharge pressure (P). The objectives of the present study were: (1) to obtain quantitative data for the control of Q, and (2) to examine the performance of the system during a plug transplant production period of 20 days. By adjusting T of each nozzle individually and P, a uniform distribution of Q was achieved over the tray. Consequently, a high value of Christiansen coefficient of uniformity was obtained (97.2% to 98.4%). During the plug transplant production period, the volumetric water content in each cell could be controlled by using the system without any growth deterioration of the transplants owing to the root damage caused by the nozzle insertion into the substrate. These results demonstrate that this system is feasible for precise irrigation management of plug transplant production. © 2005 American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1716 Mechanisms of surface runoff genesis on a subsurface drained soil affected by surface crusting: A field investigation Augeard B., Kao C., Chaumont C. and Vauclin M. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (598-610) Artificial drainage has been subject to widespread criticism because of its impact on water quality and because there is suspicion that it may have detrimental effects on flood genesis. The present work aims at a better understanding of the mechanisms controlling infiltration and surface runoff genesis, particularly in soils with artificial drainage and affected by surface crusting. A field experiment was conducted during one drainage season (November 2003-March 2004) in the Brie region (80 km east of Paris, France) on a subsurface drained silty soil. Water table elevation and surface runoff were monitored above the drain and at midpoint between drains. Soil water pressure head was measured at various depths and locations between the midpoint and the drain. Soil surface characteristics (microtopography and degree of structural and sedimentary crust development) were recorded regularly on the experimental site and on other plots of various drainage intensities. The results show that the first surface runoff events were induced by high water table. However, runoff was higher at midpoint between the drains because water table reached the soil surface at that point, thus considerably reducing infiltration capacity compared to that above the drain. Comparing different plots, the area with older drainage installation (1948) yielded the most surface runoff. Wider drain spacing, smaller drain depth and possible plugging may have led to a greater area of saturated soil between drains. During the 327 winter period, the impact of raindrops induced the formation of a structural crust on the soil surface. Furthermore, the development of the sedimentary crust, which was favored by water actually flowing on the soil surface during the high water table periods could be correlated with surface runoff volume. The formation of this crust had a significant impact on runoff occurrence at the end of the winter. Therefore, poorly drained fields presented more favorable conditions for both Horton type runoff and saturation excess runoff. Drainage effectively reduces surface runoff occurrences not only by lowering the water table in winter but also by limiting soil surface sealing. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1717 Can forest transformation help reducing floods in forested watersheds? Certain aspects on soil hydraulics and organic matter properties Wahl N.A., W¨ollecke B., Bens O. and H¨uttl R.F. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (611-621) Former floodplains in many European countries increasingly suffer from serious floods due to intensified human activity. These floods have caused safety and ecological problems as well as they have resulted in economic losses in agricultural used watersheds. In this context, the influence of the management practice of forest transformation in forested areas on soil hydraulic properties is presented and discussed as a means of preventing such disasters at a reasonable cost and during a foreseeable period. Investigations were carried out in northeastern Germany on forest stands differing in tree populations and stand structure. It was found that infiltration capacity and hydraulic conductivity K exhibit overall low values nevertheless the tree species. This finding appears to be related to water repellency, the predominating texture, and a poor macroporosity. During the different stages of forest transformation, the type and amount of soil organic matter and humus in the litter layer change, leading to a decrease of the water capacity of the litter layer and the uppermost part of the mineral soil. Furthermore, these changes affect soil properties connected with water repellency. It is concluded that for the approximate duration of one century the practice of forest transformation does not contribute to flood prevention through enhanced infiltration capacity or water retention. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1718 Temporal dynamics of soil water in oak forest stand of Southern Slovakia Tuˇzinsk´y L. Ekologia Bratislava 2005 24/3 (304-313) Time and spatial variability of the soil water depends on the weather characteristic course, on soil hydrophysical characteristics and on forest stand transformation influence. Analysis of soil water available for plants during the growing season shows that the water dynamics in the soil under the oak forest stand is most intense in the upper (0-50 cm) layers of the soil profile. Water uptake and loss from this soil layer results in transition of the soil water from one category to another, especially due to the osmotic preassure of the soil and the water active transport via fine roots. At the beginning of the growing season capillary movable water category prevails in the soil profile with easy available water supply. Radiation and air temperature increase leads to the gradual decrease of soil water content. Increase of evapotranspiration (> 5 mm.day-1 ) is folowed by the process of water supply decrease. During the culminating drying off period (July, August) the soil water supply decreases to the category of capillary immovable water. During extremely dry season the water supply in the soil can decrease to the wilting point level. Soil water becomes capillary bound and non-available for plants. Loss of contact between the fine roots and water results in decrease of transpiration and assimilation. Premature fall off of physiologically weakened leaves is recorded. Under such conditions the oak resistance towards damaging factors is decreased. 1719 Flux-saturation relationship for unsaturated horizontal flow Evangelides C., Tzimopoulos C. and Arampatzis G. Soil Science 2005 170/9 (671-679) The prediction of unsaturated flow is a never-ending quest for many scientists. Many methods exist with their corresponding 328 SOILS advantages and disadvantages, such as semianalytic, finite difference, finite element, finite control volume, and flux-saturation. The last one, even though it belongs to the semianalytic group, is very interesting due to its simplicity and the way it approaches the physical problem. During laboratory research, a new intuitive monoparametric fitting function was used for F(). The purpose of this research was to examine the range of variation of the new fitting function coefficient and the feasibility to replace it with a constant. A series of experiments was carried out on horizontal absorption under constant-head conditions, using three different soil types, to measure their F() function. F() values were also obtained for four other soils, using different methods. The soils that were examined were characterized from silt to sand, according to the textural triangle of the United States Department of Agriculture. Actual F() functions were then calculated in each soil. The proposed F() function was compared with the limiting F() function for linear and Dirac soil and with preexisting ones. The results were satisfactory both in shape and in quantity, leading to a new expression for F() for all soil types. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. 1720 Modeling water flow behavior where highly treated effluent is applied to soil at varying rates and dosing frequencies Hassan G., Reneau Jr. R.B., Hagedorn C. and Saluta M. Soil Science 2005 170/9 (692-706) There is a need for alternative on-site wastewater systems (OWS) that can be used in soils and on sites not suitable for conventional OWS (septic tank and gravity dispersal) while minimizing ground and surface water degradation. One method to accomplish this is to apply highly treated effluent (HTE), using a technology such as a subsurface drip irrigation system (SDIS), where effluent is dispersed uniformly to soil and the dosing frequency can be controlled. Since there are a large number of factors that can affect OWS function, the ability to evaluate these factors by using a simulation model would greatly improve our ability to design OWS that solve problems while having minimal environmental impact. This study was conducted to determine the potential to simulate HTE [recirculating media filter effluent (RMFE)] flow, soil water content and potential, and changes in soil water mass balance using HYDRUS-2D (a numerical model), in which RMFE was applied at varying rates (518, 1036, and 2071 cm 3 d-1 ) and dosing frequencies (6, 12, and 24 doses per day) to soil columns designed to simulate a SDIS. Fecal coliform numbers were used to measure the effectiveness of these treatments. We hypothesized that fecal coliform numbers would decrease when effluent was applied in smaller (more frequent) doses. Results showed that HYDRUS-2D could be successfully used to predict RMFE flow, soil water potential and moisture content, and soil mass balance. Although dosing RMFE more frequently had no effect on fecal coliform numbers at the two lowest application rates (518 and 1036 cm3 d -1 ), there was a significant decrease in fecal coliforms as dosing frequency increased at the highest rate of application (2071 cm3 d-1 ). Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 1721 Soil hydraulic properties in a marly gully catchment (Draix, France) Esteves M., Descroix L., Mathys N. and Lapetite J.M. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (282-298) Runoff is one of the main factors controlling gully development. Concentrated flow erosion occurs where flow discharge and velocity exceed critical values. In Southern French Alps, in black marl gully catchments, runoff from hillslopes occurs in the form of Hortonian overland flow because rainfall intensities exceed the infiltration capacity of the soil. In such a situation, spatial variability of infiltration capacities is critical for describing the runoff production. This study reports detailed field measurements of near-saturation and saturated infiltration properties: capillary sorptivity (S) and hydraulic conductivity (K). A total of 140 infiltration tests were conducted using tension disc and ponded ring infiltrometers on 6 different regoliths (weathering profile) encountered in a marly gully catchment. The main objectives were to improve our knowledge of the spatial variability of infiltration in black marl areas and to compare different field and data analysis methods. Hydraulic conductivity values K(h) at supply pressure heads (h) ranging from h = - 100 up to h = 0 mm were calculated using steady state flow and Wooding’s equation [Wooding, R.A., 1968. Steady infiltration from shallow circular pond. Water Resour. Res. 4 (6), 1259-1273]. K(h = 0 mm) was also estimated from the ponded ring infiltrometer data set. The estimation of sorptivity was based on transient flow and the solution of Haverkamp et al. [Haverkamp, R., Roos, P.J., Smettem, K.R.J., Parlange, J.Y., 1994. Three dimensional analysis of infiltration from the disc infiltrometer. 2. Physical based infiltration equation. Water Resour. Res. 30 (11), 2931-2935]. Three methods were used to analyse tension disc infiltrometer data: multiple radii, multiple potential and single test. Only the multiple radii method was found not suitable in our context due to a large spatial variability in the infiltration properties over small distances. The other methods gave similar estimates of the hydraulic conductivity. The hydraulic conductivity K(h) ranged up to two orders of magnitude. This result confirms the role played by structural voids when the regolith is at near saturation. The dispersion of the estimates of field saturated hydraulic conductivity is larger than unsaturated values. The spatial differences found are explained by the topographical position and by the regolith structure observed for the 6 sites. An analysis based on the ponding time show that the regolith type plays an important role in the dynamic of the runoff production. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1722 Ecological characteristics of soil water and its relations to landform and vegetation in a small semiarid watershed in a loess hilly area of China Liu W.Z., Hu M.J., Li F.M. and Zhang X.C. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 2005 12/3 (326-333) There is an urgent need to study soil water resources and ecohydrological characteristics in depth so as to carry forward ecological environmental construction in the Loess Plateau. Soil moisture was measured to a depth of 5 m on 11 sites with different landforms and land uses in a transect of the Zhonglianchuan watershed during 2002. The watershed is located in the northern Yuzhong County, Gansu Province, and is part of a semiarid and loess hilly area. There were different types of soil moisture variations in 2002 on the 11 sites. Soil moisture contents were low on all sites, and the average water contents at 2 to 5-m depth were usually lower than 10% by weight, and the lowest water contents were found in slope land under Medicago sativa and Caragana korshinskii vegetation. The dry soil layer is common in this area, not only under planted vegetation but also under natural vegetation. The soil moisture in a slope segment or area can be increased by collecting and harvesting surface runoff from upslope areas. One effective way to collect runoff is by constructing level terraces, alternating with sloping lands. The proportion of various grasslands, acreage of alfalfa, and sustainable development of the region should be further studied in order to successfully convert cultivated land into grassland. 1723 Water films and scaling of soil characteristic curves at low water contents Tuller M. and Or D. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-6) [1] Individual contributions of capillarity and adsorptive surface forces to the matric potential are seldom differentiated in determination of soil water characteristic (SWC) curves. Typically, capillary forces dominate at the wet end, whereas adsorptive surface forces dominate at the dry end of a SWC where water is held as thin liquid films. The amount of adsorbed soil water is intimately linked to soil specific surface area (SA) and plays an important role in various biological and transport processes in arid environments. Dominated by van der Waals adsorptive forces, surface-water interactions give rise to a nearly universal scaling relationship for SWC curves at low water contents. We demonstrate that scaling measured water content at the dry end by soil specific surface area yields remarkable similarity across a range of soil textures and is in good agreement with theoretical predictions based on van der Waals interactions. These scaling relationships are important for accurate description of SWC curves in dry soils and may provide rapid and reliable estimates of soil specific surface area from SWC measurements for matric potentials below -10 MPa conveniently measured with the chilled-mirror dew point technique. Surface area estimates acquired by fitting the scaling relationship to measured SWC data were in good agreement with SA data measured by standard SOILS methods. Preliminary results suggest that the proposed method could provide reliable SA estimates for natural soils with hydratable surface areas smaller than 200 m2 /g. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1724 Non-linear radiation for bidimensional Richards equation in subsurface agricultural drainage (Spanish) (Radiaci´on no lineal en la ecuaci´on de Richards bidimensional aplicada al drenaje agrcola subterr´aneo) Zavala M., Fuentes C. and Saucedo H. Ingenieria Hidraulica en Mexico 2005 20/4 (111-119) A mechanistic approach is presented to simulate the hydraulic operation of a subsurface agricultural drainage system that consists in numerically coupling the bidimensional Richards equation for the water flow in the soil with the continuity equation and a resistance law for the water flow in the drain. This coupling is made by imposing a non-linear radiation condition on the drain perimeter (Zavala et al., 2003). By using experimental data, the description capacity of both the non-linear radiation condition and the classical approximation reported in the literature as seepage-face condition is evaluated. By comparison with experimental information, it is shown that the seepage-face condition overestimates drainage flow and the recession of the water table, due to the fact that it assumes a null resistance in the saturated soil-drain interface. The experimental validation allows to conclude that the description of mass and energy transferences in an agricultural subsurface drainage system during the recession of the water table must be made by imposing the non-linear radiation condition in the circumference of the drain. 1725 Spatial heterogeneity of soil moisture after raining at forest-grassland landscape boundary in hilly area of Loess Plateau (Chinese) You W., Zeng D., Liu M. et al. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1591-1596) Soil moisture is a main factor limiting vegetation restoration in semi-arid region. In this paper, the spatial variability of different layers soil moisture after raining at the forest-grassland boundary in hilly area of Loess Plateau were studied by traditional and geostatistical analysis methods. The results showed that the moisture content in surface (0-10 cm) and subsurface soil layer (10-20 cm) of grassland was higher than that of forestland. The two layers soil moisture content at forest-grassland boundary showed a small variation but an obvious ecological distribution. By using moving split-window techniques, it was obtained that the width of edge influence in surface and subsurface layer was 8 and 6 m, respectively. Geostatistical analyses showed that the spatial distribution of two layers soil moisture had a pure nugget effect in grassland, linear model in forestland, and spherical model in forest-grassland boundary. The spatial heterogeneity of two layers soil moisture was higher at forest-grassland boundary than at forestland and grassland, which had a stronger spatial dependence and autorelation. Kriging maps expressed the spatial structural characters. The distribution of soil moisture in two layers showed a strip shape near forest edge, and a patch shape far from the edge. 1726 Simulation of energy and water balance in Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer system in the mountain area of Heihe River Basin at Hexi Corridor of northwest China Kang E., Cheng G., Song K. et al. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/4 (538-548) In the mountain area of inland Heihe River Basin at Hexi Corridor of northwest China during the vegetation growing season from May to September, the Simultaneous Heat and Water (SHAW) model of Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer (SVAT) system is applied to simulating and studying energy and water balance of the soil-residue-plant canopy layers in the Picea crassifolia forest and the grassland by the forest at the shaded slope and the grassland at the sun-facing slope. The simulation of energy balance indicates that net radiation of the grassland at the sunfacing slope is more than that of the Picea crassifolia forest and the grassland by the forest at the shaded slope. The energy outgoing components are the first latent heat and next sensible heat from the grassland both at the shaded slope and the sun-facing slope, but those at the former are less. The energy outgoing components are the first sensible heat and next latent heat from 329 the Picea crassifolia forest. The composition and distribution of energy in the soil-residue-plant canopy layers in the Picea crassifolia forest and the grassland by the forest at the shaded slope make the soil layer receive less energy, which therefore, especially the forest possesses the energy conditions for soil water conservation. The simulation of water balance indicates that the water loss of the grassland at the sun-facing slope is mainly caused by soil evaporation, while evapotranspiration of the Picea crassifolia forest and the grassland by the forest at the shaded slope is less than that of the grassland at the sun-facing slope. Half of the evapotranspiration of the Picea crassifolia forest and the grassland by the forest at the shaded slope is consumed by transpiration. After precipitation, the soil water storage is increased much more for the Picea crassifolia forest and also more for the grassland by the forest at the shaded slope. Therefore the shaded slope vegetation, especially the forest is favorable for soil water storage. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. Chemistry 1727 Agronomic and environmental impacts of a single application of heat-dried sludge on an Alfisol Gavalda D., Scheiner J.D., Revel J.C. et al. Science of the Total Environment 2005 343/1-3 (97-109) A field experiment was conducted on Alfisols in South-West France to assess the agronomic and environmental impacts of a single application of heat-dried sludge pellets at 11.1 Mg dry matter ha-1 . The sludge pellets, with a moisture level of 9.5%, were spread on an irrigated crop of maize (Zea mays L.). This treatment was compared with inorganic fertilization (urea and diammonium phosphate mixed with KCl). Soil properties, yield and the composition of maize and the quality of drained water were monitored over 1 year to detect any changes resulting from sludge application. Amongst several determined soil properties, only two were significantly modified by the sludge application: The nitric nitrogen stock of the soil was higher in the inorganic fertilized plot, whereas Olsen-P soil content was higher in the sludge-amended plot. Agronomic recovery rates of N and P added by sludge were high: For the first crop following application, total amounts of N and P supplied by the sludge had the same efficiency as approximately 45% of the N and P amounts supplied by inorganic fertilizer. This ratio was 7% for the N uptake by the second maize crop. The quality and quantity of maize were equally good with both types of fertilization. During the 2 years following sludge spreading, N leaching remained as low in the sludged plot as in the inorganically fertilized one. The Cu, Zn, Cr, Cd, Pb and Ni composition of the drainage water was affected by neither of the types of amendment. From the heavymetal contents of the soil, water and maize monitored over 1 year in the field experiment and from literature data for cow manure and atmospheric emissions, a theoretical balance between crop soil heavy-metal input and output over one century was drawn up. The long-term impact of cow manure on Zn, Ni and Cr in soil is higher than that of the studied heat-dried sludge. Obviously, sludge tended to cause a strong increase in soil Cu storage, valued for these soils, which are otherwise very Cu deficient. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1728 N fertilisation, soil type and cultivars effects on N use efficiency in tef [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotte] Tulema B., Zapata F., Aune J. and Sitaula B. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 2005 71/2 (203-211) Tef [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotte] is a major staple crop in Ethiopia and a large proportion of the imported fertiliser is being applied to tef fields. However, since the 1980s the yield on farmers’ fields has stagnated. Response of the crop to applied fertiliser is influenced by several factors. We aimed to study the fertiliser N use efficiency (FNUE) of four tef varieties from ammonium sulphate and urea on different soil types with the help of the 15 N isotopic dilution technique. Three experiments were conducted under greenhouse and field conditions. On a typic Eutrocrept soil, higher percent N derived from fertiliser (% Ndff) and % FNUE were obtained for all the tested tef varieties when the N source was urea, while percent N derived from 330 SOILS soil (% Ndfs) was higher for ammonium sulphate. The mean % FNUE for urea and ammonium sulphate was 49 and 34%, respectively. When the varieties were grown on a Nitosol or a Vertisol and ammonium sulphate was applied, the % Ndff, the total and fertiliser N yield and % FNUE of the tef varieties were higher on a eutric Nitosol compared to the Vertisol. The mean % FNUE was 61.3 for the Nitosol and 27.8 for the Vertisol. In an ‘on farm’ experiment, relatively higher FNUE (33.3%) was obtained on an Andosol compared to Vertisols (17 and 27%). The tested varieties showed no difference in FNUE. As tef is the most important crop grown on Vertisols in Ethiopia, the low FNUE has a direct negative implication for the livelihood of the farmers and the environment. © Springer 2005. 1729 Does pyrite oxidation contribute to the acidification of tropical peat? A case study in a peat swamp forestin Central Kalimantan, Indonesia Haraguchi A., Akioka M. and Shimada S. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 2005 71/1 (101-108) The chemical properties of peat pore water in the basin of the Sebangau River and Lahei district, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, were studied. We analyzed major ions, pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and redox potential (Eh) of the peat pore water with reference to their vertical profile. We evaluated the contribution of sulfates to the acidi.cation of peat by including data from Furen mire, eastern Hokkaido, Japan. The coastal peat of Furen mire and the peat in Paduran in the lower basin of the Sebangau River included extraordinarily high concentrations of sulfates (> 1000 mg/l) compared to the peat in the middle and upper basins of the river (< 10 mg/l). High concentrations of sulfates, however, did not lead to a low pH for the peat. The present findings suggest that the acidification of the peat pore water is subject to the production of organic acids originating from peat decomposition, rather than the production of sulfuric acid produced by pyrite oxidation in the underlying mineral sediments. © Springer 2005. 1730 Simulating processes of soil phosphorus in geologically young acidic soils of Finland Yli- Halla M., Tattari S., B¨arlund I. et al. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (101-108) To properly simulate phosphorus (P) loading from agricultural land to waters, changes in soil P status and processes affecting soil P have to be described adequately. For practical reasons, a model has to rely on data that are commonly available. In this study, the P submodel of the ICECREAM model, based on the CREAMS, GLEAMS, and EPIC models, was adapted to simulate young acidic soils, which prevail in Finland. These soils have a high P sorption capacity, plenty of inorganic P in a non-reactive apatitic form, and the organic matter content (Or ) in the plow layer is commonly about 5%. The model was modified mainly on the basis of 12 long-term fertilization experiments and tested on three other soils. The P pools considered were labile P (P il ), active inorganic P (Pia ), stable inorganic P (P is ), fresh organic P (Pof ), and more stable organic P (Poh ). The major model modifications made were: (1) initialization of Pil from the Finnish soil test results (ammonium acetate extractable P, PAAC ); (2) initialization of Pia and Pis from Pil , assuming equilibrium; (3) revision of the P availability factor (Fl ), which regulates the flow between Pil and Pia ; and (4) calculation of the initial values of Poh from soil organic carbon content. These modifications aimed to improve simulation of Pil on the basis of data obtained from soil testing. Proper simulation of changes in Pil , reflected by the soil test P (P AAC ), is critical since it regulates the level of dissolved P in runoff water. After the modifications, the model was able to predict changes in PAAC at annual P application rates of 0 and 30 kg ha-1 in cereal cropping, but could not fully cope with a large surplus of P resulting from an annual rate of 60 kg P ha-1 . © 2005 American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1731 Carbaryl, 2,4-D, and Triclopyr adsorption in thatchsoil ecosystems Raturi S., Islam K.R., Caroll M.J. and Hill R.L. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 2005 40/5 (697-710) Thatch development in intensively managed turf sites may cause environmental concerns for greater sorption or leaching of applied chemicals in terrestrial ecosystems. To determine the ad- sorption potential of Carbaryl (1-Napthyl N-methylcarbamate), 2,4-D (2,4-dichloro-phenoxyacetic acid), and Triclopyr (3,5,6trichloro-2-pyridinyloxyacetic acid) in turf ecosystems, composite thatch and underlying soil samples from three- and sixyear-old stands of cool-season Southshore creeping bentgrass (Agrostis palustris Huds.) and warm-season Meyer zoysiagrass (Zoysiajaponica Steud.) were collected. The samples were processed and analyzed for total organic carbon (COrg ); extractable (CExt ), humic (CHA ) and fulvic acid (C FA ); anthrone reactive nonhumic carbon (ARC) fractions; and C HA and CFA associated iron (Fe) contents. Pesticide adsorption capacity (Kf ) and intensity (1/n), organic carbon partition coefficient (KOC ) and Gibbs free energy change ( G) were calculated for thatch materials and the underlying soils using a modified batch/flow technique. Both bentgrass (BT) and zoysiagrass thatch (ZT) contained a greater concentration of CExt CFA , CHA , and ARC than the respective soils (BS and ZS). The CExt , CFA , CHA , and ARC concentration was higher in BT compared with ZT. The BT contained a greater concentration of bound Fe in both CFA and C HA fractions than in BS, whereas ZT had more bound Fe in C HA fraction than in ZS. On average, the BT had a greater concentration of bound Fe in CExt , CFA , and CHA fractions than in the ZT. Among the pesticides, Carbaryl had higher K f and 1/n values than 2,4-D and Triclopyr for both thatch and soil. Although the KOC and G values of Carbaryl were higher in both BT and ZT than in the underlying soils, the KOC and G values of 2,4-D were significantly higher in BS and ZS than in the overlying thatch materials. The 2,4-D and Triclopyr had higher leaching indices (LI) than Carbaryl for both BT and ZT materials than the respective soils. The Carbaryl, however, had a higher LI for soils than for thatch materials. Averaged across thatch materials and soils, COrg accounted for 96, 85, and 84% variations in Carbaryl, 2,4-D, and Triclopyr adsorption, respectively. Among the COrg fractions, lignin followed by CFA and CHA accounted for greater adsorption of pesticides, especially Carbaryl. The concentration of CHA and CFA bound Fe did not correlate with Kf and 1/n values of pesticides. Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc. 1732 Sorption of three tetracyclines by several soils: Assessing the role of pH and cation exchange Sassman S.A. and Lee L.S. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7452-7459) Tetracyclines (TCs) are widely used in veterinary medicine for treatment and prevention of disease and are present in animal waste products. Detection of TCs in soil, sediments, and water, and the growing concern of their potentially adverse effect on natural ecosystems have resulted in a need to understand their behavior in aqueous soil systems. TCs have multiple ionizable functional groups such that at environmentally relevant pH values, they may exist as a cation (+00), zwitterion (+-0), or a net negatively charged ion (+--), which complicates predicting their sorption, availability, and transport. We investigated the sorption of oxytetracycline (DTC), tetracycline (TC), and chlortetracycline (CTC) by several soils varying in pH, clay amount and type, cation exchange capacity (CEC), anion exchange capacity (AEC), and soil organic carbon in 0.01 N CaCl2 , 0.001 N CaCl2 , and 0.01 N KCl. All three TCs are highly sorbed, especially in acidic and high clay soils. When normalized to CEC, sorption tends to decrease with increasing pH. A sorption model in which species-specific sorption coefficients normalized to pH+-0 +-dependent CEC (K+00 d , Kd , and K d ) and weighted by the pHdependent fraction of each species fit the data well across all soils except for a soil rich in gibbsite and high in AEC. Resulting K+00 d values were more than an order of magnitude larger than values +-0 +-+00 for either Kd and Kd values such that Kd alone described most of the sorption observed as a function of pH for eight soils that varied in their mineralogy and pH (pH ranged from 4 to 8). © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1733 Transformation of carbon tetrachloride by thiol reductants in the presence of quinone compounds Doong R.- A. and Chiang H.- C. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7460-7468) Quinones are present in trace amounts in natural organic matter. The addition of thiol compounds to quinones produces reactive electron-transfer species that may be important for the trans- SOILS formation of chlorinated hydrocarbons under sulfate-reducing conditions. This study systematically investigated the transformation of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4 ) in homogeneous aqueous solutions containing quinones as electron-transfer mediators and thiol compounds as bulk reductants. The thiol compounds, including sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS) and cysteine, were found to effectively transform CCl4 . The transformation of CCl4 followed pseudofirst-order kinetics, and the pseudo-first-order rate constants (kobs ) were (3.24 0.46)  10-7 and 1.04  10-7 s-1 , respectively, when solutions contained NaHS and cysteine alone. Addition of quinone compounds, including anthraquinone-2,6disulfonate (AQDS), benzoquinone (BQ), juglone (JQ), naphthoquinone (NQ), lawsone (LQ), and menadione (MQ), increased the transformation rate and efficiency of CCl4 . The k 0bs values for CCl4 transformation in the presence of quinones were 2.671 times higher than those for the thiol compounds alone. The enhancement efficiency followed the order JQ > NQ > BQ AQDS > LQ > MQ. Spectroscopic studies indicated that the quinone compounds generated various active electron-transfer mediators to transfer electrons from the bulk reductants to CCl4 . BQ and NQ produced mercaptoquinones as active redox mediators that significantly enhanced the transformation rate of CCl 4 in the presence of NaHS. The addition of thiol reductants produced large amounts of AQDS semiquinone radical as the electron shuttle. In addition, MQ and LQ were reduced by NaHS to give hydroquinone, which slightly enhanced the transformation efficiency of CCI4. These results clearly indicate that the enhanced efficiency of quinones for the transformation of chlorinated hydrocarbons is specifically related to the produced reactive species. Mercaptoquinone is a more active mediator than either semiquinone or hydroquinone for transferring electrons in a reducing environment containing thiol reductants. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1734 Fate and transport of monoterpenes through soils. Part I. Prediction of temperature dependent soil fate model input-parameters Van Roon A., Parsons J.R., Te Kloeze A.- M. and Govers H.A.J. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (599-609) Monoterpenes are C10HnOn
compounds of natural origin and are potentially environmentally safe substitutes for traditional pesticides. Still, an assessment of their environmental behaviour is required. As a first step in a theoretical study focussing on monoterpenes applied as pesticides to terrestrial environments, soil fate model input-parameters were determined for 20 monoterpenes with widely different structural characteristics. Inputparameters are the water solubility (SW ), vapour pressure (P), n-octanol-water partition coefficient (KOW ), atmospheric air and bulk water diffusion coefficients (DAair and DWwater), first order biodegradation rate constants (k), and their temperature dependence. Values for these parameters were estimated or taken from previous experimental work. The quality of the estimations was discussed by focussing on their statistics and by comparison with available experimental data. From these properties, the air-water partition coefficient (KAW , Henry’s Law constant), the interface-water partition coefficient (KIW ) and the organic matter-water partition coefficient (KOM ) could be estimated with varying levels of accuracy. In general, little experimental data turned out to be available on biodegradation rate constants and on the temperature dependence of physico-chemical parameters. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1735 Effect of dissolved organic matter on copper-zinc competitive adsorption by a sandy soil at different pH values Mesquita M.E. and Carranca C. Environmental Technology 2005 26/9 (1065-1072) The effect of dissolved organic carbon from sewage sludge on copper and zinc adsorption and interaction on samples from the surface layer (0 - 10 cm) of a sandy soil (Gleyic Podzol) were studied at two pH levels (4 and 7). This soil presented acidification hazards and sewage sludge with a high content of Cu and Zn was used as a fertilizer. Soil samples were treated by solutions of Cu and Zn as nitrate salts with concentration levels up to 30 mg l-1 in a Ca(NO3 )2 background at a constant level (180 mg l-1 ) of dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Copper and zinc sorption capacity decreased in the presence of DOC. As the pH increased, the decrease in Cu adsorption due to interaction 331 with DOC was more obvious. Conversely, without addition of DOC, Cu and Zn adsorption increased with pH. More Cu than Zn was adsorbed. Soil sorption of these cations was described by equilibrium isotherms that fitted both Langmuir and Freundlich type equations, presenting however a better fit to the Freundlich equation (R2 >98%). Adsorption dependence on DOC was more noticeable at pH 7. © Selper Ltd., 2005. 1736 Tylosin sorption to silty clay loam soils, swine manure, and sand Clay S.A., Liu Z., Thaler R. and Kennouche H. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 2005 40/6 (841-850) The objectives of this study were to assess sorption and desorption of tylosin, a macrolide antimicrobial chemical used in swine, cattle, and poultry production, in three silty clay loam soils of South Dakota and compare soil sorption to sand and manure sorption. The silty clay loam soils, from a toposequence in eastern South Dakota, standardized sand samples, and swine manure were used in 24-h batch sorption studies with tylosin concentrations ranging from 25 to 232 mole/L. Desorption from soil was conducted over a four-day period. Partition coefficients, based on the Freundlich isotherm (Kf ) or Kd values, were calculated. Kf values for the silty clay loams were similar, not influenced by landscape position, and averaged 1350 with isotherm slopes ranging from 0.85 to 0.93. Kf values for sand were dependent on solution/sand ratios and pH, ranging from 1.4 to 25.1. Kd values of manure were dependent on the solution type and ranged from 840 L/kg with urine to about 175 L/kg when sorbed from water. Desorption of tylosin from each soil over the four-day period was <0.2% of the amount added. The soils’ high Kf values and low desorption amounts suggest that once tylosin is in these soils, leaching to lower depths may not occur. However, this does not preclude runoff with soil eroded particles. If tylosin reaches a sand aquifer, through bypass flow or other mechanism(s), movement in the aquifer most likely would occur. Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc. 1737 Recent atmospheric Pb deposition at a rural site in southern Germany assessed using a peat core and snowpack, and comparison with other archives Le Roux G., Aubert D., Stille P. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6790-6801) In a peat bog from Black Forest, Southern Germany, the rate of atmospheric Pb accumulation was quantified using a peat core dated by 210 Pb and 14 C. The most recent Pb accumulation rate (2.5 mg m-2 y-1 ) is similar to that obtained from a snowpack on the bog surface, which was sampled during the winter 2002 (1 to 4 mg m-2 y -1 ). The Pb accumulation rates recorded by the peat during the last 25 yr are also in agreement with published values of direct atmospheric fluxes in Black Forest. These values are 50 to 200 times greater than the "natural" average background rate of atmospheric Pb accumulation (20 g m-2 y-1 ) obtained using peat samples from the same bog dating from 3300 to 1300 cal. yr B.C. The isotopic composition of Pb was measured in both the modern and ancient peat samples as well as in the snow samples, and clearly shows that recent inputs are dominated by anthropogenic Pb. The chronology and isotopic composition of atmospheric Pb accumulation recorded by the peat from the Black Forest is similar to the chronologies reported earlier using peat cores from various peat bogs as well as herbarium samples of Sphagnum and point to a common Pb source to the region for the past 150 years. In contrast, Pb contamination occurring before 1850 in southwestern Germany, differs from the record published for Switzerland mainly due to the mining activity in Black Forest. Taken together, the results show that peat cores from ombrotrophic bogs can yield accurate records of atmospheric Pb deposition, provided that the cores are carefully collected, handled, prepared, and analysed using appropriate methods. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1738 Facilitation of pentachlorophenol degradation in the rhizosphere of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) He Y., Xu J., Tang C. and Wu Y. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2017-2024) The phytoremediation of xenobiotics depends upon plant-mi- 332 SOILS crobe interactions in the rhizosphere, but the extent and intensity of these effects are currently unknown. To investigate rhizosphere effects on the biodegradation of xenobiotics, a glasshouse experiment was conducted using a specially designed rhizobox where ryegrass seedlings were grown for 53 days in a soil spiked with pentachlorophenol (PCP) at concentrations of 8.7 0.5 and 18 0.5 mg kg-1 soil. The soil in the rhizobox was divided into six separate compartments at various distances from the root surface. Changes in PCP concentrations with increasing distance from the root compartment of the rhizobox were then assessed. The largest and most rapid loss of PCP in planted soil was at 3 mm from the root zone where total PCP decreased to 0.20 and 0.65 mg kg-1 , respectively with the two PCP treatments. The degradation gradient followed the order: near-rhizosphere>root compartment>far- rhizosphere soil zones for both concentrations where ryegrass was grown. In contrast, there was no difference in PCP concentration with distance in the unplanted soil. The increases in both soil microbial biomass carbon and the activities of soil urease and phosphatase were accompanied by the enhanced degradation of PCP, which was higher in the near-rhizosphere than far-rhizosphere soil. The results suggest that the effect of root proximity is important in the degradation of xenobiotics such as PCP in soil. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1741 Quantification and bioavailability of scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate in pasture soils Turner B.L., Mahieu N., Condron L.M. and Chen C.R. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2155-2158) The recent identification of scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate in alkaline soil extracts by solution 31 P NMR spectroscopy allowed us to investigate this compound in soils by re-analyzing spectra from two previously published studies. Concentrations of scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate in 29 temperate pasture soils from England and Wales ranged between 11 and 130 mg P kg-1 soil and accounted for between 4 and 15% of the soil organic phosphorus. The ratio of scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate to myo-inositol hexakisphosphate ranged between 0.29 and 0.79. In a 10 month pot experiment with six grassland soils from New Zealand, growth of pine seedlings (Pinus radiata D. Don) decreased scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate concentrations by between 10 and 46%. Growth of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) decreased scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate in three low-nutrient soils by 5-21%, but increased it in three other soils by 1116%. We conclude that scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate is an important component of soil organic phosphorus with potential ecological significance. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1739 Organic acid behaviour in a calcareous soil implications for rhizosphere nutrient cycling Str¨om L., Owen A.G., Godbold D.L. and Jones D.L. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2046-2054) Calcareous soils are frequently characterized by the low bioavailability of plant nutrients. Consequently, many vascular plant species are unable to successfully colonize calcareous sites and the floristic composition of calcareous and acid silicate soils has been shown to differ markedly. The root exudation of oxalate and citrate has been suggested to play a pivotal role in same nutrient acquisition mechanisms operating in calcareous soils. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the nutrient extraction efficiency of three individual organic acids commonly identified in root exudates, i.e. citric, malic and oxalic acid. Our results clearly demonstrate the context dependent nature of nutrient release by organic acids. The degree of P extraction was highly dependent on which organic acid was added, their concentration and pH, and their contact time with the soil. P is generally more efficiently extracted by organic acids at a high pH and follows the series oxalate>citrate>malate. The opposite relationship between pH and extraction efficiency was apparent for most other cations examined (e.g. Zn, Fe), which are more efficiently extracted by organic acids at low pH. A serious constraint to the ecological importance of organic acid exudation in response to P deficiency is, however, their very low P mobilization efficiency. For every mol of soil P mobilized, 1000 mol of organic acid has to be added. It can, however, be speculated that in a calcareous soil with extremely low P concentrations it is still beneficial to the plants to exude organic acids in spite of the seemingly high costs in terms of carbon. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1742 Mineralisation of C and N from root, stem and leaf residues in soil and role of their biochemical quality Abiven S., Recous S., Reyes V. and Oliver R. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (119-128) The influence of biochemical characteristics of 15 crop residues on C and N mineralisation in soil was investigated by following the decomposition of roots, stems and leaves of four subtropical species and one temperate species buried into the soil. The C, N and polyphenols contents were measured in different biochemical pools obtained from residues of the different organs. The mineralisation of root C was significantly lower than that of leaves and stems. Chemical analysis showed a higher polyphenol content in the leaves and a higher ligninlike content in the roots. Carbon and N mineralisation were simulated with the STICS decomposition submodel and tested against the data set. The model predicted leaf and stem C mineralisation for all five species fairly accurately, but failed to predict root C mineralisation, indirectly revealing the more complex composition of the root tissue. The results showed the interest of separately considering the different plant parts when studying plant residue decomposition and the need to develop other methods of residue quality characterisation to improve the prediction of residue decomposition. 1740 Availability of CO2 as a factor affecting the rate of nitrification in soil Azam F., Gill S. and Farooq S. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2141-2144) A laboratory incubation experiment was conducted to demonstrate that reduced availability of CO2 in soil may be an important factor limiting nitrification. Soil samples were incubated at 30 2°C for 20 days using vessels with or without the arrangement for trapping CO2 in sodium hydroxide. This arrangement led to a decrease of ca. 96% in the CO2 concentration of the headspace, with a range of 95.7-97.5 at different sampling intervals. In the absence of trapping arrangement, CO 2 concentration of the headspace varied from 580 to 859 ppm, i.e. 62-140% higher than that of the outside atmosphere (358 ppm). The nitrification process was significantly retarded under conditions of reduced CO2 concentration; reduction varied from 8 to 62% at different incubation intervals. The results of the study led to the inference that decreased availability of CO2 in closed vessels (with arrangement for trapping CO2 ) will have a significant bearing on the process of nitrification and hence on the overall dynamics of N transformations. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1743 Availability of urea to autotrophic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria as related to the fate of 14 C- and 15 N-labeled urea added to soil Marsh K.L., Sims G.K. and Mulvaney R.L. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (137-145) Nitrate has been found to accumulate more rapidly in soils fertilized with urea than with inorganic sources of NH4 + , despite the fact that nitrification must be preceded by hydrolytic decomposition. For acidic conditions, this finding has been attributed to limited uptake of NH 4 + by ammonium-oxidizing bacteria (also reported herein), suggesting an advantage for direct utilization of a nonionizable N substrate such as urea. If the same advantage applies to urea-C, nitrification of urea-N would also be promoted in neutral or alkaline soils, as reported in numerous studies. To ascertain whether urea-C can be utilized directly by nitrifying organisms, NO2 - production was measured for Nitrosomonas europaea and Nitrosospira sp. NPAV in minimal media with urea as the sole source of either C or C and N. Nitrite accumulated only with the latter organism, in which case nearly quantitative recovery was observed for N added as NH 4 + and/or urea. In a subsequent study, recovery of 14 C and 15 N in gaseous, extractable, and hydrolyzable forms was determined after incubation with labeled urea for up to 29 days, by using two soils that differed markedly in physiochemical properties affecting nutrient availability. Results obtained in correlating 14 C incorporation in the amino acid fraction with 15 N accumulation as NO3 - were consistent with the stoichiometry that would be expected if C fixation were driven by autotrophic nitrification. Our findings demonstrate unequivocally that urea is utilized as a source of SOILS C and N by nitrifying microorganisms, which may account for rapid nitrification of urea-N in soils. 1744 Effects of previous elemental sulfur applications on oxidation of additional applied elemental sulfur in soils Li S., Lin B. and Zhou W. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (146-152) Oxidation of elemental sulfur (S0 ) in 20 Chinese agricultural soils was tested and the effects of previous S0 applications on the oxidation of additional applied S0 in selected soils were investigated using laboratory, greenhouse, and field experiments. Results showed that sulfur oxidative capacities presented great variability among 20 tested soils, with a coefficient of variation of 92.4%. There were no significant relationships between S0 oxidation and physical and chemical properties of the selected soil. Previous S0 amendment significantly increased the oxidation rate of additional applied S0 . These stimulatory effects after the first applications of S0 were greater than those after two applications. The percent increase in S0 oxidation rate due to S0 pretreatment was negatively correlated with the oxidation capacities of soils before S0 pretreatments. The significant reduction of sulfur oxidation in autoclaved soils and significant increase in S0 oxidation after inoculation with S0 -treated soil suspension demonstrated that microbial oxidation was mainly responsible for the enhancement of soil oxidation ability after previous S0 amendments. 1745 The relation between the content of organic phosphorus and latitude in Northeast China phaeozem Yu W., Zhao S., Zhang L. et al. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (159-162) Top phaeozem samples were collected from Nenjiang County (in Heilongjiang province) to Changtu County (in Liaoning province) in Northeast China every 6 km by using global positioning system (GPS) and analyzed for their content of organic C, total N, total P, organic P, and the organic to inorganic P (P o /Pi ) ratio. The content of organic P was significantly correlated with organic C and total N contents (P<0.01). The contents of organic P and total P and the Po /Pi ratio were significantly correlated with latitude (P<0.01), with r 2 coefficient of 0.59, 0.46, and 0.36, respectively. Since inorganic P content was not correlated with latitude (r 2 =0.07) and the contents of organic P and total P were significantly correlated (P<0.01, r 2 =0.70), it is reasonable to hypothesize that organic P can play an important role in the spatial differentiation of total P and the Po /Pi ratio. Probably, the causes of these spatial differentiations were the effects of climate and reclamation variations along the North-South transect. 1746 Base-cation cycling by individual tree species in oldgrowth forests of Upper Michigan, USA Fujinuma R., Bockheim J. and Balster N. Biogeochemistry 2005 74/3 (357-376) The influence of individual tree species on base-cation (Ca, Mg, K, Na) distribution and cycling was examined in sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), basswood (Tilia americana L.), and hemlock (Tsuga canadensis L.) in old-growth northern hardwood - hemlock forests on a sandy, mixed, frigid, Typic Haplorthod over two growing seasons in northwestern Michigan. Base cations in biomass, forest floor, and mineral soil (0-15 cm and 15-40 cm) pools were estimated for five replicated trees of each species; measured fluxes included bulk precipitation, throughfall, stemflow, litterfall, forest-floor leachate, mineralization + weathering, shallow-soil leachate, and deep-soil leachate. The three species differed in where base cations had accumulated within the single-tree ecosystems. Within these three single-tree ecosystems, the greatest quantity of base cations in woody biomass was found in sugar maple, whereas hemlock and basswood displayed the greatest amount in the upper 40 cm of mineral soil. Base-cation pools were ranked: sugar maple > basswood, hemlock in woody biomass; sugar maple, basswood > hemlock in foliage; hemlock > sugar maple, basswood in the forest floor, and basswood > sugar maple, hemlock in the mineral soil. Basecation fluxes in throughfall, stemflow, the forest-floor leachate, and the deep-soil leachate (2000 only) were ranked: basswood > sugar maple > hemlock. Our measurements suggest that species-related differences in nutrient cycling are sufficient to produce significant differences in base-cation contents of the soil 333 over short time intervals (<65 years). Moreover, these speciesmediated differences may be important controls over the spatial pattern and edaphic processes of northern hardwood-hemlock ecosystems in the upper Great Lakes region. © Springer 2005. 1747 Effect of water content on kinetics of volatile organic compounds mass transfer between gas and aqueous phases during gas transport in unsaturated sand Kim H., Annable M.D. and Rao P.S.C. Soil Science 2005 170/9 (680-691) The effect of changing water content on the air-water mass transfer kinetics of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during gas transport in unsaturated sand was investigated. The kinetics of VOC adsorption at the air-water interface from the gas phase was explored using n-decane, whereas methylene chloride was used to examine the effect of air-water partitioning. Methane was used as the nonreactive tracer in VOC transport experiments conducted using a sand column installed in a gas chromatography system. The longitudinal dispersion of methane, estimated from methane breakthrough curve (BTC), was found to be constant in the water content range (0.07 to 0.18) examined in this study at a constant pore-gas velocity ( g ), whereas an inverse proportionality between the longitudinal dispersion and g was observed. The BTCs for methane and n-decane, measured at constant g , were fairly symmetric, indicating that both gas diffusion and adsorption at air-water interfaces do not produce nonequilibrium transport. The shape of the methylene chloride BTC was gradually distorted at a constant g as water content increased. Fitting methylene chloride BTCs with a modified two-region model showed that the water partitioning becomes more rate-limited as water content increases. The overall mass transfer coefficient for water partitioning of methylene chloride was found to be a direct function of specific air-water interfacial area. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. 1748 Phosphate sorption by Thai red oxisols and red ultisols Trakoonyingcharoen P., Kheoruenromne I., Suddhiprakarn A. and Gilkes R.J. Soil Science 2005 170/9 (716-725) Phosphate sorption characteristics of 28 samples of red Oxisols and red Ultisols from agricultural areas of Thailand were described by using Langmuir and Freundlich equations. The soils were three Typic Kandiudults, a Typic Paleustult, a Typic Kandiustult, a Typic Kandiustox, three Rhodic Kandiustox, two Rhodic Kandiudox, two Typic Kandiudox, and a Kandiudalfic Eutrudox. Values of Langmuir P maximum (Xm ) ranged from 18 to 1111 mg kg-1 soil and the Freundlich k coefficient varied between 9 and 652 mg kg -1 . Many soil properties were closely correlated with these measures of P sorption capacity including total titanium, goethite, total iron, amorphous aluminum, and specific surface area. Goethite, microcrystalline kaolin, and amorphous forms of Fe and Al oxides were major contributors to P sorption by these soils. The Freundlich B coefficient, which is a measure of P bonding energy, was weakly related to clay content but there were no close relationships between the equivalent Langmuir b coefficient and soil properties. Soil pH in 1 M NaF (pH 8.0) was highly predictive of P sorption and may therefore be used as a quick economical field test for evaluating P fertilizer requirement. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 1749 Low-molecular-weight organic acid exudation of rape (Brassica campestris) roots in cesium-contaminated soils Po N.C., Wang M.K., Jeng J.W. and Chiu C.- Y. Soil Science 2005 170/9 (726-733) Cesium is an emission element from nuclear energy generation easily transferred to food chain. More evidence has been found that Brassica crops take up pollutants from soils. The objective of this study was to investigate the correlation between soil bioavailability of cesium and low-molecular-weight organic acids (LMWOAs) in rape (Brassica campestris) root exudates. Longtan (LT) red (Typic Hapladox) and Kuanshan (KS) iron-rich calcareous soils (Typic Paleudalf) were collected for this study. The pot experiments of rape were conducted with cesium-amended soils and plants grown in the soils (4 weeks). Cesium concentration in shoots and roots correlated well with Cs concentration in the amended soils. Within the amended range of 50 to 300 mg Cs kg -1 soil, Cs did not inhibit rape growth. The bioaccumulation 334 SOILS ratio ([Cs]root /[Cs]soil ] or [Cs]shoot /[Cs] soil ) for Cs in shoots of pot grown plants ranged between 9 and 31 and showed significant differences (P < 0.05). Plant roots can exude LMWOAs, which are important components in root exudation. The total amounts of volatile and nonvolatile LMWOAs in all Cs-amended soils were higher than those in nonamended soils. Meanwhile, the LMWOA concentrations of the rape root exudates showed good correlation with Cs concentrations in the applied range of 50 to 300 mg Cs kg-1 soil. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 1750 Temperature effects on iron reduction in a hydric soil Rabenhorst M.C. and Castenson K.L. Soil Science 2005 170/9 (734-742) For soils to be considered hydric, they must demonstrate both saturation and anaerobic conditions in the upper part of the soil. Although several technologies are available for monitoring of soil water tables, documentation of reducing conditions is more problematic. This has led to recent interest in the use of IRIS (indicator of reduction in soils) tubes. IRIS tubes are lengths of PVC pipe coated with ferrihydrite paint, which are inserted into the soil to document reducing conditions. Observations from preliminary studies led us to postulate soil temperature will affect the degree and rate of reduction and removal of ferrihydrite from the IRIS tubes. To quantify the impact of soil temperature on ferrihydrite reduction and removal from IRIS tubes, a time series experiment was designed such that IRIS tubes were placed into a hydric soil for time periods ranging from 7 to 28 days, between February and June, 2004. Water tables were monitored daily, Eh was measured at depths of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50, cm on a weekly basis, and soil temperature was recorded every 4 hours. Removal of ferrihydrite from IRIS tubes was not constant during periods of anaerobiosis and was related to soil temperature. At temperatures below 2°C, there was essentially no measurable ferrihydrite reduction, even though soil redox potentials fell within the Fe(II) stability field. As soil temperatures increased between 2 and 8°C, the quantity of ferrihydrite reduction increased with time. At soil temperatures between 8 and 20°C, substantial (35% to 45%) ferrihydrite paint was reduced and removed from IRIS tubes within 7 days. For a given temperature, there was greater reduction of ferrihydrite in zones closer to the soil surface, presumably due to higher amounts of oxidizable organic matter in near surface horizons. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 1751 Mobility of natural radionuclides and selected major and trace elements along a soil toposequence in the Central Spanish Pyrenees Navas A., Machn J. and Soto J. Soil Science 2005 170/9 (743757) Natural gamma-emitting radionuclides (238 U, 226 Ra, 232 Th, 210 Pb) and selected major and trace elements (Ca, K, Mg, Na, Fe, Al, Mn, Pb, Ba, Zn, Sr, Li, Co, Ni, Cu, Cr, Cd) were determined in a soil toposequence along a mountain slope of the Tertiary Flysch landscapes in the Central Spanish Pyrenees. A variety of basic properties were also measured from the soil profiles. Mean radioisotope activities (Bq kg -1 ) range from 22 to 33 for 238 U; 25 to 32 for 226 Ra; 23 to 33 for 210 Pb, and 37 to 46 for 232 Th. The radionuclides showed different patterns in their depth distribution, thus U and Pb had largest differences in concentrations down the soil profiles, whereas 226 Ra and 232 Th exhibited uniform depth distributions. 238 U was depleted in all upper soil layers and enriched in deeper layers. Pb exhibits very different depth profiles along the soil toposequence and accumulated at upper layers in three sites. 238 U/226 Ra activity ratios indicate disequilibrium in the 238 U decay chain and reflect the leaching of 238 U in contrast with the lack of mobility of 226 Ra. The values of 232 Th/226 Ra indicate that the initial proportionality in the 238 U and 232 Th decay chains has not been maintained in this toposequence. The relationships between soil properties and gamma-emitting radionuclides suggested the association of 226 Ra and 232 Th with Fe and Mn oxides. Al, Ca, Fe, and K were the most abundant elements, followed by Mn, Ba, Pb, Sr, Li, and Zn, whereas Co, Cu, Ni, and Cr are as trace elements and Cd was not detected. Correlations between elements suggest association with carbonates (Ca, Sr), silicates and clay minerals (Al, K, Na) and with Fe and Mn oxides (Cr, Cu, Ni, Co, Zn). Along the soil toposequence, Ca, Sr, Mg and Na, K, Al increase at the bottom slope positions, due to highest carbonate contents and abundance of finer soil fractions (clay and silt), respectively. Fe and Mn decrease at the bottom slope because highest contents of Fe and Mn oxides are at upper slope positions. This research is of interest to describe the geochemical cycling of elements in the environment and to assess the processes that affect their mobility in the ecosystems. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 1752 Modeling the effects of gas phase CO2 intrusion on the biogeochemistry of variably saturated soils Altevogt A.S. and Jaffe P.R. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-9) [1] The transport of gas phase carbon dioxide through unsaturated soils has the potential to significantly alter the soil biogeochemistry. Leakage of CO2 from deep reservoirs, either naturally occurring or anthropogenically emplaced, may displace oxygen in the soil gas and hence radically alter the redox conditions of a soil. Furthermore, the formation of carbonic acid in the aqueous phase will alter the pH of the soil system. A two-dimensional numerical model has been developed to explore the effects of gaseous CO2 leakage on the biogeochemistry of a variably saturated porous media. The model describes the sequential degradation of organic carbon by microorganisms using a series of terminal electron acceptors. Gas phase CO2 intrusion results in changes in redox conditions and pH of the soil water, both of which lead to alteration of the biogeochemistry of the soil. Alteration of the biogeochemical profile of a representative field site is explored with the numerical model. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1753 Selenium distribution in topsoils and plants of a semiarid Mediterranean environment Moreno Rodriguez M.J., Cala Rivero V. and Jim´enez Ballesta R. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (513-519) Selenium was determined from 25 topsoils and 25 plants in the semi-arid Central Spain where large extents of soils are developed on evaporitic materials. Some species of vegetation associated with them are of the genera Astragalus, Salsola, Mercurialis, Phlomis, Thymus and Atriplex. Total selenium in soils was determined and its bioavailability assessed by chemical sequential fractionation. Se content in soils was adequate (in the range 0.17-0.39 mg kg-1 ) or large (in the range 0.50-4.38 mg kg-1 ) and appeared in highly and/or potentially available forms. Several plant species showed high Se levels (in the range 5-14.3 mg kg-1 ), which can be a potential risk of toxicity to animals. Data obtained from the study area can be used as a guide to the range of values in soils and plants of the European Mediterranean area that are relatively unpolluted from industrial sources, allowing comparison with more polluted areas. © Springer 2005. 1754 Uranium accumulation of crop plants enhanced by citric acid Chang P., Kim K.- W., Yoshida S. and Kim S.- Y. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (529-538) Citric acid was applied to soil to enhance U accumulation in four crop plants. While the highest enhanced U accumulation of aboveground tissues (a.c. 2000 mg kg-1 dry weight) occurred in the leaves of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea), the highest enhanced U accumulation of roots (a.c. 3500 mg kg-1 dry weight) occurred in canola (Brassica napus var. napus). Uranium translocation among tissues of test plants is in the relation of roots > shoots
= leaves. The flowers of sunflower (Helianthus annuus) contained similar or higher U concentrations than those found in shoots, but concentrations in seeds are close to zero. In conclusion, Indian mustard is recommended as a potential species for phytoextraction for U-contaminated soil due to its high U accumulation of aboveground biomass (a.c. 2200 g per plant). There is no evidence that two types of soils cause a significant difference of the enhanced U accumulation (p<0.05). Results, however, indicate that additional citric acid may result in downward U migration that may contaminate groundwater. Speciation of U that is taken up by plants is also discussed in the end. © Springer 2005. SOILS 222 Rn activity concentration in soil gas at 1755 Variation of a site in Sapporo, Japan Fujiyoshi R., Kinoshita M. and Sawamura S. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (539-547) Several factors controlling the soil radon level in the present site were found to be changing air-filled porosity caused by fluctuations in moisture content, differences between the atmospheric and soil temperatures as well as volumetric 226 Ra content of the soil. The radon activity increased significantly in early October, especially at point 1, possibly as a result of a magnitude 8.0 earthquake which occurred on September 26, 2003, with epicenter located offshore near Tokachi, Hokkaido. © Springer 2005. 1756 The impact of the hyperacid Ijen Crater Lake. Part I: Concentrations of elements in crops and soil Heikens A., Widianarko B., Dewi I.C. et al. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (409-418) In Asembagus (East Java, Indonesia) irrigation water is contaminated with effluent from the hyperacid Ijen Crater Lake resulting in a low pH and high levels of various elements. As a first step towards a risk assessment, locally produced food items (rice, maize, cassava leaf, cassava root, peanuts) were collected and concentrations of As, B, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, V, Zn were compared to samples from a reference area and with literature values. Further, concentrations in rice were compared to total soil concentrations in paddy fields. Compared to the reference area, food items produced in the contaminated area had increased levels of Cd, Co, Ni and Mn in particular, while levels of Mo were lower. In contrast, total soil concentrations of Cd and Mn in particular have decreased whereas especially Mo was increased. In combination with the observed soil acidification, it is likely that the bioavailable concentration of most elements in the contaminated soil is higher (except for Mo) due to an increased weathering rate and/or input via the contaminated irrigation water. In terms of human health, concentrations in foods were generally within normal literature values. However, it was observed that essential elements (in particular Fe) known for their inhibitory effects on e.g. Cd and Mn toxicity did not accumulate in crops whereas Cd and Mn did. © Springer 2005. 1757 Effect of sewage sludge or compost on the sorption and distribution of copper and cadmium in soil Vaca- Pauln R., Esteller- Alberich M.V., Lugo- De La Fuente J. and Zavaleta- Mancera H.A. Waste Management 2006 26/1 (71-81) The application of biosolids such as sewage sludge is a concern, because of the potential release of toxic metals after decomposition of the organic matter. The effect of application of sewage sludge (Sw) and compost (C) to the soil (S) on the Cu and Cd sorption, distribution and the quality of the dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the soil, was investigated under controlled conditions. Visible spectrophotometry, infrared spectroscopy, sorption isotherms (simple and competitive sorption systems), and sequential extraction methods were used. The E4 /E6 ( at 465 and 665 nm) ratio and the infrared spectra (IR) of DOM showed an aromatic behaviour in compost-soil (C-S); in contrast sewage sludge-soil (Sw-S) showed an aliphatic behaviour. Application of either Sw or C increased the Cu sorption capacity of soil. The Cd sorption decreased only in soil with a competitive metal system. The availability of Cu was low due to its occurrence in the acid soluble fraction (F3). The Cu concentration varied in accordance with the amounts of Cu added. The highest Cd concentration was found in the exchangeable fraction (F2). The Sw and C applications did not increase the Cd availability in the soil. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1758 Characterization of phosphorus in sub-alpine forest and adjacent grassland soils by chemical extraction and phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy Chiu C.- Y., Pai C.- W. and Yang K.- L. Pedobiologia 2005 49/6 (655-663) We used chemical extraction methods and 31 P-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to investigate the effects of vegetation on the amount and structural composition of phosphorous (P) in the sub-alpine soils of central Taiwan. Chemical extraction methods were used to measure inorganic P (Pi) and organic P (Po) in main 335 soil horizons. The soil P composition was assessed by spectroscopy on alkaline EDTA-NaOH extracts. According to the results of chemical extractions, the forest soil had a higher amount of Pi than the grassland soil, which might be a result of the mineralization of Po. 31 P-NMR spectra showed inorganic orthophosphate (up to 67%) and orthophosphate monoesters (up to 75%) as the major forms of P extracted in forest and grassland soils, respectively. Smaller proportions of orthophosphate diesters and trace amounts of phosphonates and pyrophosphate were found. With possible hydrolysis of P compounds during chemical extraction and slight systemic error in the processes of extraction with NMR, the results from NMR analysis are, in general, consistent with those of chemical extraction. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 31 P-NMR 1759 Effects of different ground clearance on soil fertility of Chinese fir stands (Chinese) Xue L., Xiang W., He Y. et al. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1417-1421) The study on the soil physical properties, nutrient contents, microbial amounts and enzyme activities of clear cuttting and controlled burning Chinese fir stands showed that in comparing with the control, soil non-capillary porosity of clear cutting stand increased by 23%, whereas soil natural water capacity and capillary moisture capacity decreased by 25%. In controlled burning stand, soil bulk density increased by 10%, while soil noncapillary porosity, natural water capacity and capillary moisture capacity decreased by 61%, 48% and 26%, respectively. The contents of soil organic matter, total N, total P and total K in clear cutting stand decreased by 14%, 14%, 35% and 22%, and in controlled burning stand, they decreased by 37%, 37%, 47% and 7%, respectively. Soil alkalized N and available K in clear cutting stand increased by 24% and 31%, respectively, but soil available P decreased by 15%. The contents of soil alkalized N, available P and available K in controlled burning stand decreased by 25%, 43% and 40%, respectively. In clear cutting stand, the amounts of soil bacteria, fungi and actinomyces increased by 1.4, 11.3 and 0.8 times, respectively, but in controlled burning stand, the amounts of soil bacteria decreased by 24%, while those of soil fungi and actinomyces increased by 5.0 and 0.5 times, respectively. The activities of soil urease, catalase and cellulase in clear cutting stand increased by 1.9, 1.6 and 2.1 times, and in controlled burning land, they were 35%, 90% and 106% of the control, respectively. Damp soil had higher contents of organic matter, total N and total P, whereas porous soil was favorable for the accumulation of alkalized N, available P and available K and for the increase of soil urease activity. The amount of soil fungi decreased with increasing soil capillary porosity. Aerated soil was favorable for the increase of soil catalase activity. 1760 Spatial variability of nutrients in cultivated soils of Xinhui District, Jiangmen City (Chinese) Gan H. and Peng L. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1437-1442) Employing geostatistical methods and GIS technology, this paper studied the spatial distribution characteristics of pH, organic matter, CEC, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and slowly available potassium in cultivated soils of Xinhui District, Jiangmen City. All the test variables were normally or log normally distributed. Semivariogram analysis showed that soil nutrients were moderately spatially-dependent in a given spatial range, except that soil total nitrogen was strongly spatially-dependent. It was shown from Kriging analysis that soil pH and CEC was the highest in the northeast, and soil organic matter content was higher in the middle and northeast investigation region. The area with 1.5-2.0 gkg-1 soil total nitrogen content accounted for 75.7 % of the investigated region, mainly distributed in the west and east, that with >40 mgkg-1 soil available phosphorus content was accounted for 48.7%, mainly distributed in the west and northeast, and the area that slowly available potassium content was 160-350 mgkg-1 accounted for 48.1%, mainly distributed in the east, northeast and the middle. 1761 Relationships between red soil enzyme activity and fertility (Chinese) Xue D., Yao H., He Z. and Huang C. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1455-1458) 336 SOILS Correlation and cluster analyses on the enzyme activities and chemical-biological properties of eight red soils showed that soil urease, invertase, phosphatase and catalase activities correlated significantly with soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and total phosphorous. Similar results of soil fertility evaluation were obtained by using soil enzyme activities and by using soil chemical-biological properties, indicating that soil enzyme activity could be used as an index of evaluating red soil fertility. The enzyme activities of fresh soil were generally greater than those of air-dried sample, and more closely correlated with soil fertility. Organic matter 1762 Soil carbon stocks and changes in the Republic of Ireland Tomlinson R.W. Journal of Environmental Management 2005 76/1 (77-93) The soil carbon (C) stock of the Republic of Ireland is estimated to have been 2048 Mt in 1990 and 2021 Mt in 2000. Peat holds around 53% of the soil C stock, but on 17% of the land area. The C density of soils (t C ha-1 ) is mapped at 2 km2 km resolution. The greatest soil C densities occur where deep raised bogs are the dominant soil; in these grid squares C density can reach 3000 t C ha-1 . Most of the loss of soil C between 1990 and 2000 - up to 23 Mt C (1% of 1990 soil C stock) - was through industrial peat extraction. The average annual change in soil C stocks from 1990 to 2000 due to land use change was estimated at around 0.02% of the 1990 stock. Considering uncertainties in the data used to calculate soil C stocks and changes, the small average annual ‘loss’ could be regarded as ‘no change’. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1763 Stock and distribution of total and corn-derived soil organic carbon in aggregate and primary particle fractions for different land use and soil management practices Puget P., Lal R., Izaurralde C. et al. Soil Science 2005 170/4 (256-279) Land use, soil management, and cropping systems affect stock, distribution, and residence time of soil organic carbon (SOC). Therefore, SOC stock and its depth distribution and association with primary and secondary particles were assessed in long-term experiments at the North Appalachian Experimental Watersheds near Coshocton, Ohio, through 13 C techniques. These measurements were made for five land use and soil management treatments: (1) secondary forest, (2) meadow converted from no-till (NT) corn since 1988, (3) continuous NT corn since 1970, (4) continuous NT corn-soybean in rotation with ryegrass since 1984, and (5) conventional plow till (PT) corn since 1984. Soil samples to 70-cm depth were obtained in 2002 in all treatments. Significant differences in soil properties were observed among land use treatments for 0 to 5-cm depth. The SOC concentration (g C kg-1 of soil) in the 0 to 5-cm layer was 44.0 in forest, 24.0 in meadow, 26.1 in NT corn, 19.5 in NT corn-soybean, and 11.1 in PT corn. The fraction of total C in corn residue converted to SOC was 11.9% for NT corn, 10.6% for NT corn-soybean, and 8.3% for PT corn. The proportion of SOC derived from corn residue was 96% for NT corn in the 0 to 5-cm layer, and it decreased gradually with depth and was 50% in PT corn. The mean SOC sequestration rate on conversion from PT to NT was 280 kg C ha-1 y-1 . The SOC concentration decreased with reduction in aggregate size, and macro-aggregates contained 15 to 35% more SOC concentration than microaggregates. In comparison with forest, the magnitude of SOC depletion in the 0 to 30-cm layer was 15.5 Mg C/ha (24.0%) in meadow, 12.7 Mg C/ha (19.8%) in NT corn, 17.3 Mg C/ha (26.8%) in NT corn-soybean, and 23.3 Mg C/ha (35.1%) in PT corn. The SOC had a long turnover time when located deeper in the subsoil. Additional research is needed to understand association of SOC with particle and aggregate size fractions and temporal changes and depth-distribution with regard to land use and soil management. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. 1764 Soil organic carbon sequestration rates in two longterm no-till experiments in Ohio Jarecki M.K. and Lal R. Soil Science 2005 170/4 (280-291) The effectiveness of no-till (NT) farming in reducing loss of soil organic matter (SOM) depends on climate and soil properties. Soil samples were obtained from two long-term experiments that were designed to study the impact of tillage systems on crop yields. However, the objectives of this experiment were to assess the impact of NT on soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration rate and other soil properties and to estimate historic depletion of SOC under different soil management practices with reference to the undisturbed wooded control. The two long-term experiments in Ohio studied were those sited at South Charleston and Hoytville. The South Charleston (83° 30
W and 39° 48
N) experiment was established in 1962 on Crosby silt loam (fine mixed, mesic Aeric Ochraqualf). The site has long-term annual temperature and precipitation of 10.8°C and 1043 mm, respectively. Tillage treatments for continuous corn (Zea mays) were NT, chisel plow (CP), and moldboard plow (MP). The Hoytville (84° 04
W and 41° 03


N) experiment was established in 1987 on Hoytville clay loam (fine, illitic mesic Mollic Epiaqualfs) soil. The site has long-term annual temperature and precipitation of 9.9°C and 845 mm, respectively. There were two crop rotations: (i) 2-year corn-soybean (Glycine max) rotation with NT and subsoiling and (ii) 3-year corn-soybean-oat (Avena sativa) rotation with NT, CP, and rotational tillage soil management. The Hoytville clay site is poorly drained, has higher clay content, and higher and more even by distributed antecedent level of SOC in the soil profile than does the South Charleston silt loam soil. No-til increased SOC and N pools in the 0 to 5-cm layer in silt loam soil but had no effect in clay soil. The rate of SOC sequestration in the silt-loam soil under NT was 175 kg C ha-1 y -1 . The silt loam soil had higher SOC and N stratification ratios in NT than in MP and CP treatments, whereas the stratification ratios were low and similar in all treatments in the clayey soil. For both soils, there were no differences between tillage treatments in several soil properties including texture, available water capacity, hydraulic conductivity (Ks ), and cation exchange capacity. The NT decreased soil bulk density and pH in the 0 to 15-cm layer in the silt loam soil. The plow til treatments had a small impact on soil aggregation in clayey soil. The decline in water-stable aggregates with reference to NT was no more than one sixth. In the silt loam soil, however, the water-stable aggregates in plow till treatments were merely one third of that in the NT treatment. The historic loss of the SOC pool for 0 to 30-cm depth under agricultural land use was 25 to 35% in silt loam and 19 to 25% in the clayey soil. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. 1765 Comparison of odorous volatile compounds from fourteen different commercial composts using solid-phase microextraction Kim H., McConnell L.L. and Millner P. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (315-320) In this study, odorous volatile compounds (OVCs) from marketready, commercial composts supplied by 14 different producers were compared using a recently developed method involving solid-phase microextraction (SPME) of headspace volatiles followed by GC analysis. The products analyzed were derived from a cross-section of the wide array of compost feedstock ingredients used in the U.S. (e.g., biosolids, yard trimmings, animal manure, and industrial by-products). A variety of quality assessment tests were performed using test procedures specified in a national certification program offered through the U.S. Composting Council. Measurements of odorous chemicals (i.e., trimethylamine, carbon disulfide, dimethylsulfide, dimethyldisulfide, propionic acid, and butyric acid) supplemented other quality aspects in the evaluation of stability. Result showed that relatively higher concentrations of reduced sulfur-containing compounds were detected from marketable composts containing sewage sludge than from composts produced with other feedstocks. The greatest amounts of reduced sulfur-containing compounds were detected from a compost containing a mixture of industrial sludge and agricultural byproducts. Pathogen indicator microbes for most composts were within limits for Class A (U.S. EPA 40CFR Part503). Very large numbers of fecal coliforms, E. coli, and Enterococcus were present in the compost that produced the greatest concentrations SOILS of carbon disulfide and dimethylsulfide. Composts containing sewage sludge and yard wastes produced relatively higher concentrations of propionic and butyric acids than those containing other ingredients. The composition of OVCs in compost products can be objectively evaluated with the SPME method reported here. Results in combination with other compost quality factors may help compost producers improve product quality. 1766 Phosphorus speciation in manure and manureamended soils using XANES spectroscopy Sato S., Solomon D., Hyland C. et al. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7485-7491) Previous studies suggested an increase in the proportion of calcium phosphates (CaP) of the total phosphorus (P) pool in soils with a long-term poultry manure application history versus those with no or limited application histories. To understand and predict long-term P accumulation and release dynamics in these highly amended soils, it is important to understand what specific P species are being formed. We assessed forms of CaP formed in poultry manure and originally acidic soil in response to different lengths of mostly poultry manure applications using P K-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy. Phosphorus K-edge XANES spectra of poultry manure showed no evidences of crystalline P minerals but dominance of soluble CaP species and free and weakly bound phosphates (aqueous phosphate and phosphate adsorbed on soil minerals). Phosphate in an unamended neighboring forest soil (pH 4.3) was mainly associated with iron (Fe) compounds such as strengite and Feoxides. Soils with a short-term manure history contained both Fe-associated phosphates and soluble CaP species such as dibasic calcium phosphate (DCP) and amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP). Long-term manure application resulted in a dominance of CaP forms confirming our earlier results obtained with sequential extractions, and a transformation from soluble to more stable CaP species such as  -tricalcium calcium phosphate (TCP). Even after long-term manure application (>25 yr and total P in soil up to 13 307 mg kg-1 ), however, none of the manure-amended soils showed the presence of crystalline CaP. With a reduction or elimination of poultry manure application to naturally acidic soils, the pH of the soil is likely to decrease, thereby increasing the solubility of Ca-bonded inorganic P minerals. Maintaining a high pH is therefore an important strategy to minimize P leaching in these soils. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1767 Copper(II) complexation by humic and fulvic acids from pig slurry and amended and non-amended soils Plaza C., Senesi N., Garca- Gil J.C. and Polo A. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (711-716) The effect of the consecutive annual additions of pig slurry at rates of 0 (control), 90 and 150 m3 ha-1 y-1 over a 4-year period on the binding affinity for Cu(II) of soil humic acids (HAs) and fulvic acids (FAs) was investigated in a field plot experiment under semiarid conditions. A ligand potentiometric titration method and a single site model were used for determining the Cu(II) complexing capacities and the stability constants of Cu(II) complexes of HAs and FAs isolated from pig slurry and control and amended soils. The HAs complexing capacities and stability constants were larger than those of the corresponding FA fractions. With respect to the control soil HA, pig-slurry HA was characterized by a much smaller binding capacity and stability constant. Amendment with pig slurry decreased the binding affinity of soil HAs. Similar to the corresponding HAs, the binding affinity of pig-slurry FA was much smaller while that of amended-soil FAs were slightly smaller when compared to the control soil FA. The latter effect was, however, more evident with increasing the amount of pig slurry applied to soil per year and the number of years of pig slurry application. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1768 Leaf litter decomposition in a chaparral ecosystem, Southern California Quideau S.A., Graham R.C., Oh S.- W. et al. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (1988-1998) Decomposition losses from leaves of three evergreen chaparral species, scrub oak (Quercus dumosa), ceanothus (Ceanothus crassifolius), and manzanita (Arctostaphylos glauca), were quantified over a 2-y field exposure using litterbags. Changes in 337 ash-free dry mass, C, and N were monitored at 2- to 6-month intervals at four replicate sites composed of patches of these three chaparral species. Three proximate C fractions were extracted from fresh and decomposing litter samples: polar and non-polar extractives (EXT), acid-solubles (ACID), and acid-insolubles (KLIG). The chemical structure of fresh and decomposed litter was additionally characterized using high-resolution solid-state 13 C NMR spectroscopy, while morphological properties were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). After 2 y, the litters had lost between 20.7% 1.2 (Ceanothus) and 35.2% 6.8 (Quercus) of their original ash-free dry mass. The manzanita decomposed at a significantly faster rate than the other two litter types during the first few months of field exposure. Yet, after 2 y, mass loss was greater for the oak. Differences in decomposition rates could not be accounted for based on a single litter quality index. Fresh manzanita exhibited a significantly higher N content, which could explain its initially faster decay rate. Fresh oak litter, on the other hand, had a relatively high ACID and O-alkyl C (O-ALK) content, which may have been responsible for its decay pattern. Fresh ceanothus contained a relatively low KLIG content, yet it decomposed more slowly than the two other species. The solid-state 13 C NMR spectra of the ceanothus litter had two peaks characteristic of proanthocyanidins, which likely contributed to the recalcitrance of this litter type. SEM revealed that ceanothus leaf surfaces were left nearly unchanged after field exposure. In comparison, the oak and manzanita leaf surfaces were pitted and covered by microbial growth to the point of being unrecognizable. Taken together, our results indicate that a combination of biological, physical and chemical factors need to be examined to clarify the different decomposition rates and patterns of these three chaparral species. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1769 Long-term application of organic manure and nitrogen fertilizer on N 2 O emissions, soil quality and crop production in a sandy loam soil Meng L., Ding W. and Cai Z. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2037-2045) A long-term field experiment was established to determine the influence of mineral fertilizer (NPK) or organic manure (composed of wheat straw, oil cake and cottonseed cake) on soil fertility. A tract of calcareous fluvo-aquic soil (aquic inceptisol) in the Fengqiu State Key Experimental Station for Ecological Agriculture (Fengqiu county, Henan province, China) was fertilized beginning in September 1989 and N2 O emissions were examined during the maize and wheat growth seasons of 2002-2003. The study involved seven treatments: organic manure (OM), halforganic manure plus half-fertilizer N (1/2 OMN), fertilizer NPK (NPK), fertilizer NP (NP), fertilizer NK (NK), fertilizer PK (PK) and control (CK). Manured soils had higher organic C and N contents, but lower pH and bulk densities than soils receiving the various mineralized fertilizers especially those lacking P, indicating that long-term application of manures could efficiently prevent the leaching of applied N from and increase N content in the plowed layer. The application of manures and fertilizers at a rate of 300 kg N ha-1 year-1 significantly increased N2 O emissions from 150 g N2 O-N ha-1 year-1 in the CK treatment soil to 856 g N2 O-N ha-1 year-1 in the OM treatment soil; however, there was no significant difference between the effect of fertilizer and manure on N2 O emission. More N2 O was released during the 102-day maize growth season than during the 236-day wheat growth season in the N-fertilized soils but not in N-unfertilized soils. N2 O emission was significantly affected by soil moisture during the maize growth season and by soil temperature during the wheat growth season. In sum, this study showed that manure added to a soil tested did not result in greater N2 O emission than treatment with a N-containing fertilizer, but did confer greater benefits for soil fertility and the environment. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1770 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) as a parameter of compost maturity Zmora- Nahum S., Markovitch O., Tarchitzky J. and Chen Y. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2109-2116) Despite numerous investigations of the maturation process of composts, a simple and straightforward parameter which can 338 SOILS predict plant response upon compost application has yet to be defined. In light of results accumulated over a decade, we examined simple, chemical parameters of three composts from three types of source materials (municipal solid waste (MSW), separated cow manure (CSM), biosolids (BS)). These materials were composted using different procedures and facilities. The chemical parameters were correlated to the growth response of cucumbers or ryegrass sown in potting media amended with the composts sampled at different stages of the process. The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration of all composts decreased rapidly within the first month, then, towards the end of the process, stabilized at concentration below 4 g kg-1 . DOC correlated highly and significantly to the absorbance at 465 nm in all composts, and also to the C/N ratio. Nitrate evolution was similar in all composts, but the final concentrations differed among them. Plant biomass increased with composting time. For CSM and BS compost maximum biomass was reached when the DOC reached levels below 4 g kg-1 . DOC concentration is suggested for use as a simple method of determining maturity, with 4 g kg-1 recommended as a threshold level indicating maturity. Absorbance at 465 nm can be used instead of DOC concentration after appropriate calibration. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1773 Humus accumulation and microbial activities in calcari-epigleyic fluvisols under grassland and forest diked in for 30 years Dilly O., Gnafl A. and Pfeiffer E.- M. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2163-2166) The accumulation and transformation of organic matter during soil development is rarely investigated although such processes are relevant when discussing about carbon sequestration in soil. Here, we investigated soils under grassland and forest close to the North Sea that began its genesis under terrestrial conditions 30 years ago after dikes were closed. Organic C contents of up to 99 mg g-1 soil were found until 6 cm soil depth. The humus consisted mainly of the fraction lighter than 1.6 g cm-3 which refers to poorly degraded organic carbon. High microbial respiratory activity was determined with values between 1.57 and 1.17 g CO2 -C g -1 soil h-1 at 22°C and 40 to 70% water-holding capacity for the grassland and forest topsoils, respectively. The microbial C to organic C ratio showed values up to 20 mg Cmic g-1 C org . Although up to 2.69 kg C m-2 were estimated to be sequestered during 30 years, the microbial indicators showed intensive colonisation and high transformation rates under both forest and grassland which were higher than those determined in agricultural and forest topsoils in Northern Germany. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1771 Improving quality of composted biowaste to enhance disease suppressiveness of compost-amended, peat-based potting mixes Veeken A.H.M., Blok W.J., Curci F. et al. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2131-2140) Biowaste can be converted into compost by composting or by a combination of anaerobic digestion and composting. Currently, waste management systems are primarily focused on the increase of the turnover rate of waste streams whereas optimisation of product quality receives less attention. This results in low quality composts that can only be sold on bulk markets at low prices. A new market for quality compost could be potting mixes for horticultural container-grown crops to partially replace non-renewable peat and increase the disease suppressiveness of potting mixes. We report here on the effect of wetsieving biowaste prior to composting on compost quality and on disease suppressiveness against the plant pathogen Pythium ultimum of peat mixes amended with this compost. The increased organic matter and decreased salt content of the compost allow for significantly higher substitution rates of peat by compost. In this study up to 60% v/v compost peat replacement did not affect cucumber growth. However, disease suppressiveness of the potting mixes strongly increased from 31 to 94% when the compost amendment rate was increased from 20 to 60%. It was shown that general disease suppression for P. ultimum can only be effective when the basal respiration rate is sufficiently high to support microbial activity. In addition, organic matter of the compost should reach a sufficient stability level to turn from disease conducive to disease suppressive. Increasing the compost addition from 20 to 60% did not significantly affect plant yield, yield variation were due to differences in nutrient levels. It can be concluded that compost from wetsieved biowaste has high potential to replace peat in growing media for the professional market. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1774 Organic N forms of a subtropical Acrisol under no-till cropping systems as assessed by acid hydrolysis and solidstate NMR spectroscopy Dieckow J., Mielniczuk J., Knicker H. et al. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (153-158) This study was conducted to investigate the influence of landuse systems (grassland and cropland) and of long-term no-till cropping systems [bare soil, oat/maize (O/M), pigeon pea+maize (P+M)] on the composition of organic N forms in a subtropical Acrisol. Soil samples collected from the 0- to 2.5-cm layer in the study area (Eldorado do Sul RS, Brazil) were submitted to acid hydrolysis and cross-polarization magic angle spinning (CPMAS) 15 N and 13 C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopies. The legume-based cropping system P+M contained the highest contents of non-hydrolysable C and N, hydrolysable C and N, amino acid N and hydrolysed unknown N. The relative proportion of non-hydrolysable N was higher in bare soil (30.0%) and decreased incrementally in other treatments based on the total C and N contents. The amino acid N corresponded to an average of 37.2% of total N, and was not affected by land use and notill cropping systems. The non-hydrolysable residue contained lower O-alkyl and higher aromatic C concentrations, as revealed by CPMAS 13 C NMR spectroscopy, and higher C:N ratio than the bulk soil. No differences in the bulk soil organic matter composition could be detected among treatments, according to CPMAS 13 C and 15 N NMR spectra. In the non-hydrolysable fraction, grassland showed a lower concentration of aromatic and a higher concentration of alkyl C than other treatments. From CPMAS 15 N NMR spectra, it could be concluded that amide N from peptide structures are the main organic N constituent. Amide structures are possibly protected through encapsulation into hydrophobic sites of organic matter and through organomineral interaction. 1772 Soil nitrogen cycling under litter and coarse woody debris in a mixed forest in New York State Hafner S.D. and Groffman P.M. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2159-2162) Coarse woody debris (CWD) could alter N availability and transformations in the underlying soil and therefore contribute to spatial heterogeneity and influence ecosystem loss of N. We measured soil N concentrations and transformations in soil beneath CWD and beneath a litter layer at a mixed forest in NY State. We found that total and microbial biomass N was lower and that microbial biomass C-to-N ratio was higher in soil beneath CWD. Rates of N 2 O production and denitrification enzyme activity were reduced beneath CWD. These results suggest that CWD is an important controller of spatial heterogeneity in N dynamics and may influence the magnitude of N loss in temperate forests. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1775 Effect of humic amendments on inorganic N, dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase activities of a Mediterranean soil Lizarazo L.M., Jord´a J.D., Ju´arez M. and S´anchez- Andreu J. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (172-177) Dehydrogenase activity, alkaline phosphatase activity and NH4 + , NO - and NO - concentrations were monitored in an aridisol 2 3 treated with three commercially available humic amendments. The materials were of plant residue, lignite and peat origins. The humus plant residues, fulvic acids, with a high content of Kjeldahl-N, sustained high enzyme activities and highest levels of NH 4 + , NO2 - and NO3 - . Humus lignite (mainly humic acids) produced the highest dehydrogenase activity, whereas the alkaline phosphatase activity was not as high as that amendment with humus plant residues. The lower activity of alkaline phosphatase could not be attributed to the higher P content of humus lignite. Nitrification was also low, probably due to the low N content of this fertilizer. The amendment of humus peat origin SOILS (only humic acids) did not increase enzyme activity or inorganic N concentrations of soil. Our results show that although these materials are widely utilized and recommended as microbial and plant activators, they all behave very differently, and the effects on soil microbiological activity cannot be predicted solely on the basis of their humic and/or fulvic acid contents. 1776 Degradation and preservation of vascular plant-derived biomarkers in grassland and forest soils from Western Canada Otto A. and Simpson M.J. Biogeochemistry 2005 74/3 (377-409) The total solvent extracts (TSE) of mineral and organic horizons of selected soils and overlying vegetation were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to determine the composition of solvent-extractable (‘free’) lipids in soils and to study the degradation and possible preservation of vascular plant-derived molecular markers (biomarkers) in soils. Major compound classes in the TSE of soils and vegetation included a homologous series of aliphatic lipids (alkanoic acids, alkanols, alkanes), steroids, and terpenoids. Characteristic patterns of aliphatic and cyclic biomarkers derived from the overlying, native vegetation were recognized in the associated soil samples indicating the preservation of lipids from the external waxes of vascular plants in the soil organic matter (SOM). The observed biomarker patterns in the grassland soils (Brown Chernozems) were similar to the compounds identified in their major source vegetation, Western Wheatgrass. A similar composition of biomarkers was observed in Aspen leaves and the soil horizons of the forestgrassland transition soil (Dark Gray Chernozem). The Lodgepole Pine needles yielded a characteristic pattern of diterpenoids that was also detected in leaf litter and the O horizon of the associated forest soil (Brunisol). The results demonstrate that solvent extractable biomarkers derived from vascular plants maintain their characteristic pattern of aliphatic and cyclic lipids despite ongoing degradation processes and are thus valuable molecular markers for the determination of the sources of SOM. Furthermore, the abundance of aliphatic wax lipids in plant material and soils decreased at higher rates than the steroids and terpenoids indicating the preferential degradation of aliphatic over cyclic biomarkers. Most of the plant-derived steroids and terpenoids identified in the soils were unaltered, preserved biomolecules as observed in the source vegetation, but minor amounts of their degradation products were also present. Oxidation products of plant sterols are reported here for the first time in soils. The detected alteration products of steroids and diterpenoids are consistent with the oxidative degradation of free cyclic biomarkers in decomposing plant material and soils. © Springer 2005. 1777 Fate of the metal-binding soluble organic matter throughout a soil profile Dudal Y., S´evenier G., Dupont L. and Guillon E. Soil Science 2005 170/9 (707-715) Crop residues are a major source of soluble organic matter (SOM) in agricultural soils. The fate of this complex mixture of organic compounds is mainly controlled by the biodegradation by soil microbes, sorption to the different soil surfaces, and transfer through the soil profile along with the water flow. During this transfer, the soluble organic matter can bind micropollutants such as metals and co-transport them down the soil profile to the groundwater. However, monitoring usually consists in measuring the organic content of the aqueous sample (dissolved or water-soluble organic matter), rarely its reactivity. The objective of this study was to monitor both the SOM content and its reactivity toward metal cations during its transport through the soil. Therefore, samples were collected from a field experiment performed on a 2-m-deep vadose zone over a 7-month period. The metal-binding capacity of 84 of these samples was quantified for Cu2+ , Fe2+ , and Mn 2+ , using the quenching of SOM fluorescence that is observed when increasing concentrations of metal cations are added to the SOM sample. A simple Langmuir-type model was used to quantify the three binding constants for each SOM sample and the amount of metal that it can bind. This method gives binding constants for SOM with each metal cation that respect the general observations made for natural organic matter (log K = 5.31, 4.79, and 4.77 for Cu 2+ , Fe2+ and Mn2+ , respectively, for a surface soil sample). Although the SOM content decreased from 10 to 2 mg L-1 over the 2-m-deep vadose zone, the profile 339 of the overall complexation constant was homogeneous (log K = 5.36 0.05 for Cu2+ ), indicating that only a small portion of the SOM was responsible for metal binding. The influence of environmental parameters such as residue incorporation, soil temperature, and rainfall events on the amount of metals that SOM can bind was assessed. Strong rainfall events were able to transport a limited amount of metal-binding SOM (up to 1 M Cu2+ per sample), even in the case where very low organic matter content was found. The freeze-thaw cycle liberated much more metal-binding SOM (4.8 M Cu2+ per sample) in the aqueous phase at the soil surface. This functional monitoring appears useful to quantify the potential environmental effects of the diverse, complex, and evolving SOM. Copyright © 2005 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. 1778 Changes in clay-associated organic matter quality in a C depletion sequence as measured by differential thermal analyses Plante A.F., Pernes M. and Chenu C. Geoderma 2005 129/3-4 (186-199) Land use changes result in significant decreases in soil organic matter stocks due to enhanced mineralization attributed to increased tillage, and due to decreased organic matter inputs. The current paradigm of soil organic matter dynamics suggests that decreasing organic matter stocks are also associated with shifts in organic matter quality to more resistant fractions as the more labile pools are decomposed. The objectives of the current study were to characterize changes in clay-associated organic matter quality in a soil C depletion sequence in terms of thermal properties, and to thermally characterize peroxide-resistant organic matter. Clay-sized fractions were isolated from a sequence of soils ranging from native forest to long-term bare fallow, and analyzed using thermogravimetry (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) before and after hydrogen peroxide treatment. Differential scanning calorimetry traces had exothermic maxima near 285 and 333°C, consistent with analyses of chemically extracted organic matter and humic substances reported in the literature. Peak fitting analyses showed that these maxima consisted of several hidden peaks, but their interpretation is problematic. The qualitative shifts in the thermal properties of clay-associated organic matter with differing land use observed in the DSC traces were quantified using cultivation and fallow treatment to forest ratios. Thermogravimetric mass loss ratios were greater in the thermally labile (180-310°C) exothermic region than in the more thermally resistant (310-450°C) exothermic region. Similarly, ratios of peak heights and areas for the fitted DSC peaks were higher for the 324°C peak, compared to peaks at 257 and 284°C. The higher ratios indicate that the more thermally resistant organic matter has been retained and the more thermally labile organic matter is lost. The observed shift in the distribution of organic matter from thermally labile to thermally resistant fractions from forest to long-term bare fallow clay samples is consistent with the current paradigm of decomposition consisting of a shift to more biologically resistant fractions with increasing time under cultivation and decreasing organic matter inputs. These results suggest that the thermal properties of clay-associated organic matter are related to their biological decomposability. Hydrogen peroxide treatment of clay samples removed approximately 87% of the initial organic C in all samples, and peroxide-resistant organic matter was found to be more thermally stable than the whole. However, thermal analyses of the peroxide-resistant fraction did not show any changes in thermal properties with decreases in total C content. Rather than isolating a biologically resistant pool of organic matter, peroxide-resistant organic matter may isolate an inert pool of soil organic matter with thermal properties consistent with the presence of black carbon, which remains unchanged by changes in land use. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1779 Ecosystem model spin-up: Estimating steady state conditions in a coupled terrestrial carbon and nitrogen cycle model Thornton P.E. and Rosenbloom N.A. Ecological Modelling 2005 189/1-2 (25-48) We tested a variety of methods for determining steady state solutions for Biome-BGC, a coupled model of terrestrial water, carbon, and nitrogen dynamics. Our objective was to identify 340 SOILS methods that could reduce the computational cost of model spinup relative to simulations running under the model’s native dynamics, while retaining or improving upon the simulation quality, where quality is judged by comparison to assumed values for the true steady state solution. Two classes of methods were tested: ad hoc methods that approximate steady state by taking advantage of specific characteristics of the modeled dynamics to produce individual time trajectories through the model state space, and general multivariate minimization methods that iteratively explore multiple time trajectories through state space in search of a reasonable steady state solution. We examined the behavior of these methods for both woody and herbaceous vegetation simulations. We found that both the ad hoc and the generalized methods, parameterized appropriately, could provide reductions in computational cost of 50-75% compared to the model’s native dynamics. With the exception of the generalized methods for the woody vegetation case, we also found that the quality of the simulated steady state solution was as good as or better than the native dynamics approach. The one method which performed consistently well across sites and vegetation types involved an acceleration of decomposition rates for the spin-up phase, resulting in 73 and 66% reductions in computational cost for woody and herbaceous vegetation types, respectively. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1780 Carbon and decomposition model Yasso for forest soils Liski J., Palosuo T., Peltoniemi M. and Siev¨anen R. Ecological Modelling 2005 189/1-2 (168-182) Models are needed to estimate dynamics of carbon in forest soils, because changes in soil carbon are laborious to measure, and future levels of soil carbon can only be predicted using models. Current process-oriented soil carbon models are not suitable to all forestry-related applications. This is because they require specific input information that is not available for all forests, and their time step is shorter than a year which is typically used in forestry. We developed a dynamic soil carbon model Yasso to be used in forestry applications. Yasso simulates the stock of soil carbon, changes in this stock and the release of carbon from soil on an annual basis. It needs estimates of litter production, information on litter quality and basic data on climate to run. Yasso consists of five decomposition compartments and two woody litter compartments. Its parameter values were determined based on measurements of litter decomposition and soil carbon. The reliability of the output of Yasso was assessed by conducting an uncertainty analysis and comparing model-calculated estimates of soil carbon to measurements taken at different forest sites in southern Finland. According to the uncertainty analysis, the estimates for the amount of soil carbon are uncertain by nature, because they depend mostly on uncertain humus parameters. Still, when linked to a forest simulator to calculate litter production, Yasso gave similar estimates for the amount of soil carbon as were measured. The estimates for changes in soil carbon, on the other hand, are more reliable by nature because they depend on more accurately known parameters. These and other tests conducted so far suggest that Yasso is applicable to forests in a wide range of environments. Further tests will increase confidence in using it for different soils. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1781 Litter decomposition affected by climate and litter quality - Testing the Yasso model with litterbag data from the Canadian intersite decomposition experiment Palosuo T., Liski J., Trofymow J.A. and Titus B.D. Ecological Modelling 2005 189/1-2 (183-198) Litterbag experiments provide valuable data for testing the accuracy of predictions of decomposition from soil carbon models. The soil carbon model Yasso describes litter decomposition based on basic climate and litter quality information, and was calibrated using European litterbag data. In this study, we tested the predictive capabilities of Yasso using independent litterbag data for 10 foliage litter types decomposed for 6 years at 18 upland forest sites across Canada (CIDET). The model underestimated mass of leaf litters remaining on CIDET sites, with only a small systematic error in predicting the effects of climate when effective temperature sum was used as the temperature variable in the model. The overall rate of decomposition was predicted correctly when mean annual temperature was used as the temperature variable, but then the model substantially overestimated climatic effects. The model correctly predicted differences in decomposition rates among litter types in the early years of decomposition, but underestimated them in later years. The decomposition rate of the litter type richest in phenolic compounds (larch needles) was systematically overestimated, and that of the litter type richest in O-alkyl compounds (grass leaves) was systematically underestimated. Accounting for these factors would improve the general applicability of the model. However, accounting for the initial nitrogen concentration of litter did not improve the accuracy of the model unless the initial lignin (i.e., acid unhydrolyzable residue) content was also taken into account. We conclude that the model Yasso accounts for most of the effects of climate and initial litter quality on the decomposition of a range of foliage litter types under varying climate conditions. Recalibration of the reference decomposition rates used in the model may improve the accuracy when applying the model outside of Europe. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1782 Mathematical modelling of the composting process: A review Mason I.G. Waste Management 2006 26/1 (3-21) In this paper mathematical models of the composting process are examined and their performance evaluated. Mathematical models of the composting process have been derived from both energy and mass balance considerations, with solutions typically derived in time, and in some cases, spatially. Both lumped and distributed parameter models have been reported, with lumped parameter models presently predominating in the literature. Biological energy production functions within the models included first-order, Monod-type or empirical expressions, and these have predicted volatile solids degradation, oxygen consumption or carbon dioxide production, with heat generation derived using heat quotient factors. Rate coefficient correction functions for temperature, moisture, oxygen and/or free air space have been incorporated in a number of the first-order and Monod-type expressions. The most successful models in predicting temperature profiles were those which incorporated either empirical kinetic expressions for volatile solids degradation or CO2 production, or which utilised a first-order model for volatile solids degradation, with empirical corrections for temperature and moisture variations. Models incorporating Monod-type kinetic expressions were less successful. No models were able to predict maximum, average and peak temperatures to within criteria of 5, 2 and 2°C, respectively, or to predict the times to reach peak temperatures to within 8 h. Limitations included the modelling of forced aeration systems only and the generation of temperature validation data for relatively short time periods in relation to those used in fullscale composting practice. Moisture and solids profiles were well predicted by two models, but oxygen and carbon dioxide profiles were generally poorly modelled. Further research to obtain more extensive substrate degradation data, develop improved first-order biological heat production models, investigate mechanistically-based moisture correction factors, explore the role of moisture tension, investigate model performance over thermophilic composting time periods, provide more information on model sensitivity and incorporate natural ventilation aeration expressions into composting process models, is suggested. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1783 The determination of biological stability of composts using the Dynamic Respiration Index: The results of experience after two years Adani F., Ubbiali C. and Generini P. Waste Management 2006 26/1 (41-48) Biological stability was ascertained by using the Dynamic Respiration Index (DRI) on 144 samples of compost during the years 2003 and 2004, as a routine service for private subjects. Data obtained were collected and are critically discussed in this paper by using other parameters registered during tests, i.e., biomass temperature (T), specific airflow rate (Qs ) and biomass analytical data (pH). Good linear correlations were obtained for DRI vs. T, DRI vs. Qs and DRI vs. pH, confirming expected results based on the theoretical discussion. Consequently, using the analytical method proposed in this paper means both T and Q can be used as additional parameters for measurement of the biological SOILS stability of compost. As a result, T values of 25.8 and 30.5°C, and specific airflow rate of 8.6 and 13.4 m3 Mg-1 VS h-1 were found corresponding to 500 and 1000 mg O2 kgVS-1 h-1 , which, respectively, indicate a high and a medium degree of biological stability. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1784 Carbon dioxide and ammonia emissions during composting of mixed paper, yard waste and food waste Komilis D.P. and Ham R.K. Waste Management 2006 26/1 (6270) The objective of the work was to provide a method to predict CO2 and NH3 yields during composting of the biodegradable fraction of municipal solid wastes (MSW). The compostable portion of MSW was simulated using three principal biodegradable components, namely mixed paper wastes, yard wastes and food wastes. Twelve laboratory runs were carried out at thermophilic temperatures based on the principles of mixture experimental and full factorial designs. Seeded mixed paper (MXP), seeded yard waste (YW) and seeded food waste (FW), each composted individually, produced 150, 220 and 370 g CO2 -C, and 2.0, 4.4 and 34 g NH3 -N per dry kg of initial substrate, respectively. Several experimental runs were also carried out with different mixtures of these three substrates. The effect of seeding was insignificant during composting of food wastes and yard wastes, while seeding was necessary for composting of mixed paper. Polynomial equations were developed to predict CO2 and NH3 (in amounts of mass per dry kg of MSW) from mixtures of MSW. No interactions among components were found to be significant when predicting CO2 yields, while the interaction of food wastes and mixed paper was found to be significant when predicting NH3 yields. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1785 Soil mineral-organic matter-microbe interactions: Impacts on biogeochemical processes and biodiversity in soils Huang P.- M., Wang M.- K. and Chiu C.- Y. Pedobiologia 2005 49/6 (609-635) Soils are the central organizer of the terrestrial ecosystem. Their colloidal and particulate constituents, be they minerals, organic matter, and microorganisms, are not separate entities; rather, they are constantly interacting with each other. Interactions of these components control biogeochemical reactions, namely, the formation of short-range-ordered metal oxides, catalysis of humic substance formation, enzymatic stability and activity, mineral transformation, aggregate turnover, biogeochemical cycling of C, N, P, and S, and the fate and transformation of organic and inorganic pollutants. Furthermore, the impacts of mineral-organic matter-microorganism interactions and associated biogeochemical reactions and processes on biodiversity, species composition, and sustainability of the terrestrial ecosystem deserve close attention for years to come. This paper integrates the frontiers of knowledge on this subject matter, which is essential to uncovering the dynamics and mechanisms of terrestrial ecosystem processes and to developing innovative management strategies to sustain ecosystem health on the global scale. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1786 Effects of soil temperature and humidity on soil respiration rate under Pinus sylvestriformis forest (Chinese) Liu Y., Han S., Hu Y. and Dai G. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1581-1585) Employing root-wrenching method and LI-6400-09 soil respiration chamber, this paper measured the diurnal changes of soil respiration rate with and without roots in situ on June 17, August 5, and October 10, 2003. The seasonal changes of soil respiration were also measured from May to September, 2004. The results showed that both the total and the root-wrenched soil respiration appeared single diurnal pattern, with the peaks presented during 12:00-14:00. The diurnal fluctuation of soil respiration on August 5 was smaller than that on June 17 and October 10. There were also obvious seasonal changes in total and root-wrenched soil respiration, as well as in root respiration, which were higher from June to August but lower in May and September. The average total soil respiration, root-wrenched soil respiration, and root respiration were 3.12, 1.94 and 1.18 mol CO2 m-2 s-1 , respectively, and the contribution of roots to total soil respiration ranged from 26.5% to 52.6% from May to September, 2004. There were exponential correlations between 341 respiration rate and soil temperature, and linear correlations between respiration rate and soil humidity. The Q10 values were 2.44, 2.55 and 2.27 for total soil respiration, root-wrenched soil respiration, and root respiration, respectively. The effect of soil temperature on root-wrenched soil respiration was lager than that on total soil respiration and root respiration. Soil humidity had a larger effect on total soil respiration than on root respiration and root-wrenched soil respiration. 1787 Temporal variation of soil respiration on sloping pasture of Heihe River basin and effects of temperature and soil moisture on it (Chinese) Chang Z., Shi Z., Feng Q. and Su Y. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1603-1606) Employing LiCor 6400 gas exchange analyzer and soil respiration chamber attachment (LiCor Inc., Lincoln, NE, USA), this paper continuously measured the soil surface CO2 effluxes on the sloping pasture of Heihe River basin from early April to late October 2003 to investigate the soil CO2 efflux rate and its feedback to the changes of climate and land use. The results showed that from May to October, the diurnal variation of soil respiration was low at night, the lowest at 7:00, 6:30, 5:30, 6:00 and 7:00, raised rapidly at 7:00-8:30, and then descended at 16:00-18:30. The maximum soil CO2 efflux appeared at 15:00, 14:30, 14:30, 13:30, 14:00 and 15:00. The mean daily soil respiration rate was 0.31-6.98 molm-2 s-1 , with the maximum in July and August, the second in May and September, and nearly consistent in April and October. Soil respiration rate had an exponential and power correlation with temperature and soil moisture, respectively. 1788 Affecting factors of soil microorganism and root respiration (Chinese) Jia B., Zhou G., Wang F. and Wang Y. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1547-1552) Soil respiration is an important part of the carbon cycle in terrestrial ecosystems, and its contribution to the global carbon budget has been the focus of wide concern. Researches on the affecting factors of soil microorganism and root respiration, the main components of soil respiration, contribute to the understanding of the role of soil respiration on global carbon cycle, and to the accurate evaluation of global carbon budget. This paper reviewed the direct and indirect affecting factors of soil microorganism and root respiration, including climate factors, soil properties, vegetation and litterfall, air CO2 concentration, and human activities. These affecting factors were interactive, and their contributions to soil microorganism and root respiration varied in temporal and spatial scales. The study on natural and anthropogenic factors of soil microorganism and root respiration was emphasized, and some related research tasks in the future were also proposed. Biota 1789 Effects of three soil tillage systems on some biological activities in an Ultisol from southern Chile Alvear M., Rosas A., Rouanet J.L. and Borie F. Soil and Tillage Research 2005 82/2 (195-202) Intensive tillage for annual crop production may be affecting soil health and quality. However, tillage intensity effects on biological activities of volcanic-derived soils have not been systematically investigated. We evaluated the effects of three different tillage practices on some biological activities of an Ultisol from southern Chile during the third year of a wheat-lupin-wheat crop sequence. Treatments were: no tillage with stubble burning (NTB), no tillage without stubble burning (NT) and conventional tillage with disk-harrowing and stubble burning (CT). Biological activities were evaluated in winter and summer at 0-200 mm and at three soil depths (0-50, 50-100 and 100-200 mm) in winter. Total organic C and N were significantly higher under no-tillage systems than CT. In general, NT increased C and N of microbial biomass in comparison with CT, especially in winter. Microbial biomass C was closely associated with microbial biomass N (r = 0.986, P < 0.05); acid phosphomonoesterase (r = 0.999, P < 0.05);  -glucosidase (r = 0.978, P < 0.05), and others. Changes in biological activities occurred mainly in the upper soil layer 342 SOILS (0-50 mm depth) in spite of the short duration of the experiment. Biological activities could be used as practical biological indicators to apply the more appropriate management systems for increasing soil sustainability or productivity. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1790 Bacterial, azotobacter, actinomycetes, and fungal population in soil after diazinon, imidacloprid, and lindane treatments in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) fields Singh J. and Singh D.K. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 2005 40/5 (785-800) Bacterial, azotobacter, actinomycetes, and fungal populations were determined in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) fields between July and November for three consecutive years (19971999) after insecticide treatments. Diazinon was applied for both seed and soil treatments. However, imidacloprid and lindane were used for seed treatments. An average half-life (t1/2 ) of diazinon in seed- and soil-treated fields was found to be 29.32 and 34.87 days, respectively. Its residues were found for 60 days in both cases. In diazinon seed treatment, an increase in azotobacter, fungi, and actinomycetes populations was observed in samples from the 15th and 30th days, and this trend continued until crop harvest. However, the bacterial population had not been affected by this treatment. The diazinon soil treatment had indicated some significant adverse effects on fungi and actinomycetes population, which recovered after 30 days. The population of bacteria and azotobacter increased significantly in this treatment. The residues of imidacloprid and lindane were found for 90 and 120 days with an average half-life of 40.9 and 53.3 days, respectively. Imidacloprid had no significant effect on fungi and actinomycetes populations up to 15 days, and between 15 to 60 days some adverse effects were indicated. However, some significant increases in bacterial and azotobacter population were observed. Lindane had no effect on bacterial and fungal population. However, its adverse effects were observed in actinomycetes and azotobacter populations between 30 to 60 days. Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc. 1791 Does the positive feedback effect of nematodes on the biomass and activity of their bacteria prey vary with nematode species and population size? Fu S., Ferris H., Brown D. and Plant R. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (1979-1987) Two nematode species (Cruznema tripartitum and Acrobeloides bodenheimeri) were selected to test the hypotheses that bacterialfeeding nematodes affect bacterial biomass and activity and that this feedback effect varies with nematode species and population size. For each species, nematodes of three initial population sizes were inoculated onto bacterial colonies in separate microcosms. Nematode population, bacterial biomass and CO2 production were monitored in parallel microcosm settings. The responses of bacterial biomass to nematode species were different. Bacterial biomass increased significantly on d 8 in the presence of Acrobeloides when its initial numbers were 20 and 100 per microcosm; and bacterial biomass increased significantly on d 4 in the presence of Cruznema when its initial numbers were 5 and 20 per microcosm. Daily CO2 production of the microcosms with initial population sizes of 5, 20 and 100 Cruznema or of 5 and 100 Acrobeloides was significantly greater than that in microcosms without nematodes. However, the CO2 production of the microcosms with initial population of 20 Acrobeloides was not significantly different from that of the microcosms without nematodes. The increase in daily CO2 production per microcosm by Cruznema was generally greater than that by Acrobeloides for the first few days of the experiment. Nevertheless, the increase in daily CO2 production by an individual nematode was similar for both species and was a decreasing function of the initial nematode numbers. The feedback effect of each nematode species on its bacterial prey was estimated by fitting both bacterial biomass and CO2 production data to a model. Model outputs demonstrated that the feedback effect of Cruznema on bacteria was greater than that of Acrobeloides during the course of the experiment and the feedback effect of each species was not linearly correlated to initial nematode population sizes. Cruznema increased bacterial biomass and activity by a factor of 3.75-4.55 over the first 4 d, while Acrobeloides increased it by a factor between 1.97 and 3.40. 1792 Physiological and molecular characterisation of microbial communities associated with different water-stable aggregate size classes V¨ais¨anen R.K., Roberts M.S., Garland J.L. et al. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2007-2016) We determined if the structure and function of microbial communities associated with different aggregate size classes was influenced when the aggregate formation occurred under either nitrogen (N) limitation (straw only incubation treatment) or carbon (C) limitation (straw+N incubation treatment). Using a combination of community-level physiological (BD Oxygen Biosensor assay) and molecular (terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism; T-RFLP) profiling methods, we found differences in both microbial community composition and the physiological response of these communities between different aggregate size classes. The response of fungal and bacterial communities to ‘straw only’ and ‘straw+N’ treatments differed in that bacterial community composition was affected by the treatments, whereas fungal community composition was not. The magnitude of change in the bacterial community response increased with decreasing aggregate size. However, there were no significant differences in the mean bacterial community richness (number of different terminal restriction fragments; TRFs) between different aggregate size classes for the two treatments. In general, microbial communities associated with larger aggregate size fractions (large and small macroaggregates) were found to have a significantly faster respiratory response than the communities associated with microaggregates. Application of the fungal inhibitor cycloheximide resulted in a significant reduction in the utilization of cellulose, chitin, mannose, xylan, and xylose by the microbial communities associated with all aggregate size classes, indicating that fungi are significant contributors to the utilization of these compounds. Our results demonstrate that the BD Oxygen Biosensor assay offers a valuable new tool for community level physiological profiling. When used in combination with census-based methods such as T-RFLP, a greater level of resolution can be achieved. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1793 Relationship between plants and soil microbial communities in fertilized grasslands Benizri E. and Amiaud B. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2055-2064) The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning is of major scientific concern today. Few studies though have measured the interactions between soil microorganisms and plant diversity, the purpose of this study was to examine the link between plant diversity and microbial communities in fertilized versus unfertilized grasslands. Experiments were carried out on a permanent grassland in north-eastern France where agricultural practices had remained unchanged for the last 13 years. The experimental design included two plots of 300 m2 (fertilized at 120 kg N ha-1 or non-fertilized). Plots were replicated into three equal sub-plots (100 m 2 ). From each sub-plot, six samples of soil and vegetation were taken at three dates during floristic development. At sampling, ground cover of each species was estimated, and total amount of C and N was determined in aboveground and root biomass. Soil samples were analyzed in order to measure the metabolic fingerprints of microorganisms using Biolog® GN2 microplates. Floristic composition and carbon substrate utilization patterns of rhizobacterial communities were more diversified in unfertilized than fertilized plots. In unfertilized plots, the development of Convolvulus arvensis and two legumes (Trifolium pratense and Trifolium repens) may help maintain observed floristic diversity. Moreover, an inversion of C and N distribution between aboveground and root biomass during the vegetation cycle probably induced a variation of rhizodeposition. This phenomenon could explain the differences of rhizobacterial metabolic fingerprints observed between experimental plots. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. SOILS 1794 Soil feedback effects to the foredune grass Ammophila arenaria by endoparasitic root-feeding nematodes and whole soil communities Brinkman E.P., Troelstra S.R. and Van Der Putten W.H. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2077-2087) In coastal foredunes, the grass Ammophila arenaria develops a soil community that contributes to die-back and replacement by later successional plant species. Root-feeding nematodes and pathogenic soil microorganisms are involved in this negative feedback. Regular burial by wind-blown beach sand results in vigorous growth of A. arenaria, probably because of enabling a temporary escape from negative soil feedback. Here, we examine the role of root-feeding nematodes as compared to the whole soil community in causing negative feedback to A. arenaria. We performed a 3-year sand burial experiment in the field and every year we determined the feedback of different soil communities to plant growth in growth chamber bioassays. In the field, we established A. arenaria in tubes with beach sand, added three endoparasitic root-feeding nematode species (Meloidogyne maritima, Heterodera arenaria and Pratylenchus penetrans) or root zone soil to the plants, and created series of ceased and continued sand burial. During three subsequent years, plant biomass was measured and numbers of nematodes were counted. Every year, bioassays were performed with the field soils and biomass of seed-grown A. arenaria plants was measured to determine the strength of feedback of the established soil communities to the plant. In the field, addition of root zone soil had a negative effect on biomass of buried plants. In the bioassays, addition of root zone soil also reduced the biomass of newly planted seedlings, however, only in the case when the field plants had not been buried with beach sand. Addition of the three endoparasitic root-feeding nematodes did not influence plant biomass in the field and in the bioassays. Our results strongly suggest that the negative feedback to A. arenaria is not due to the combination of the three endoparasitic nematodes, but to other components in the soil community, or their interactions with the nematodes. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1795 Microbial carbon dynamics in nitrogen amended Arctic tundra soil: Measurement and model testing Stapleton L.M., Crout N.M.J., S¨awstr¨om C. et al. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2088-2098) We examined the responses of grazers (protozoa and nematodes) and their main food sources to low levels of nitrogen (N) fertilisation and applied carbon (C) flux models to our data. Replicate plots of tundra soil adjacent to the Kongsfjorden (Svalbard 78°N) were amended with ammonium and nitrate at concentrations of 1 and 5 kg N ha-1 to assess the impact of anthropogenic N deposition over three summers. Bacterial abundance as determined using the fluorochrome SYBR Green and epifluorescence microscopy ranged between 9.73108 and 102.49108 cells/g dry wt of soil, with a significant response to N addition occurring only during the second sampling in 2001. Despite little change in bacterial biomass, bacterial production (measured by the incorporation of 3 H thymidine into DNA) during the second sampling in 2002, increased in NH4 enriched plots compared to control and NO3 amended plots, indicating that NH 4 was the preferred source of inorganic N. The main bacterial predators were heterotrophic flagellates (HNAN) and naked amoebae, which showed no significant response to the N addition. HNAN showed a correlation with bacterial abundance suggesting a dependence on bacteria as a food source. The inability of a microbial C flux model to fit our data (RWSS/data=18.6, r 2 =0.088) was at least partly due to insufficient bacterial production to meet the C demands of predator taxa, and high variability in the data over time. This is reflected in the performance statistics for model variants where select microbial taxa and data were removed. The optimal model in terms of predictive utility was a model with data from 2002 only, minus naked amoebae (RWSS/data=2.45, r2 =0.806). © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1796 Responses of oribatid mite communities to summer drought: The influence of litter type and quality Taylor A.R. and Wolters V. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2117-2130) A litterbag experiment was used to study the impact of extended periods of summer drought on the structure of oribatid mite com- 343 munities (Acari, Oribatida) developing in two litter types (beech, spruce) of two qualities (fresh, pre-incubated). Within each litter type, litter quality determined species composition and densities and, in turn, this determined the impact of drought upon the oribatid mite communities. In both litter types, drought had a greater impact on community development in the pre-incubated compared to the fresh litter. In the short-term perspective of the present study, oribatid mite communities in beech litter were less sensitive to summer drought than those in spruce litter. This was partly due to the presence of site-specific, drought-tolerant species but seemed also strongly related to differences in the decomposition patterns between the litter types. Marked changes in densities and composition of oribatid communities after only one period of summer-drought suggest that there is a potential for a significant alteration of oribatid community structure in both litter types if climatic changes persist. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1797 Earthworm ecological groupings based on 14 C analysis Briones M.J.I., Garnett M.H. and Piearce T.G. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2145-2149) We report the first use of 14 C isotope analysis to investigate the ecological grouping of earthworms. Mature endogeic (Allolobophora caliginosa), mature epigeic (Lumbricus rubellus), and semimature anecic worms (A. longa) were collected in September 2002 from a woodland site at Lancaster, UK. Because anecic worms are known to have a variable feeding behaviour and can show dietary changes during ontogeny, additional immature and mature specimens of A. longa were also collected from the same site in January 2004. Epigeic earthworms showed the lowest radiocarbon concentration (0-3-years old), implying that they assimilated more recently fixed carbon than the anecic or endogeic earthworms. The age of carbon assimilated in mature anecic species (5-7-years old) was closer to that of endogeic species (58-years old) than to epigeics, suggesting that a greater proportion of older, more mineralised organic matter may form part of the diet of the anecic earthworms than previously thought. These results suggest that 14 C approaches are useful in the study of the feeding behaviour of detritivorous animals by providing in situ information on the age of the carbon assimilated by the worms. This can then be related to their role in ecosystem functioning, particularly in carbon cycling. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1798 Diversity of rhizobia isolated from an agricultural soil in Argentina based on carbon utilization and effects of herbicides on growth Zabaloy M.C. and G´omez M.A. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (83-88) Seventy-six rhizobial isolates belonging to four different genera were obtained from the root nodules of several legumes (Vicia sativa, Vicia faba, Medicago sativa, Melilotus sp., Glycine max and Lotus corniculatus). The action of five commonly used herbicides [2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), glyphosate (GF), dicamba, atrazine and metsulfuron-methyl] on the growth of rhizobial strains was assessed. Subsequently, GF and 2,4D were tested in a minimum broth as C and energy sources for 20 tolerant strains. The ability of these strains to metabolize different carbon sources was studied in order to detect further differences among them. Tolerance of the bacteria to agrochemicals varied; 2,4-D and GF in solid medium inhibited and diminished growth, respectively, in slow-growing rhizobial strains. Among slow-growing strains we detected Bradyrhizobium sp. SJ140 that grew well in broth + GF as the sole C and energy source. No strain was found which could use 2,4-D as sole C source. The 20 strains studied exhibited different patterns of C sources utilization. Cluster analysis revealed three groups, corresponding to four genera of rhizobia: Rhizobium (group I), Sinorhizobium (group II) and Mesorhizobium-Bradyrhizobium (group III). On the basis of the results obtained on responses to herbicides and C sources utilization by the isolates investigated, it was possible to differentiate them at the level of strains. These results evidenced a considerable diversity in rhizobial populations that had not been previously described for Argentinean soils, and suggested a physiological potential to use natural and xenobiotic C sources. 344 SOILS 1799 Soil microbial biomass and activities in a Japanese Andisol as affected by controlled release and application depth of urea Chu H.Y., Hosen Y., Yagi K. et al. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (89-96) This experiment was conducted in maize field plots to study the effects of controlled release and application depth of urea on soil microbial biomass and activities at two depths of surface soil of a Japanese Andisol from June to September, 2001. Three N amendment treatments and a Control were included in this experiment: deep application (8 cm) of controlled release urea; deep application (8 cm) of conventional urea; surface application of conventional urea; Control, without N application. Prior to this experiment, the field plots received the same N fertilizer treatments for two consecutive years under maize/barley rotation. Soil microbial biomass, dehydrogenase and nitrification activities exhibited great vertical and temporal variations during the maize growth season, and the microbial biomass was significantly correlated to soil water-filled pore space (p<0.01). N fertilization did not significantly affect the microbial biomass, but greatly increased the dehydrogenase and nitrification activities. The increase in the microbial activities following N fertilization was not attributed to the increase in microbial biomass but to the increase in intrinsic microbial activities. Controlled release urea was found to continuously affect the dehydrogenase activity over a shorter distance, while conventional urea could greatly increase the enzyme activity for a shorter period of time. Both controlled release and deep application of urea had potentials to reduce the nitrification activity and suggested that the nitrate production might be decreased in 0-10 cm surface soil. Deep application of urea increased aboveground N uptake by maize and then the recovery rate of N fertilizer, whereas controlled release of urea greatly increased grain yield and N uptake by grain. 1800 Spatial variation of soil enzyme activities and microbial functional diversity in temperate alley cropping systems Mungai N.W., Motavalli P.P., Kremer R.J. and Nelson K.A. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (129-136) Spatially dependent patterns in microbial properties may exist in temperate alley cropping systems due to differences in litter quality and microclimate in areas under trees compared to those in the alleys. The effect of tree row location was evaluated for its impact on soil enzyme activities and Biolog substrate use patterns. Soils were sampled to a depth of 30 cm at the tree row and at the middle of the alley at two sites: a 21-year-old pecan (Carya illinoinensis)/bluegrass (Poa trivials) intercrop (Pecan site) and a 12-year-old silver maple (Acer saccharinum)/soybean (Glycine max)-maize (Zea mays) rotation (Maple site). Sampling was done in fall 2001 and summer 2002.  -Glucosidase activities, Biolog patterns expressed as average well color (AWC), substrate richness, and Shannon diversity index, and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) were significantly higher (P<0.05) in the tree row than at the middle of the alley for surface soils at the Pecan site. Fluorescein diacetate (FDA) hydrolytic activity was also higher at the tree row for soils sampled in the fall, but did not differ significantly for soils sampled in the summer. At the Maple site, AWC and substrate richness were significantly higher at the tree row for soils sampled in 2001. Soil volumetric water content and temperature were generally lower in the tree row at the Maple site. The results of this study suggest that functionally different microbial populations may be present under pecan trees compared to cropped alleys which may promote disparities in nutrient availability necessitating differential long-term nutrient management in such alley cropping systems. 1801 Population and behavioural level responses of arable soil earthworms to boardmill sludge application Butt K.R., Nieminen M.A., Sir´en T. et al. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2005 42/2 (163-167) The response of earthworms to soil application of boardmill waste sludge was quantified in field and laboratory experiments. The influence of one application of 6104 tonnes ha-1 of unamended sludge was tested against no application on silty-clay arable soil. After 2 years, results in stubble-cultivated soil showed a 1.7 times lower density of earthworms where sludge was added, whereas there was no difference in average earthworm fresh weight. In direct-drilled soil, there was an indication of lower average num- bers of Lumbricus terrestris middens when sludge was applied. Negative impacts in the field may have been due to indirect negative effects of the sludge application. In the laboratory, habitat choice tests were undertaken with two common species from the field site using sludge-based mulch and fertiliser products. Aporrectodea caliginosa showed no discernible preference between soil and soil mixed with unamended sludge (mulch), but favoured soil over soil mixed with sludge and chicken manure (fertiliser). Tests with L. terrestris showed a similar pattern. The preference of L. terrestris for the two products was compared with that for chopped barley straw by direct observation of foraging behaviour. Differences in foraging time of L. terrestris for different feeds were not significant, but mass of straw collected was significantly greater compared with either type of sludge treatment. 1802 Soil microbial indices as bioindicators of environmental changes in a poplar plantation Moscatelli M.C., Lagomarsino A., Marinari S. et al. Ecological Indicators 2005 5/3 (171-179) An understanding of microbial biomass and microbial activity as part of belowground processes as affected by elevated CO2 is crucial in order to predict the long-term response of ecosystems to climatic changes. The ratio of biomass C to soil organic C (Cmic:Corg), the metabolic quotient (the specific soil respiration of the microbial biomass, qCO2 ), the C mineralization quotient (the fraction of total organic C mineralized throughout the incubation, qM), the microbial biomass change rate quotient (qC) and soil inorganic nitrogen content were determined on soil samples taken during 3 years (Fall 2000-Fall 2003) in a poplar plantation exposed to increased atmospheric CO2 by means of FACE (Free Air CO2 Enrichment) technique and nitrogen fertilization. A competition for nitrogen between plants and microrganisms, stronger in FACE plots, induced a stress condition within microbial community. FACE treatment provided C for microbial growth (Cmic:Corg), but reducing nitrogen availability, led to a higher microbial loss over time (qC). Nitrogen fertilization decreased microbial mortality lowering energetic maintenance requirements (qCO2 ) and induced a short-term shift in favour of microrganisms more rapid in the use of the resources. The C mineralization quotient (qM) was not affected by either FACE nor fertilization treatment meaning that the fraction of total organic carbon mineralized during the incubation period did not vary significantly. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1803 Distribution and diversity of soil protozoa in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica Bamforth S.S., Wall D.H. and Virginia R.A. Polar Biology 2005 28/10 (756-762) The polar desert soils of the McMurdo Dry Valley region support a limited water film community dominated by flagellates, amoebae, and nematodes. This study describes the protozoa and compares their distribution to nematodes. In 50 samples collected from 12 locations, rotifers and tardigrades were infrequent, and ciliates and testacea were rare. Soil protozoa occurred at all sites but the dominant nematode, Scottnema lindsayae (Timm 1971), did not, indicating soil habitat factors limiting nematode distribution are not limiting to protozoa. In contrast to the nematode species, which are all endemic to Antarctica, there were no endemic protozoan morphospecies found in our samples. The protozoan abundance was several orders of magnitude greater than that of the nematodes, and the species diversity was much greater. Most of the protozoa grew better at lower incubation temperatures. The ubiquitous distribution of protozoa suggests their importance in soil food webs and nutrient cycling in the dry valleys. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1804 Invertebrate diversity under artificial cover in relation to boreal forest habitat characteristics Ferguson S.H. and Berube D.K.A. Canadian Field-Naturalist 2004 118/3 (386-394) We investigated invertebrate diversity in boreal forests using an experimental design that consisted of counting soil invertebrates under artificial cover. The aim was to assess the utility of using soil invertebrate diversity as a measure of ecosystem health. The study area was grouped into five habitats: upland hardwood, low- SOILS land hardwood, conifer, shrub, and conifer-grass. Simpson’s and Shannon’s indices of invertebrate diversity were negatively correlated with percent herbaceous cover. Number of recognizable taxonomic units (RTU richness) was negatively correlated with percent litter cover. The number of individual invertebrates was positively correlated with soil moisture and negatively correlated with percent conifer cover. Invertebrate diversity varied among habitat types, with conifer forests (spruce, fir, pine) having the highest diversity and regenerating conifer-grass forests having the lowest diversity, suggesting that successional stages affect diversity. The most productive sites, upland and lowland hardwood habitats, had the highest abundance of soil invertebrates, although intermediate diversity compared to the other five habitats. The results are consistent with the view that diversity increases and then decreases with productivity and disturbance over succession (ca. 50-100 yr). Hence, maintenance of soil invertebrate diversity in managed boreal forests requires the provision of a varied landscape with a mosaic of disturbance regimes. 1805 Linking species richness, biodiversity and ecosystem function in soil systems Coleman D.C. and Whitman W.B. Pedobiologia 2005 49/6 (479497) Soils are the central organizing entities in terrestrial ecosystems and possess extremely diverse prokaryotic and eukaryotic biota. They are physically and chemically complex, with micro- and macro-aggregates embedded within a solid, liquid and gaseous matrix that is continually changing in response to natural and human-induced perturbations. Recent advances in molecular techniques in systematics have provided opportunities for the study of biodiversity and biocomplexity of soil biota. A symposium and workshop on soil biogeochemistry and biodiversity International Symposium on Impacts of Soil Biodiversity on Biogeochemical Processes in Ecosystems, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, Taipei, Taiwan April 18-24, 2004. Convened an international array of participants working in biomes on virtually every continent on the planet (ranging from polar to tropical regions). This special issue reports on the theoretical bases and applications of molecular methods for the measurement of soil biodiversity. Themes addressed include a melding of classical taxonomic investigations with biochemical fingerprinting and molecular probing of organism identities. Several papers highlight new advances in identifications of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Examples include new developments in "fingerprinting" of microbes active in "mycorrhizospheres" using immunocapture and other innovative techniques. Developments in the study of impacts of invasive plant and animal species on ecosystem function and subsequent microbial community composition and function have been very great in the last 2-3 years. Soils are major repositories of legacies, including fine and coarse woody debris and other organic products, which have feedbacks on soil diversity. The ways in which species diversity and function of microbial and faunal communities interact and their importance to ecosystem function are examined in biological and biochemical detail. This paper provides an overview of soil biodiversity and its feedbacks on soil biogeochemical processes in ecosystems. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1806 Modeling trophic pathways, nutrient cycling, and dynamic stability in soils Moore J.C., McCann K. and De Ruiter P.C. Pedobiologia 2005 49/6 (499-510) Soil communities are compartmentalized into pathways of trophic interactions and nutrient flows that originate from plant roots, bacteria and fungi. The pathways differ in terms of the organisms that comprise them, the habitats that the organisms occupy and the rates by which the organisms process and transfer material and energy. The fungi, nematodes and arthropods within the fungal pathway live in air-filled pore spaces and water films, while the bacteria, protozoa, and nematodes within the bacterial pathway occupy water-filled pore spaces and water films. Organisms within the fungal pathway have longer generation times and process matter at slower rates than those within the bacterial pathway. Empirical studies have shown that under natural conditions the pathways co-exist in a stable manner. The relative sizes (indexed by the densities of organisms) and activities (indexed by nutrient-flow rates, excretion rates and respiration rates) of 345 the pathways may change seasonally and in response to minor disturbances, but they persist. However, large anthropogenic and natural disturbances induce shifts in the relative sizes and activities of the pathways. Coincident with these shifts are reports of changes in the aboveground plant community and the availability and retention of plant limiting nutrients. We developed simple models of the bacterial and fungal pathways to explore the consequences of the observed shifts on the dynamic stability of the system. The more stable configurations occurred when there was a balance in the flow of nutrients between the two pathways. Large shifts in nutrient cycling and community structure towards either the fungal pathway or toward the bacterial pathway resulted in less stable or unstable configurations. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1807 Oribatid mite community structure and tree species diversity: A link? Kaneko N., Sugawara Y., Miyamoto T. et al. Pedobiologia 2005 49/6 (521-528) Differences in tree species may lead to contrasting soil environments via differences in litter chemical quality and physical environmental factors, such as soil type and soil moisture. However, separating the effects of litter quality and physical environment is difficult under field conditions. Both litter quality and soil environment affect the species composition of the soil animal community. A diversity gradient of canopy tree species (11-25 species) located on homogeneous soil substrate at Tomakomai Experimental Forest of Hokkaido University was used to analyse the relationship between tree species diversity and oribatid mite community structure. Soil samples were collected from three levels of tree species richness (high, intermediate and low) with three replicates each, in July 2000. Leaf area index (LAI) was positively correlated with tree species diversity suggesting higher litter input into the soils with increasing tree diversity. However, the tree species diversity gradient affected neither accumulation of litter on the forest floor nor abundance and species richness of oribatid mites. Canopy and understory plant species richness, LAI, total soil carbon and biomass of epigeic and endogeic earthworms did not significantly affect mite community structure as indicated by redundancy analysis (RDA). The results suggest that oribatid mite community structure is minimally affected by tree species diversity and associated changes in litter diversity. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1808 Soil communities and plant litter decomposition as influenced by forest debris: Variation across tropical riparian and upland sites Ruan H., Li Y. and Zou X. Pedobiologia 2005 49/6 (529-538) Forest debris on ground surface can interact with soil biota and consequently change ecosystem processes across heterogeneous landscape. We examined the interactions between forest debris and litter decomposition in riparian and upland sites within a tropical wet forest. Our experiment included control and debrisremoval treatments. Debris-removal reduced leaf litter decomposition rates in both the riparian and upland sites. Debris-removal also reduced soil microbial biomass C in the upland site, but had no effect on microbial biomass C in the riparian site. In contrast, debris-removal altered the density of selected arthropod groups in the riparian site. Litter decomposition rates correlated with both soil microbial biomass and the density of millipedes in a multiple stepwise regression model. Removal of forest debris can substantially reduce rates of leaf litter decomposition through suppressing soil activities. This influence can be further modified by landscape position. Forest debris plays an essential role in maintaining soil activities and ecosystem functioning in this tropical wet forest. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1809 Plant litter decomposition influenced by soil animals and disturbance in a subtropical rainforest of Taiwan Hou P.- C.L., Zou X., Huang C.- Y. and Chien H.- J. Pedobiologia 2005 49/6 (539-547) Soil fauna has been postulated as one of the paramount determinants of decomposition in the humid tropics. However, its effect on litter decomposition has only been demonstrated in few forest sites in Central America. In addition, landslide is a common disturbance associated with heavy rainfall brought by tropical 346 SOILS cyclones in the tropics and can potentially alter abundance and structure of soil animals and thus affect litter decomposition. In this study, we examined the effect of soil animals on litter decomposition in an Asian subtropical monsoon forest and compared the animal effects in landslide-disturbed (2 years old) and undisturbed sites. Animal exclusion by naphthalene treatment significantly reduced the density and diversity of litterbag animals and slowed down the rate of decomposition in both landslidedisturbed and undisturbed sites. However, density (per unit area) and diversity of the litter animals and litter decomposition rate did not differ between the landslide-disturbed and undisturbed sites for both control and animal-excluded treatments. Our data suggest that the abundance of soil animals is not limited by litter mass. Furthermore, soil fauna recover quickly from landslides, and fauna’s facilitative effect on litter decomposition is not altered after their recovery. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1810 Correlation between earthworms and plant litter decomposition in a tropical wet forest of Puerto Rico Dechaine J., Ruan H., Sanchez- De Leon Y. and Zou X. Pedobiologia 2005 49/6 (601-607) Earthworms are recognized to play an important role in the decomposition of organic materials. To test the use of earthworms as an indicator of plant litter decomposition, we examined the abundance and biomass of earthworms in relation to plant litter decomposition in a tropical wet forest of Puerto Rico. We collected earthworms at 0-0.1 m and 0.1-0.25 m soil depths from upland and riparian sites that represent the natural variation in soils and decomposition rates within the forest. Earthworms were hand-sorted and weighed for both fresh and dry biomass. Earthworms were dominated by the exotic endogeic species Pontoscolex corethrurus M¨uller; they were more abundant, and had higher biomasses in the upland than in riparian sites of the forest. Plant leaf litter decomposed faster in the upland than riparian sites. We found that earthworm abundance in the upper 0.1 m of the soil profile positively correlated with decomposition rate of plant leaf litter. Ground litter removal had no effect on the abundance or biomass of endogeic earthworms. Our data suggest that earthworms can be used to predict decomposition rates of plant litter in the tropical wet forest, and that the decomposition of aboveground plant litter has little influence on the abundance and biomass of endogeic earthworms. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1811 Seasonal dynamics of soil microbial biomass in coastal sand dune forest Chen T.- H., Chiu C.- Y. and Tian G. Pedobiologia 2005 49/6 (645-653) Sand dunes are a typical landscape in the coast of western Taiwan, where Casuarina forests were established decades ago to stabilize sand dunes and protect the inland vegetation. Study of microbial biomass in such an ecosystem may give insights into the role of microbes in soil fertility and nutrient cycling. We established our study sites in two topographic units based on elevation and drainage types: upland and lowland. The study lasted for 2 years, and soil samples were collected every 3 months. Microbial biomass C (C mic ) and N (Nmic ) were high in a shallow humic layer that rested on top of the soil (1222-1319 mg kg-1 for Cmic and 245-276 mg kg-1 for Nmic ) and declined sharply to only one-tenth of the above values in the underlying surface soil (0-10 cm depth). Microbial biomass Cmic and Nmic in humic and surface soil were not significantly different between upland and lowland sites. In the upland soils, the mean Cmic was highest in autumn for both the humic and surface soil, and lowest in spring and summer for the humic layer and summer for the surface soil layer. In the lowland soils, the Cmic was highest in winter for both humic and surface soil, and lowest in spring and autumn for the humic layer and spring and summer for surface soil. Strong fluctuations of Cmic and Nmic were associated with the soil moisture prior to sampling, which appeared to control the size of microbial biomass in this environment. Temperature had little effect on the dynamics of soil microbial biomass in the sand dune forest ecosystem. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 1812 Glomus intraradices dominates arbuscular mycorrhizal communities in a heavy textured agricultural soil Mathimaran N., Ruh R., Vullioud P. et al. Mycorrhiza 2005 16/1 (61-66) Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) spore communities were surveyed in a long-term field fertilization experiment in Switzerland, where different amounts of phosphorus (P) were applied to soil. Plots receiving no P as well as plots systematically fertilized in excess to plant needs for 31 years were used to test the hypothesis that application of P fertilizer changes the composition and diversity of AMF communities. AMF spores were isolated from the field soil, identified, and counted so as to quantify the effect of P fertilization on AMF spore density, composition, and diversity. Trap cultures were established from field soil with four host plants (sunflower, leek, maize, and Crotalaria grahamiana), and the spore communities were then analyzed in substrate samples from the pots. Altogether, nine AMF species were detected in the soil. No evidence has been acquired for effect of P fertilization on spore density, composition, and diversity of AMF in both the field soil and in trap cultures. On the other hand, we observed strong effect of crop plant species on spore densities in the soil, the values being lowest under rapeseed and highest under Phacelia tanacetifolia covercrop. The identity of plant species in trap pots also significantly affected composition and diversity of associated AMF communities, probably due to preferential establishment of symbiosis between certain plant and AMF species. AMF spore communities under mycorrhizal host plants (wheat and Phacelia in the fields and four host plant species in trap pots) were dominated by a single AMF species, Glomus intraradices. This resulted in exceptionally low AMF spore diversity that seems to be linked to high clay content of the soil. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1813 Oribatid mite (Acari, Oribatida) feeding on ectomycorrhizal fungi Schneider K., Renker C. and Maraun M. Mycorrhiza 2005 16/1 (67-72) The coexistence of a large number of soil animals without extensive niche differentiation is one of the great riddles in soil biology. The main aim of this study was to explore the importance of partitioning of food resources for the high diversity of micro-arthropods in soil. In addition, we investigated if ectomycorrhizal fungi are preferentially consumed compared to saprotrophic fungi. Until today, ectomycorrhizal fungi have never been tested as potential food resource for oribatid mites. We offered six ectomycorrhizal fungi [Amanita muscaria (L.) Hook., Boletus badius (Fr.) Fr., Cenococcum geophilum Fr., Laccaria laccata (Scop.) Fr., Paxillus involutus (Batsch) Fr. and Piloderma croceum J. Erikss. & Hjortstam], one ericoid mycorrhizal fungus [Hymenoscyphus ericae (D.J. Read) Korf & Kernan] and three saprotrophic fungi [Agrocybe gibberosa (Fr.) Fayod, Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissl. and Mortierella ramanniana (A. Møller) Linnem.] simultaneously to each of the mainly mycophagous oribatid mite species Carabodes femoralis (Nicolet), Nothrus silvestris Nicolet and Oribatula tibialis Nicolet. The ericoid mycorrhizal fungus H. ericae and the ectomycorrhizal fungus B. badius were preferentially consumed by each oribatid mite species. However, feeding preferences differed significantly between the three species, with O. tibialis being most selective. This study for the first time documented that oribatid mites feed on certain ectomycorrhizal fungi. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1814 Effects of replacing natural secondary broad-leaved forest with Cunninghamia lanceolata plantation on soil biological activities (Chinese) Hu Y., Wang S., Yan S. and Gao H. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1411-1416) This paper studied the effects of replacing natural secondary broad-leaved forest with Cunninghamia lanceolata plantation in the south, central and upstate areas of subtropical China on the changes of soil chemical and biological properties. The results showed that after replacing with Cunninghamia lanceolata plantation, the total organic carbon (TOC) content in surface soil decreased by 31.51% - 58.24%, and the contents of soil total N and P, pH value, C/N and C/P also decreased to different degree. Soil microbial amount was less than that under natural SOILS secondary broad-leaved forest, soil urease, invertase, catalase and dehydrogenase activities decreased, while soil polyphenol oxidase activity increased by 8% - 40%. The respiration rate of Cunninghamia lanceolata soil was 51.15% - 54.48% lower than that of natural secondary broad-leaved forest soil. The correlation between soil TOC and polyphenol oxidase activity was negative (R = -0.723, n = 18), while those between soil TOC, N, P and other enzyme activities were positive. It could be concluded that replacing natural secondary broad-leaved forest with Cunninghamia lanceolata plantation worsened soil quality, and the loss of soil organic matter in Cunninghamia lanceolata plantation ecosystem might be one of the important factors resulted in the decrease of soil nutrients and enzyme activities. 1815 Ecological distribution patterns of soil microbes under artificial Eucalyptus Grandis stand (Chinese) Feng J. and Zhang J. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1422-1426) In order to find out the ecological distribution patterns of soil microbes under artificial Eucalyptus grandis stand, the amount and distribution of soil bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes in Hongya County of Sichuan Province were investigated in 2004. The results showed that soil microbial population under Eucalyptus grandis stand varied with seasons, being the maximum in autumn, fewer in spring, and the minimum in summer. The numbers were decreased in order of bacteria > actinomycetes > fungi, which were mainly concentrated in 0-20 cm soil layer, and rapidly decreased with increasing soil depth. In 0-60cm soil layer, the numbers of aerobic bacteria were 0. 31  106 -14.39  106 , actinomycetes were 0.06  106 -0.79  106 , fungi were 0.06  106 -0.79  106 , and anaerobes were 0.05  106 -3.22  106 CFUg-1. Comparing with artificial C. glauca stand and farming land, Eucalyptus grandis stand had a larger number of soil microbes, suggesting that Eucalyptus grandis, was benefit, for soil microbial activity. The Simpson and Shannon-Wiener index of the physiological groups of bacteria was 0.773 and 1.896, respectively. 1816 Main determinants of forest soil respiration along an elevation/temperature gradient in the Italian Alps Rodeghiero M. and Cescatti A. Global Change Biology 2005 11/7 (1024-1041) The main determinants of soil respiration were investigated in 11 forest types distributed along an altitudinal and thermal gradient in the southern Italian Alps (altitudinal range 1520 m, range in mean annual temperature 7.8°C). Soil respiration, soil carbon content and principal stand characteristics were measured with standardized methods. Soil CO2 fluxes were measured at each site every 15-20 days with a closed dynamic system (LI-COR 6400) using soil collars from spring 2000 to spring 2002. At the same time, soil temperature at a depth of 10 cm and soil water content (m3 m-3 ) were measured at each collar. Soil samples were collected to a depth of 30 cm and stones, root content and bulk density were determined in order to obtain reliable estimates of carbon content per unit area (kg Cm -2 ). Soil respiration and temperature data were fitted with a simple logistic model separately for each site, so that base respiration rates and mean annual soil respiration were estimated. Then the same regression model was applied to all sites simultaneously, with each model parameter being expressed as a linear function of site variables. The general model explained about 86% of the intersite variability of soil respiration. In particular, soil mean annual temperature explained the most of the variance of the model (0.41), followed by soil temperature interquartlile range (0.24), soil carbon content (0.16) and soil water content (0.05). © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1817 Soil carbon and microbial communities at mitigated and late successional bottomland forest wetlands D’Angelo E.M., Karathanasis A.D., Sparks E.J. et al. Wetlands 2005 25/1 (162-175) The practice of wetland mitigation has come into question during the past decade because the relative capacity of the mitigated wetlands to perform normal wetland functions is mostly unknown. In this study, we wanted to determine whether soil microbial communities were significantly different in early successional mitigated wetlands (<10 years) (ES) compared to late successional bottomland hardwood forest wetlands (LS) due to differences in 347 soil properties, such as carbon quality and storage and waterholding capacity. Carbon storage in litter and soil was 1.5 times greater in LS wetlands than ES wetlands. Soil water-holding capacity was significantly greater in LS wetlands and was related to soil organic C content (r2 =0.87, p-value=0.0007). Gravimetric water content was a moderately strong predictor of microbial respiration (r2 =0.55-0.61, p-value=0.001-0.0004) and microbial biomass (r2 =0.70, p-value=0.0019). Anaerobic microbial groups were enriched in soils from LS wetlands in both the dry and wet seasons, which suggested that LS soils were wetter for longer periods of the year than ES soils. The capacity of these wetlands to support anaerobic microbial processes depends on soil water retention characteristics, which were dictated by organic matter content. As an integrator of microbial growth conditions in soils, determination of microbial community composition by phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis may be an important new tool for monitoring successional development of compensatory mitigation wetlands. © 2005, The Society of Wetland Scientists. Contamination and remediation 1818 A method of mercury removal from topsoil using lowthermal application Kucharski R., Zielonka U., Sas- Nowosielska A. et al. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2005 104/1-3 (341-351) Mercury contamination in the environment is problematic due to the unusual physical properties and well-recognized toxicity of this common metal. The bioavailability of mercury depends strongly on its chemical speciation. Anthropogenic mercury and its compounds appear in soil as "hot spots" located close to industrial facilities that used or produced mercury. The nature of the chemical production process, transportation and disposal practices often determined the chemical composition and distribution of mercury in the surrounding soils. Current ex situ soil remediation methods are expensive, produce undesirable side effects to the environment and usually involve transportation of contaminated soil. In this project, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, a low-cost, simple approach to removing mercury from soil was evaluated. The process uses low-temperature thermal desorption of volatile metallic mercury and its compounds, and subsequent vapor capture. The project consisted of laboratory and plot-scale experiments. The laboratory efforts evaluated theoretical calculations of mercury removal as a function of time and temperature. The plot-scale experiment was a practical application of the laboratory results. For both experiments, mercury-polluted soil was obtained from a chemical production facility located in southern Poland. In laboratory experiments, at temperature 373 K total mercury concentration decreased in soil by nearly 32%. In plot-scale experiments, at temperature 440 K, about 60-70% of total mercury was removed from the soil. At the end of the experiment, a test of soil biological activity was performed to check if the high temperature applied to the soil did not impair the soil growth properties. There was no negative effect of temperature found. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 1819 The relative influence of distant and local (DEW-line) PCB sources in the Canadian Arctic Stow J.P., Sova J. and Reimer K.J. Science of the Total Environment 2005 342/1-3 (107-118) Soil PCB contamination has been delineated at 18 of 21 Distant Early Warning Line (DEW-line) stations being cleaned up by the Canadian Department of National Defence (DND). As a result, detailed surface soil delineation data has been reported for contamination exceeding 1 g/g (dw total Aroclor), which is the remedial criteria for PCB contaminated soil under the DEWline cleanup project. The results of this delineation work has allowed us to estimate the mass of PCB contained in surface soil at these sites and to quantify the DEW-line as a source of PCBs to both local and Arctic wide contamination. Our analysis of DEW-line cleanup delineation reports suggests that pre-cleanup surface soils (top 10 cm) with over 1 g/g PCB constituted a source of PCBs that ranged from 0.8 to 43 kg with a mean of 18 kg. The total mass of PCB at all 18 sites was 119 kg. Previous studies have described a "halo-effect" that surrounds 348 SOILS DEW-line sites, whereby PCB signatures in soil and plants up to 10 km from source areas were attributed to the local source. At Cambridge Bay (CAM-M), Nunavut, our inventory of PCB sources and redistribution suggests that up to 3.4 kg of PCB were exported from the site to the surrounding tundra prior to cleanup. The primary mechanism of transportation appears to be wind borne particulate. Potential vapour phase emissions of PCB from contaminated soil at DEW-line sites appears to have been negligible. Crown Copyright © 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1820 Filter pore size selection for characterizing dissolved organic carbon and trihalomethane precursors from soils Chow A.T., Guo F., Gao S. et al. Water Research 2005 39/7 (1255-1264) Filters with a pore size of 0.45m have been arbitrarily used for isolating dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in natural waters. This operationally defined DOC fraction often contains heterogeneous organic carbon compounds that may lead to inconsistent results when evaluating trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP). A finer pore size filter provides more homogeneous DOC properties and enables a better characterization of organic matter. In this study, we examined the effects of filter pore size (1.2, 0.45, 0.1 and 0.025m) on characterizing total organic carbon, ultra-violet absorbance at 254 nm (UV254 ) and THMFP of water extracts from a mineral and organic soil in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California. Results showed that the majority of water extractable organic carbon (WEOC) from these soils was smaller than 0.025m, 85% and 57% in organic and mineral soils, respectively. A high proportion of colloidal organic carbon (COC) in mineral soil extracts caused water turbidity and resulted in an abnormally high UV254 in 1.2 and 0.45m filtrates. The reactivity of organic carbon fractions in forming THM was similar for the two soils, except that COC from the mineral soil was about half that of others. To obtain a more homogeneous solution for characterizing THM precursors, we recommend a 0.1m or smaller pore-size filter, especially for samples with high colloid concentrations. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1821 Non-ionic surfactant flushing of pentachlorophenol from NAPL-contaminated soil Park S.- K. and Bielefeldt A.R. Water Research 2005 39/7 (13881396) Column studies were conducted to assess the suitability of a non-ionic surfactant Tergitol NP-10 (TNP10) for washing pentachlorophenol (PCP) from soil and non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs). Flushing of 50 and 200 pore volumes of 5 g/L TNP10 was required to exhaust the surfactant sorption capacity of the soil and soil plus NAPL, respectively. The sorption of surfactant to the soil in the columns was four times greater than the quantity previously observed in batch tests. Flushing with 5 g/L TNP10 removed 71-79% of the 200 mg/kg soil-sorbed PCP after 160 pore volumes compared to 0.7-2% PCP removal without surfactant. In columns additionally containing 0.2% and 0.4% PCP-contaminated heavy oil NAPL, the PCP removal efficiency after flushing 200 pore volumes of 5 g/L TNP10 was nearly 100%. Therefore, removal of the PCP was more efficient in the NAPL-containing columns, potentially due to competition of the NAPL for PCP sorption sites. Rate-limited desorption of PCP and TNP10 likely occurred. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1822 Influence of soil moisture on sunflower oil extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from a manufactured gas plant soil Gong Z., Wilke B.- M., Alef K. and Li P. Science of the Total Environment 2005 343/1-3 (51-59) The influence of soil moisture on efficiency of sunflower oil extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from contaminated soil was investigated. The PAH-contaminated soil was collected from a manufactured gas plant (MGP) site in Berlin, Germany. Half of the soil was air-dried, and the other half was kept as field-moist soil. Batch experiments were performed using air-dried and field-moist soils, and sunflower oil was used as extractant at oil/soil ratios of 2:1 and 1:1 (v/m). The experimental data were fitted to a first-order empirical model to describe mass-transfer profiles of the PAHs. Column extraction experiments were also conducted. Field-moist and air-dried soils in the column were extracted using sunflower oil at an oil/soil ratio of 2:1. In the batch experiments, PAHs were more rapidly extracted from air-dried soil than from field-moist soil. Removal rate of total PAH increased 23% at oil/soil ratio of 1:1 and 15.5% at oil/soil ratio of 2:1 after the soil was air dried. The most favorable conditions for batch extraction were air-dried soil, with an oil/soil ratio of 2:1. In the column experiments, the removal rate of total PAH from air-dried soil was 30.7% higher than that from field-moist soil. For field-moist soil, extraction efficiencies of the batch extraction (67.2% and 81.5%) were better than that for column extraction (65.6%). However, this difference between the two methods became less significant for the air-dried soil, with a total removal rate of 96.3% for column extraction and 90.2% and 97% for batch extractions. A mass-balance test was carried out for analytical quality assurance. The results of both batch and column experiments indicated that drying the soil increased efficiency of extraction of PAHs from the MGP soil. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1823 Persistent organic pollutants in soil density fractions: Distribution and sorption strength Krauss M. and Wilcke W. Chemosphere 2005 59/10 (1507-1515) The sorption strength of persistent organic pollutants in soils may vary among different soil organic matter (SOM) pools. We hypothesized that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were unevenly distributed and had different soil organic carbon (SOC)-water partition coefficients (KOC ) among soil density fractions. We determined the concentrations and KOC values of 20 PAHs and 12 PCBs in bulk samples and three density fractions (light, <2.0, medium, 2.02.4, and heavy, >2.4 g cm-3 ) of 11 urban topsoils (0-5 cm) from Bayreuth, Germany. The KOC values were determined using sequential extraction with methanol-water mixtures (35% and 65% methanol) at 60°C. The sum of 20 PAH concentrations in bulk soil ranged 0.4-186 mg kg-1 , and that of 12 PCB concentrations 1.2-158 g kg-1 . The concentrations of all PAHs and PCBs decreased in the order light > medium > heavy fraction. When normalized to the SOC concentrations, PAH concentrations were significantly higher in the heavy than in the other density fractions. The KOC values of the PAHs in density fractions were 3-20 times higher than those of the PCBs with similar octanol-water partition coefficients (KOW ). The KOC values of individual PAHs and PCBs varied up to a factor of 1000 among the studied soils and density fractions. The KOC values of 5- and 6-ring PAHs tended to be highest in the heavy fraction, coinciding with their enrichment in this fraction. For the other PAHs and all PCBs, the K OC values did not differ among the density fractions. Thus, there is no relationship between sorption strength and distribution among density fractions, indicating that density fractionation is not a suitable tool to distinguish among differently reactive PAH and PCB pools in soils. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1824 Extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy evidence for the complexation of cadmium by reduced sulfur groups in natural organic matter Karlsson T., Persson P. and Skyllberg U. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/9 (3048-3055) It is widely accepted that the bioavailability, toxicity, and mobility of trace metals are highly dependent on complexation reactions with functional groups in natural organic matter (NOM). In this study, the coordination chemistry of Cd in NOM was investigated by extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy. Soil organic matter (SOM) from different types of organic soils and dissolved organic matter (DOM) from an organic and a mineral soil horizon of a Spodosol and aquatic DOM from Suwannee River were investigated. In SOM samples (1000-25000 g of Cd g-1 , pH 4.6-6.6), Cd was coordinated by 1.0-2.5 S atoms at a ´ and by 3.0-4.5 0/N atoms at a distance distance of 2.49-2.55 U ´ . In DOM samples (1750-4250 g of Cd g-1 , pH of 2.22-2.25 U 5.4-6.3), Cd was coordinated by 0.3-1.8 S atoms at a distance of ´ and 3.6-4.5 0/N atoms at a distance of 2.23-2.26 U ´. 2.51 -2.56 U In both SOM and DOM samples a second coordination shell of ´. 1.7-6.0 carbon atoms was found at an average distance of 3.12 U This is direct evidence for inner-sphere complexation of Cd by SOILS functional groups in NOM. Furthermore, ion activity measurements showed that less than 1% of total Cd was in the form of free Cd2+ in our samples. Bond distances and coordination numbers suggest that Cd complexed in SOM and DOM is a mixture of a 4-coordination with S (thiols) and 4- and 6-coordinations with 0/N ligands. Given that Cd-S associations on average are stronger than Cd-O/N associations, our results strongly indicate that reduced S ligands are involved in the complexation of Cd by NOM also at native concentrations of metal in oxidized organicrich soils and in humic streams. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1825 Sorption and related properties of the swine antibiotic carbadox and associated N-oxide reduced metabolites Strock T.J., Sassman S.A. and Lee L.S. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/9 (3134-3142) Carbadox (CBX) (methyl 3-[2-quinoxalinylmethylene]-carbazate N1, N4 dioxide) is a chemotherapeutic growth promoter and antibacterial drug added to feed for starter pigs. Toxicity of CBX and at least one of its metabolites (bisdesoxycarbadox; DCBX) has resulted in a number of studies regarding its stability and residence time in edible swine tissue; however, little is known on its environmental fate pertinent to the application of antibiotic-laden manure to agricultural fields. We measured sorption of CBX and DCBX by soils, sediment, and homoionic clays from 10 mM KCl and 5 mM CaCl2 solutions, sorption of two N-oxide reduced metabolites (N4 and N1) by a subset of soils from 5 mM CaCl2 , octanol - water partition coefficients (K ow ) of CBX and all three metabolites, and CBX solubility in water and mixed solvents. Sorption appeared well-correlated to organic carbon (OC) for the soils (e.g., log (Koc , L/kg OC) = 3.96 0.18 for CBX). However, sorption was enhanced in the presence of K+ , competitive sorption from the metabolites was observed, and sorption by clay minerals was large ( 105 L/kg for SWy-1). Sorption by clays was inversely correlated to surface charge density (e.g., sorption decreased from 10 5 to 10 L/kg as charge density increased from 1 to 2 mol c /m2 ), similar to what has been observed for nitroaromatic compounds. In the absence of a clay surface, hydrophobic-type forces dominated with Kow values and reverse-phase Chromatographic retention times increasing with the loss of oxygen from the aromatic nitrogens. Therefore, it is likely that both OC and clay contribute significantly to sorption of carbadox and related metabolites by soils with relative contributions most dependent on clay type. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1826 Influence of smectite hydration and swelling on atrazine sorption behavior Chappell M.A., Laird D.A., Thompson M.L. et al. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/9 (3150-3156) Smectites, clay minerals commonly found in soils and sediments, vary widely in their ability to adsorb organic chemicals. Recent research has demonstrated the importance of surface charge density and properties of exchangeable cations in controlling the affinity of smectites for organic molecules. In this study, we induced hysteresis in the crystalline swelling of smectites to test the hypothesis that the extent of crystalline swelling (or interlayer hydration status) has a large influence on the ability of smectites to adsorb atrazine from aqueous systems. Air-dried K-saturated Panther Creek (PC) smectite swelled less (d(001) = 1.38 nm) than never-dried K-PC (d(001) = 1.7 nm) when rehydrated in 20 mM KCl. Correspondingly, the air-dried-rehydrated K-PC had an order of magnitude greater affinity for atrazine relative to the never-dried K-PC. Both air-dried-rehydrated and never-dried Ca-PC expanded to approximately 2.0 nm in 10 mM CaCl2 and both samples had similar affinities for atrazine that were slightly lower than that of never-dried K-PC. The importance of interlayer hydration status in controlling sorption affinity was confirmed by molecular modeling, which revealed much greater interaction between interlayer water molecules and atrazine in a three-layer hydrate relative to a one-layer hydrate. The entropy change on moving atrazine from a fully hydrated state in the bulk solution to a partially hydrated state in the smectite interlayers is believed to be a major factor influencing sorption affinity. In an application test, choice of background solution (20 mM KCl versus 10 mM CaCl2 ) and air-drying treatments significantly affected atrazine sorption affinities for three-smectitic soils; however, the trends 349 were not consistent with those observed for the reference smectite. Further, extending the initial rehydration time from 24 to 240 h (prior to adding atrazine) significantly decreased the soil’s sorption affinity for atrazine. We conclude that interlayer hydration status has a large influence on the affinity of smectites for atrazine and that air-drying treatments have the potential to modify the sorption affinity of smectitic soils for organic molecules such as atrazine. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1827 Pot and field studies on bioremediation of p-nitrophenol contaminated soil using Arthrobacter protophormiae RKJ100 Labana S., Pandey G., Paul D. et al. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/9 (3330-3337) Biodegradation of p-nitrophenol (PNP), a priority pollutant, was studied as a model system for bioremediation of sites contaminated with nitroaromatic/organic compounds. Bioremediation of PNP-containing soil was first carried out in pots using immobilized and free cells of Arthrobacter protophormiae RKJ100 in order to ascertain the role of a suitable carrier material. Results showed that stability of the introduced strain was enhanced upon immobilization and that the rate of PNP depletion decreased with increasing depth of soil. Small-scale field studies (in one square meter plots) were then conducted in which PNP-contaminated soil from an agricultural field was bioaugmented with strain RKJ100 under natural environmental conditions. PNP was totally depleted in 5 days by immobilized cells, whereas free cells were able to deplete 75% of PNP in the same time period. The fate of the released strain as monitored by plate counts, hybridization studies, and real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed fairly stable population of the cells upon immobilization on corncob powder throughout the period of study. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1828 Influence of dissolved organic matter from waste material on the phytotoxicity and environmental fate of triflusulfuron methyl Gigliotti G., Onofri A., Pannacci E. et al. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7446-7451) Bioassays and chemical analyses were performed to study the effect of hydrophobic dissolved organic matter (HoDOM) extracted from a municipal waste compost (MWC) on the behavior of triflusulfuron methyl in soil and water. Bioassays with oilseed rape showed that HoDOM in culture solution lowered the effective dose 50 of triflusulfuron methyl by up to 4.8 times. Equilibrium dialysis experiments showed that in aqueous solution triflusulfuron methyl was adsorbed to HoDOM (KOC of 446.5 mL g-1 ). The half-life in water (pH 7.0) was increased from 52 to 76 days in the presence of HoDOM, but this cannot completely explain its phytotoxicity, as bioassays lasted for 21 days only. On the other hand, the addition of HoDOM to soils did not change the degradative behavior of triflusulfuron methyl. Fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis showed that HoDOM in soil did not significantly influence soil microbial activity, which may explain the above result on degradation in soil. Furthermore, in batch equilibrium experiments on soil, triflusulfuron methyl was only weakly adsorbed and the presence of HoDOM significantly modified the isotherm form. Results suggest that although the addition of exogenous HoDOM from MWC to soil did not influence the herbicide’s persistence, its enhanced mobility could be of environmental concern and may deserve further research. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1829 Assessing sequestration of selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by use of adsorption modeling and temperature-programmed desorption Abu A. and Smith S. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7585-7591) Sequestration of phenanthrene and pyrene was investigated in two soils-a sandy soil designated SBS and a silt-loam designated LHS-by combining long-term batch sorption studies with thermal desorption and pyrolysis of amended soil samples. The Polanyibased adsorption volume and the adsorbed solute mass increased with aging for both soils, thus demonstrating the mechanism for observed sequestration. Despite rigorous thermal analysis, 3062% (SBS sand) and 8-30% (LHS silt-loam) of phenanthrene 350 SOILS could not be recovered after 30-270 days of sorption, with the increase in desorption resistance showing greater significance in SBS sand. For both soils, these values were 20-65% of adsorbed phenanthrene mass. Activation energies estimated from the temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) of sorbed phenanthrene at 375 °C were 51-53 kJ/mol, consistent with values derived for desorption of organic compounds from humic materials. The activated first-order model fitting of observed TPD data supports the conclusion that the desorption-resistant fraction of phenanthrene has become sequestered onto condensed organic domains and requires temperatures exceeding 600 °C to be released. The work demonstrates the use of thermal analysis in complementing the Polanyi-based adsorption modeling approach for assessing the mechanistic basis for sequestration of organic contaminants in soils. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 1830 Model testing for the remediation assessment of a radium contaminated site in Olen, Belgium Sweeck L., Kany´ar B., Krajewski P. et al. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2005 84/2 (245-258) Environmental assessment models are used as decision-aiding tools in the selection of remediation options for radioactively contaminated sites. In most cases, the effectiveness of the remedial actions in terms of dose savings cannot be demonstrated directly, but can be established with the help of environmental assessment models, through the assessment of future radiological impacts. It should be emphasized that, given the complexity of the processes involved and our current understanding of how they operate, these models are simplified descriptions of the behaviour of radionuclides in the environment and therefore imperfect. One way of testing and improving the reliability of the models is to compare their predictions with real data and/or the predictions of other models. Within the framework of the Remediation Assessment Working Group (RAWG) of the BIOMASS (BIOsphere Modelling and ASSessment) programme coordinated by IAEA, two scenarios were constructed and applied to test the reliability of environmental assessment models when remedial actions are involved. As a test site, an area of approximately 100 ha contaminated by the discharges of an old radium extraction plant in Olen (Belgium) has been considered. In the first scenario, a real situation was evaluated and model predictions were compared with measured data. In the second scenario the model predictions for specific hypothetical but realistic situations were compared. Most of the biosphere models were not developed to assess the performance of remedial actions and had to be modified for this purpose. It was demonstrated clearly that the modeller’s experience and familiarity with the mathematical model, the site and with the scenario play a very important role in the outcome of the model calculations. More model testing studies, preferably for real situations, are needed in order to improve the models and modelling methods and to expand the areas in which the models are applicable. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1831 A comparison of five pesticides adsorption and desorption processes in thirteen contrasting field soils Boivin A., Cherrier R. and Schiavon M. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (668-676) Batch adsorption and desorption experiments were performed using thirteen agricultural soil samples and five pesticides. Experimental data indicated a gradient in pesticide adsorption on soil: trifluralin 2,4-D > isoproturon > atrazine bentazone. Atrazine, isoproturon and trifluralin adsorption were correlated to soil organic matter content (r2 = 0.7, 0.82, 0.79 respectively). Conversely, bentazone adsorption was governed by soil pH (r2 = 0.68) while insignificant effect has been shown in the case of 2,4-D. Multiple linear regressions were used to combine relationships between the various soil parameters and the Freundlich adsorption coefficient (K f ) of each pesticide. Then desorption was assessed since it may reflect some of the interactions involved between the pesticides and the soil components. Adsorbed molecules were released into aqueous solution in the following order: bentazone atrazine > isoproturon > 2,4D trifluralin. The occurrence of hysteresis did not allow an accurate interpretation of the pesticide desorption data because of the possible interplay of several processes. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1832 Enhancement of PAH biomineralization rates by cyclodextrins under Fe(III)-reducing conditions Ramsay J.A., Robertson K., VanLoon G. et al. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (733-740) Amendment of a soil slurry with low concentrations of a cyclodextrin, hydroxypropyl- -cyclodextrin (HPCD), (0.05-0.5 g l-1 ) increased the phenanthrene mineralization rate of a microbial consortium by 25% under Fe(III)-reducing conditions. Although a higher concentration (5.0 g l -1 ) resulted in a faster initial rate of mineralization, mineralization ceased after 25 days with maximum mineralization 17% lower than the control (no HPCD). At lower HPCD concentrations, mineralization was still taking place at day 76. Although pH should affect Fe(III) solubility, mineralization rates at pH 6.0 and 8.0 were comparable. Decreasing the temperature reduced the extent and rate of mineralization, but mineralization rates at 10°C were still 60% of that obtained at 30°C. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1833 Remediation of contaminated soils using supercritical fluid extraction: A review (1994-2004) Salda˜na M.D.A., Nagpal V. and Guigard S.E. Environmental Technology 2005 26/9 (1013-1032) Considerable effort is being made to remediate soils contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, heavy metals and other organic and inorganic compounds that have resulted from industrial activities, accidental spills and improper waste disposal practices. Current remediation technologies may be limited when treating certain types of contaminated soils and therefore new, efficient and cost effective technologies are being investigated. Supercritical fluid extraction is a potential remediation technology for contaminated soils. It is a simple, fast and selective solvent extraction process that uses a supercritical fluid as the solvent. A commonly used fluid is carbon dioxide at pressures and temperatures greater than 7.4 MPa and 31°C, respectively. In supercritical fluid extraction, the extracted contaminants first dissolve into the supercritical solvent and then these contaminants are separated from the supercritical solvent via a simple change in pressure and temperature conditions or by using a separation process. This paper provides a review of supercritical fluid extraction and its application to the remediation of contaminated soils. This review focuses on the removal of organic contaminants (such as petroleum hydrocarbons, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and others) and inorganic contaminants (such as heavy metals and radioactive elements) from soils. Recent data (1994-2004) on the supercritical fluid extraction of spiked soils and field-contaminated soils were collected. The success of supercritical fluid extraction as a method for removing these contaminants from soils is highlighted and some of the future research needed to develop it as a commercial-scale economic remediation technology are discussed. © Selper Ltd., 2005. 1834 Lead and zinc extraction potential of two common crop plants, Helianthus annuus and Brassica napus Solhi M., Shareatmadari H. and Hajabbasi M.A. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (59-71) Phytoextraction is a remediation technology that uses plants to remove heavy metals from soil. The success of a phytoextraction process depends on adequate plant yield (aerial parts) and high metal concentrations in plant shoots. A pot experiment was conducted to investigate the combination effects of plants [sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and canola (Brassica napus)] with soil treatments (manure, sulfuric acid and DTPA). Treatments, including two plants and seven soil treatments, which applied according to completely randomized factorial design with three replications. The largest shoot dry weight biomass production occurred in manure treatments for both plants. The maximum shoot concentrations of Pb and Zn were 234.6 and 1364.4 mg kg-1 respectively in three mmoles DTPA kg-1 treatment of sunflower. Furthermore the results showed that sunflower had a higher extracting potential for removal of Pb and Zn from polluted soil. © Springer 2005. SOILS 1835 Effects of low molecular weight organic anions on the release of arsenite and arsenate from a contaminated soil Zhang S., Li W., Shan X.- Q. et al. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (111-122) Low-molecular-weight-organic-anions (LMWOAs) are important exudates of plants and may influence the mobility and bioavailability of metals or metalloids. In the present study the effects of selected LMWOAs, citrate, malate and oxalate, on the release of arsenite (As(III)) and arsenate (As(V)) in a contaminated soil were investigated. The organic anions have significant influence upon the release of arsenic from the soil, and a linear relationship exits between the released arsenic and the concentration of LMWOAs in the extractants. pH effects on the arsenite and arsenate adsorption were not significant over the range from 3 to 7. The amounts of arsenite and arsenate released were significantly correlated with the release of Fe, Mn and Al, suggesting that arsenic was mainly released from Fe-, Mn- and Al-oxides or hydroxides in soil. The ratio of released arsenite to arsenate was not influenced by LMWOAs. © Springer 2005. 1836 Potentially mobile lead fractions in montane organicrich soil horizons Kaste J.M., Friedland A.J. and Miller E.K. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (139-154) Anthropogenic emissions during the 20th century resulted in global lead (Pb) contamination of soils. Recent studies have demonstrated that the organic horizons of temperate montane Spodosols in the northeastern United States retain Pb on timescales of 50 to 150 years. The precise mechanism(s) of this strong Pb partitioning to organic-rich soil material remain elusive, but a detailed understanding of Pb retention by organic layers and mineral topsoils is critical for predicting the fate of pollutants deposited on ecosystems. Here we use selective extractions to quantify potentially mobile pools of Pb in the surface horizons of relatively remote montane Spodosols from New Hampshire and Vermont. Using 10 consecutive rinses of water, we extracted a total of 1 to 5% of the carbon, and 4 to 12% of the Pb. Dialysis equilibration experiments demonstrate that this Pb is >5,000 molecular weight, and not truly dissolved as Pb 2+ . When soil was extracted with a single rinse of 0.02 M HCl (pH 1.7), 5 to 11% of the Pb was mobilized. However, hydroxylamine hydrochloride in 0.02 M HCl (a reducing agent) extracted 30 to 40% of the Pb. Repeated rinses with sodium hydroxide and sodium pyrophosphate, which target organic matter but may extract other soil phases removed 16 to 75% and 60 to 100% of the Pb, respectively. We show that significant Fe, Pb, and Al can be released from soils under reducing conditions, and that this fraction can be underestimated if sodium pyrophosphate is used in a previous step for leaching the organic-metal phase, as is typically done in sequential extraction schemes. Our results indicate that inorganic phases play an important role in determining Pb mobility and bioavailability, even in surface soil horizons dominated by organic matter. © Springer 2005. 1837 Aspergillus tubingensis reduces the pH of the bauxite residue (red mud) amended soils Krishna P., Reddy M.S. and Patnaik S.K. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (201-209) Bauxite residue (red mud), a poor substrate for plant growth because of very high pH, salinity and sodicity, is required to be revegetated. The possibility of using Aspergillus tubingensis (AT1), a phosphate solubilizer in red mud amended soils to reduce the alkalinity of the red mud was studied in the present study. A. tubingensis was tested for its ability to grow at high pH and in different concentrations of aluminium (Al), iron (Fe) and sodium (Na). The results showed that A. tubingensis was able to grow at high pH and reduce the alkalinity of the nutrient medium and also to accumulate different metals in the mycelium. The pH values of the red mud amended soils were also significantly reduced (by 2-3 units) by A. tubingensis, which resulted in maize growth improvement. These results suggest that A. tubingensis plays an important role in reducing the pH of the red mud and also helps in promoting the plant growth in it. © Springer 2005. 351 1838 Comparison of plants for germination toxicity tests in petroleum- contaminated soils Banks M.K. and Schultz K.E. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (211-219) Pollution of soil by petroleum hydrocarbons is a serious environmental problem world-wide. Although total concentration of contaminants in soil and/or water is used for regulatory review, it also is beneficial to assess the potential for ecosystem impact through a series of bioassays. One commonly used bioassay is seed germination. In this test, seeds are placed in contaminated material, and seedlings enumerated after a specified incubation period. However, different plant species produce variability in response. In the research project reported here, lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), millet (Panicum miliaceum), radish (Raphanus L.), red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) were tested for sensitivity to petroleum-contaminated soil in germination tests. While most plants appeared to show some sensitivity to the pollutant, only lettuce had a statistically significant difference in response to contaminated and uncontaminated soil. These results confirm that Latuca sativa L is the optimal plant choice for standard germination toxicity tests with petroleum-impacted soil. © Springer 2005. 1839 Influence of water content and plants on the dissipation of chlorinated volatile organic compounds in soil Cho C., Sung K., Coapcioglu M.Y. and Drew M. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (259-271) To devise effective procedures for the remediation of soil contaminated by VOCs, an improved understanding of their fate and transport mechanisms in soil is essential. To show the effect of plants on the dissipation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA), trichloroethylene (TCE) and tetrachloroethylene (PCE), two types of experiments, vial and column, were conducted. The results suggested that keeping the soil moisture content at field capacity is desirable for VOCs dissipation. All VOCs were dissipated quickly in unplanted columns than planted conditions in early periods of the experiment because more volatilization occurred in unplanted conditions. The plants could take up and retard volatile contaminants, and prevent contamination of ambient air. Although the time for acclimation for microbial communities to contaminants for enhanced biodegradation should be considered, phytoremediation is potentially a cost-effective remediation technique for soils contaminated by volatile organic compounds (VOCs). © Springer 2005. 1840 Application of Relaxed Eddy Accumulation technique to quantify Hg 0 fluxes over modified soil surfaces Olofsson M., Sommar J., Ljungstr¨om E. et al. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (331-352) Fluxes of mercury from a waste repository and from an agricultural field amended with sewage sludge were measured. The measurements were performed by utilising a Relaxed Eddy Accumulation (REA) system synchronously coupled to automated mercury cold vapour atomic fluorescence analysers (CVAFA). The waste repository was severely contaminated and fluxes of between 0.16g m -2 h-1 and 29g m-2 h-1 could be measured. Fluxes at the slightly contaminated agricultural field measured between 8 ng m-2 h-1 and 1.9g m-2 h -1 . The results showed that the REA-CVAFA system could be used for measurements above both severely-and slightly contaminated soils. The measurements at the chlor-alkali plant showed that temperature was the most important parameter controlling the release of mercury at this site. At the agricultural field, the measurements indicated that both solar radiation and temperature may have influenced the emissions. Most of the mercury added to the field was lost to the atmosphere during the summer season. © Springer 2005. 1841 An empirical model for estimating remediation costs at contaminated sites Kaufman M.M., Rogers D.T. and Murray K.S. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (365-386) A model for estimating the remediation costs at contaminated sites is developed, in which the predictor variable is a composite of surface, subsurface, and contaminant risk factors. Calibration of the model is performed at 83 sites in an urbanized watershed with diverse surface geology in southeastern Michigan. These 352 SOILS test sites exhibited different extents of contamination, including some where only soil was contaminated, and others where soil and groundwater were contaminated. The model was then applied to 79 sites with multiple contamination extents within different watersheds in North America, Europe, Australia, and Africa. The results indicate a very high correlation between the estimated and actual remediation costs at these sites. This model thus has the potential for providing reliable estimates of remediation costs across a broad array of soil and groundwater contamination scenarios, including dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) contamination in sandy soil and lead in clay soil. © Springer 2005. 1842 The influence of organic ligands on the retention of lead in soil Schwab A.P., He Y. and Banks M.K. Chemosphere 2005 61/6 (856-866) Organic acids are commonly produced and exuded by plant roots and soil microorganisms. Some of these organic compounds are effective chelating agents and have the potential to enhance metal mobility. The effect of citrate and salicylate on the leaching of lead in soil was investigated in a laboratory experiment. In short-term batch experiments, adsorption of lead to soil was slightly enhanced with increasing salicylate concentration (5005000 M) but decreased significantly in the presence of citrate. These observations suggested that citrate may enhance Pb leaching, but this was not observed in the column study. Soluble Pb in the presence and absence citrate or salicylate (up to 5000 M) was added to soil columns at a moderate flow rate, but no Pb was observed to emerge from the soil in any of the soil columns. Rapid biodegradation of citrate in soil eliminated potential complexing ability. Breakthrough of Pb from soil was noted only when using small columns at high flow rates (>20 pore volumes per day). Under these conditions of physical and chemical nonequilibrium, citrate was not degraded and significantly enhanced Pb mobility. As in the batch adsorption experiments, the presence of salicylate reduced Pb leaching. Considering the extreme conditions required to induce Pb leaching, it is likely that Pb will remain relatively immobile in soil even in the presence of a strong complexing agent such as citrate. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1843 Effects of Lumbricus terrestris, Allolobophora chlorotica and Eisenia fetida on microbial community dynamics in oil-contaminated soil Schaefer M., Petersen S.O. and Filser J. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2005 37/11 (2065-2076) Oil spills are one of the most common types of soil pollution. Bioremediation has become an attractive alternative to physicochemical methods of remediation, where feasible. Earthworms have been shown to stimulate the degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil, and it was hypothesized that the role of earthworms in remediation lies in the enhancement of an oil degrading microbial community. The aim of this study was to characterize microbial activity and community dynamics in oil-contaminated soil incubated with or without earthworms. Three earthworm species (Eisenia fetida, Allolobophora chlorotica and Lumbricus terrestris) were incubated in crude oil polluted soil (ca. 10,000 mg/kg total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH)) and a reference soil for 28 d. Control treatments with manual mixing and/or cattle dung amendment were also included. In the oil-contaminated soil, respiration and concentration of microbial biomass was significantly enhanced by earthworm amendment, and TPH concentrations decreased significantly. These effects were less evident in treatments with A. chlorotica, possibly due to a difference in behavior, since individuals of this endogeic species were found in a state of inactivity (aestivation). Microbial community dynamics were described by phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analyses. After 28 d, similar shifts in the soil PLFA composition were observed in the oil-contaminated soil irrespective of worm species. Fungal:bacterial ratios were increased in the presence of worms, but also by addition of dung as a food source, indicating a non-specific effect of metabolizable substrates. In contrast, the fatty acids 17:1! 8 (= 9-heptadecenoic acid) and 20:4! 6c (arachidonic acid) were specifically stimulated by the presence of earthworms in the oil-contaminated soil. The results showed that earthworms can contribute positively to bioremediation of oil-contaminated soil, but that the effect may be species-dependent. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1844 Influence of flooding on the degradation of linuron, isoproturon and metolachlor in soil Accinelli C., Screpanti C. and Vicari A. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 2005 25/3 (401-406) Degradation of pesticides in soil usually refers to normally aerated conditions. However, considering that under some circumstances, fields treated with pesticide can be subject to flooding phenomena, more information on pesticide persistence under these conditions is needed. The main objective of the present study was to investigate the persistence of linuron, isoproturon and metolachlor in soil samples incubated under flooding conditions. During the whole incubation period, changes in soil Eh, pH and microbial C were measured. Flooding conditions produced different effects on the persistence of the three herbicides. More specifically, flooding conditions led to a significant increase in linuron and isoproturon persistence. The half-lives of linuron and isoproturon in flooded soil were 1.8 and 1.4 times higher than in nonflooded soil, respectively. An opposite phenomenon was observed with metolachlor. The half-life of metolachlor was reduced from 32.2 to 24.1 days in nonflooded and flooded soil, respectively. Soil Eh rapidly decreased in soil samples incubated under flooding conditions, passing form 368.0 mV to - 225.5 mV within the first week of flooding. No significant changes in soil microbial C in soil samples incubated under the two water regimes were observed. The results obtained from the present experiment showed that information from normally aerated soil conditions is not correctly applicable to predict herbicide persistence under flooding conditions. © INRA, EDP Sciences, 2005. 1845 Nitrogen mineralization in mine waste-contaminated soils Arslan H., G¨ulery¨uz G., Kirmizi S. and G¨uc¸er S¸. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 2005 14/10 (900-906) In this study, the effect of mine wastes on nitrogen mineralization was investigated at two different depths of soil (0-5 cm and 5-15 cm) in waste sites in the surroundings of the Etibank Wolfram Mine Work, Bursa, Turkey. Due to the disorder of the distribution of mining wastes, the pH, CaCO3 % and element content (Fe, Mn, Zn, Mg) in the soils around the mine were enriched by mining activity. The investigation was carried out in soils taken from waste-removal pools (WRPs) and from selected sample sites which differed in their distances from the mine works. Waste materials resulted by mining were discharged with water and, they were fall down on two waste removal pools which were constructed as primitive terraces around the mine work. For this reason, elements were most enriched on sandy ground of abandoned pools. Both N-mineralization and nitrification were determined by a standard incubation method under laboratory conditions at 20°C and 60 % WHC. Mineral nitrogen was analyzed at the initial, the 21st and the 63rd day by micro-distillation method. The net mineral N production was estimated for 21 and 42 days. It was calculated as the potential mineralization rate of organic nitrogen. N-mineralization and net production were the highest at the site furthest from the mine waste site. Significant negative correlations between nitrification and element contents (Fe, Zn, Mn, Mg) of soils were also found. This shows that the mine wastes have a negative effect on the nitrogen mineralization, especially nitrification. © by PSP 2005. 1846 Evaluation of electrokinetic remediation of arseniccontaminated soils Kim S.- O., Kim W.- S. and Kim K.- W. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (443-453) The potential of electrokinetic (EK) remediation technology has been successfully demonstrated for the remediation of heavy metal-contaminated fine-grained soils through laboratory scale and field application studies. Arsenic contamination in soil is a serious problem affecting both site use and groundwater quality. The EK technology was evaluated for the removal of arsenic from two soil samples; a kaolinite soil artificially contaminated with arsenic and an arsenic-bearing tailing-soil taken from the Myungbong (MB) gold mine area. The effectiveness of enhancing agents was investigated using three different types of SOILS cathodic electrolytes; deionized water (DIW), potassium phosphate (KH2 PO4 ) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The results of the experiments on the kaolinite show that the potassium phosphate was the most effective in extracting arsenic, probably due to anion exchange of arsenic species by phosphate. On the other hand, the sodium hydroxide seemed to be the most efficient in removing arsenic from the tailing-soil. This result may be explained by the fact that the sodium hydroxide increased the soil pH and accelerated ionic migration of arsenic species through the desorption of arsenic species as well as the dissolution of arsenic-bearing minerals. © Springer 2005. 1847 Concentrations of potentially toxic metals in urban soils of Seville: Relationship with different land uses Ruiz- Cort´es E., Reinoso R., Daz- Barrientos E. and Madrid L. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (465-474) Fifty-two samples of surface soils were taken in the urban area of Seville, to assess the possible influence of different land uses on their metal contents and their relationship with several soil properties. The samples corresponded to five categories or land uses: Agricultural, parks, ornamental gardens, riverbanks, and roadsides. Sequential extraction of metal according to the procedure proposed by the former Community Bureau of Reference (BCR) was carried out, and pseudo-total (aqua regia soluble) metal contents were determined. Lower organic C, total N and available P and K contents were found in riverbank samples, probably due to the lack of manuring of those sites, left in a natural status. In contrast, significantly higher electrical conductivity was found in those sites, due to the tidal influence of the nearby Atlantic Ocean. Other land uses did not show significant differences in the general properties. Concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn, both aqua-regia soluble and sequentially extracted, were clearly higher in soils from ornamental gardens, whereas the concentrations in the riverbank samples were slightly lower than the other categories. In contrast, other metals (Cd, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni) were uniformly distributed throughout all land uses. A strong statistical association is found among the concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn and organic C, suggesting that the larger contents of these metals in ornamental gardens are partly due to organic amendments added to those sites more frequently than to other kinds of sites. Considering the conclusions of previous studies, heavy traffic can also contribute to those ‘urban’ metals in urban soils. Periodic monitoring of the concentrations of urban metals in busy city centres and of the quality of amendments added to soils of recreational areas are recommended. © Springer 2005. 1848 A kinetic analysis of solid waste composting at optimal conditions Komilis D.P. Waste Management 2006 26/1 (82-91) Six municipal solid waste (MSW) and yard waste components (food waste, mixed paper, yard waste, leaves, branches, grass clippings) were aerobically decomposed to measure the extent of decomposition under near optimal conditions. Decomposition was characterized by at least two principal stages, for most components, as was indicated by the carbon dioxide production rates. An aerobic biodegradation conceptual model is presented here based on the principle that solids hydrolysis is the ratelimiting step during solid waste composting. The mineralizable solid carbon of each solid waste component was assumed to comprise the readily, the moderately and the slowly (or refractory) hydrolysable carbons, each hydrolyzing at different rates to aqueous (water soluble) carbon. Aqueous carbon mineralizes to CO2 at rapid rates that are not rate-limiting to the process. Solids hydrolysis rate constants were calculated after fitting the experimentally determined carbon dioxide production rate data to model results. Hydrolysis rates for the readily hydrolysable carbon in all components ranged from approximately 0.06 to 0.1 d-1 ; hydrolysis rates for the moderately hydrolysable carbon ranged from 0.005 to 0.06 d -1 . Leaves, branches and grass clippings did not have a readily hydrolysable carbon fraction, whilst the leaves and branches had the largest slowly hydrolysable carbon fractions (70%, 82%, respectively, of the total solid organic carbon). Grass and yard waste did not contain slowly hydrolysable carbon fractions. Food waste had the largest readily hydrolysable carbon fraction and produced the highest amount of CO2 among all substrates. Moderately hydrolysable solid carbon fractions 353 ranged from 16% to 90% of the total solid organic carbon for all substrates used. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1849 Influence of three species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the persistence of aromatic hydrocarbons in contaminated substrates Volante A., Lingua G., Cesaro P. et al. Mycorrhiza 2005 16/1 (43-50) Aromatic hydrocarbons are pollutants which have mutagenic and carcinogenic properties as well as relatively high hydrosolubility. Their presence in soils makes techniques such as bioremediation an important topic for research. In this work, the effect of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) on the persistence of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) in artificially contaminated substrates was evaluated. Leek plants were grown with three AM fungal species using a specially designed mesocosm system, in which internal air and substrate samples were analyzed by gas chromatography for BTEX content. Strong reductions in the BTEX concentration in substrates were generally observed in the presence of mycorrhizal plants. Residual BTEX content ranged between nearly total disappearance (<2%) and 40% of the original concentration, whereas there was a high persistence of hydrocarbons in the samples of substrate alone or with nonmycorrhizal plants. These results provide first evidence for an influence of AM activity in reducing pollution of substrates by aromatic hydrocarbons. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1850 Degradation-detoxification behavior of methamidophos in phaiozem and burozem rhizosphere (Chinese) Yu Y. and Zhou Q. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1761-1764) With plastic rhizobox system, this paper studied the degradation behavior of methamidophos in the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere of phaiozem and burozem planted with soybean. The results suggested that methamidophos could be rapidly decomposed in soil environment despite its higher acute toxicity, and its residual amount in phaiozem was generally below the level in burozem under same condition. In the absence of soybean (control), the residual amount of methamidophos at the 2nd day of incubation was about 33% in burozem, whereas only about 26% in phaiozem. An accelerated degradation of methamidophos in soybean rhizospheric soil was observed, especially in phaiozem. At the 9th day of incubation, the insecticide residue in the middle rhizobox phaiozem and burozem with soybean was decreased by 87.5% and 76.0%, respectively, compared with that of the control. The degradation process of methamidophos in soil environment followed the first-order equation, and its half-life was about 2 days. 1851 A preliminary investigation into the use of ochre as a remedial amendment in arsenic-contaminated soils Doi M., Warren G. and Hodson M.E. Applied Geochemistry 2005 20/12 (2207-2216) Ochre is an unwanted waste product that accumulates in wetlands and streams draining abandoned coal and metal mines. A potential commercial use for ochre is to remediate As contaminated soil. Arsenic contaminated soil (605 mg kg -1 ) was mixed with different ochres (A, B and C) in a mass ratio of 1:1 and shaken in 20 mL of deionised water. After 72 h As concentration in solution was ca. 500 g kg-1 in the control and 1-2.5 g kg-1 in the ochre treated experiments. In a second experiment soil:ochre mixtures of 0.05-1:1 were shaken in 20 mL of deionised water for 24 h. For Ochres A and C, as solution concentration was reduced to ca. 1 g kg-1 by 0.2-1:1 ochre:soil mixtures. For Ochre B, as concentration only reached ca. 1 g kg-1 in the 1:1 ochre:soil mix. Sorption of As was best modelled by a Freundlich isotherm using As sorption per mass of goethite in the ochre (log K = 1.64, n = 0.79, R2 = 0.76, p  0.001). Efficiency of ochre in removing As from solution increased with increasing total Fe, goethite, citrate dithionite extractable Fe and surface area. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 354 SOILS 1852 Magnetic screening of a pollution hotspot in the Lausitz area, Eastern Germany: Correlation analysis between magnetic proxies and heavy metal contamination in soils Spiteri C., Kalinski V., R¨osler W. et al. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (1-9) This investigation was carried out within the scope of EU-FP5 project MAGPROX. In parallel with the work of Kalinski et al. (2004, submitted), in which the magnetic signatures of the same soil profiles were analysed in more detail. The ‘hot spot’ under investigation was situated in the Lausitz area, Eastern Germany, between two major power plants, Schwarze Pumpe and Boxberg. This heavily industrialized region is known as the Black Triangle, named after the large lignite deposits and the old-technology power plants, among other petrochemical plants, refineries, textile manufacturing and glasswork industries. The relationship between magnetic parameters and heavy metal concentrations (Fe, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cu, Cr, Cd, Co and Ni) in soil profiles was determined statistically using linear regression analysis. Strong positive correlation was observed between heavy metal concentrations as viewed preliminarily from the heavy metal and magnetic susceptibility distributions with depth (soil profiles), and from the correlation coefficients obtained. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1853 Correlation between magnetic susceptibility and heavy metals in urban topsoil: A case study from the city of Xuzhou, China Wang X.S. and Qin Y. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (10-18) Anthropogenic influence, mainly due to urban and industrial activities and traffic exhaust, may affect urban topsoil via atmospheric contamination and solid waste. Magnetic susceptibility measurements were conducted on 21 urban topsoil samples from the city of Xuzhou, China. High intensities of magnetic susceptibility were detected in the majority of the samples. SEM analysis shows that magnetic minerals are in the form of spherules and mainly due to anthropogenic inputs. The heavy metals Pb, Cu, Zn, Se, Sc, Mo, Fe, and Bi show strong correlations with magnetic susceptibility, and Ag, Ba, Cd, Ni, Cr, Sb, and Sn, on the other hand, show a weak correlation with magnetic susceptibility. Whereas, of these metals studied, only Hg has no significant correlation with the susceptibility. The Tomlinson pollution load index (PLI) also shows significant correlation with the susceptibility (). The present study shows that magnetic susceptibility is a fast, inexpensive, and non-destructive method for the detection and mapping of contaminated soils. © SpringerVerlag 2005. Erosion and conservation 1854 Effects of intensifying organic manuring and tillage practices on penetration resistance and infiltration rate Thierfelder C., Am´ezquita C E. and Stahr K. Soil and Tillage Research 2005 82/2 (211-226) Soil erosion, along with the contributing factors of soil crusting and sealing, have received minimal scientific attention to date in Latin America. This study was conducted in an Andean hillside environment to determine how the local organic manuring and tillage practices influence the development of soil crusting and sealing, and the extent to which these practices influence soil water infiltration. The aim of this study was to identify treatments that prevented superficial soil structural constraints, i.e. treatments which maintain infiltration and therefore reduce potential soil erosion and run-off. Treatment results were measured with a pocket penetrometer and a mini-rain simulator on nine different cropping systems, mainly based on cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), from February to November 2000 and 2001. The cropping systems were laid out on a Ferrallic Cambisol, an acid, vulcanically influenced soil of the Andean region. In both cropping cycles, treatments with chicken manure application developed superficial soil crusts during the dry season. For a treatment manured with 8 t ha-1 chicken manure, this crust meant an increase in penetration resistance from 2.3 kg cm-2 in April 2000 to 16.2 kg cm-2 in July 2000. The change in superficial soil structure created a notable reduction in final infiltration from 92 to 42.2 mm h -1 . A minimum tillage treatment which dis- played the highest penetration resistance during the dry periods of up to 46.4 kg cm-2 presented no restricting effects on soil water intake (76.2 mm h-1 final infiltration in 2000) due to an optimal aggregate development during 10 years of consecutive conservation practice. Measurements of penetration resistance and infiltration showed that soil conserving treatments, such as minimum tillage and crop rotations, improved the physical soil status and prevented soil crusting developing along with its negative effects on infiltration. These methods can therefore be strongly recommended to farmers. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1855 Effect of DEM resolutions in the runoff and soil loss predictions of the WEPP watershed model Cochrane T.A. and Flanagan D.C. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (109-120) Erosion prediction utilizing digital elevation models (DEMs) is a logical advancement for automating the simulation process for models such as the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP). The effects of using different DEM resolutions on watershed simulations and the ability to accurately predict sediment yield and runoff from different rainfall event sizes were studied using three application methods and data from six research watersheds. Simulating watersheds with a range of resolutions can help address the problem of deciding what topographic DEM resolution is ideal for model simulations of the watershed outlet, the end of each hillslope, and along the slope profiles. The three application methods studied here were: (1) Hillslope Chanleng, (2) Hillslope - Calcleng, and (3) Flowpath. The two Hillslope methods use a representative slope profile to represent each hillslope in the watershed, and the Flowpath method uses all of the individual flowpaths as model input for WEPP simulations. Results show that the Hillslope methods were not significantly influenced by DEM resolutions; however, there was an observable interaction between resolutions and the Flowpath method. Large rainfall events were predicted better than small events, but fine DEM resolutions did not improve predictions of either large or small rainfall events. Using coarse DEM resolutions for the topographic input will not decrease the accuracy of erosion prediction using the WEPP model and the Hillslope methods, unless the coarseness of the DEM compromises the delineation of the watershed or hillslopes. 1856 Controlling soil erosion and runoff with polyacrylamide and phosphogypsum on subtropical soil Cochrane B.H.W., Reichert J.M., Eltz F.L.F. and Norton L.D. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (149-154) Sandy soil, prone to intense soil erosion, is used for agriculture in the subtropics of Brazil. This study was conducted to determine whether soil amendments are effective for conserving topsoil by preventing water-induced erosion on a Brazilian sandy Alfisol soil (coarse-loamy, mixed, thermic Typic Paleudalf). A programmable rainfall simulator was used at the experimental station of the Federal University of Santa Maria, in a newly harvested black oat (Avena estrigosa L.) field that was moldboard plowed and disked twice. Plots were on bare tilled soil with 8% to 12% slopes. The soil treatments consisted of a single 5 Mg ha-1 surface application of byproduct phosphogypsum (PG), a single 20 kg ha-1 surface application of anionic polyacrylamide (PAM), a combined amendment (PAM+PG) with the same rates as above, and an unamended soil (control). Simulated rainfall average intensity was 25 mm h-1 with a 2 h duration. Sediment and runoff samples were collected at intervals during the experiment, and soil surface samples inside the plot were taken after the rain for surface crusting analysis. Total soil loss was significantly lower for the treatments than for the control and averaged 197, 278, 217, and 2181 kg ha-1 , respectively for PG, PAM, PAM+PG, and control treatments. PAM and PAM+PG had steady-state runoff rates significantly less than that of the control. All of the amendments reduced soil sediment erosion (average 90% reduction) more than final runoff (average 35% reduction). Using amendments to reduce precipitation-induced erosion is a possible alternative conservation practice in this region of the world. © 2005 American Society of Agricultural Engineers. SOILS 1857 Basal sediment concentration measurement using a time domain reflectometry method Starr G.C. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005 48/1 (205-209) Sediment concentration measurement in high-concentration runoff waters is highly problematic. A novel device was developed for high-concentration measurements. This device was then used to measure sediment concentrations during monsoon runoff events at the USDA-ARS Walnut Gulch experimental watershed in southeast Arizona as an example application. Data were obtained using a 55 cm, three-prong, embedded time domain reflectometry probe and sediments in a range of size classes from the site under laboratory conditions. In the laboratory, the sensor’s concentration output was calculated using a model and the empirical function describing pure water. Without sedimentspecific calibration, laboratory validation indicated agreement with known concentrations within about 0.02 kg L-1 for sediment and water mixtures and within 0.2 kg L-1 when the probe was completely buried in 0 to 2.5 cm channel bed material. In the field application, the probe was installed in the base and center of a flume. Basal (0 to 2 cm depth) sediment concentrations were monitored during three flows with peak discharges of 5, 70, and 130 m 3 s-1 , representing small, intermediate, and large events. For the large and intermediate events, basal sediment concentrations rose from 0.4 to 1.2 kg L-1 to a plateau of 1.5 to 1.9 kg L-1 after the flow peak. The plateau extended through much of the tail of the hydrograph before falling to back to 0.4 to 1.2 kg L-1 . The small event had a similar progression but lower overall concentrations of 0.2 to 0.8 kg L -1 . These observations are consistent with a period of high sediment transport and channel erosion in the tail of monsoon runoff hydrographs. The dielectric method provides in-situ measurements in high-concentration environments where traditional methods fail. 1858 The role of impoundments in the sediment budget of the conterminous United States Renwick W.H., Smith S.V., Bartley J.D. and Buddemeier R.W. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (99-111) Previous work on sediment budgets for U.S. agricultural regions has concluded that most sediment derived from accelerated erosion is still on the landscape, primarily in colluvial and alluvial deposits. Here we examine the role of small impoundments in the subcontinental sediment budget. A recent inventory based on a 30-m satellite imagery reveals approximately 2.6 million ponds, while extrapolation from a sample of 1:24,000 topographic quadrangles suggests the total may be as large as 8-9 million. These ponds capture an estimated 21% of the total drainage area of the conterminous U.S., representing 25% of total sheet and rill erosion. We estimate the total sedimentation in these small impoundments using three different methods; these estimates range from 0.43 to 1.78  109 m3 yr-1 . Total sedimentation in
43,000 reservoirs from the National Inventory of Dams is estimated at 1.67  109 m3 yr-1 . Total USLE erosion in 1992 was 2.4  109 m3 yr-1 , and export to coastal areas is estimated at 0.6  109 m3 yr-1 . Total sedimentation in impoundments is large in relation to upland erosion, in apparent contradiction to previous studies that have identified colluvial and alluvial deposition as the primary sinks. Several alternative hypotheses that could help explain this result are proposed. Regardless of which of these alternatives may prove to be the most significant in any given setting, it is clear that most sedimentation is now taking place in subaqueous rather than subaerial environments, and that small impoundments are a major sediment sink. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1859 The implications of changes in population, land use, and land management for surface runoff in the Upper Nile Basin Area of Ethiopia Hurni H., Tato K. and Zeleke G. Mountain Research and Development 2005 25/2 (147-154) Much concern has been raised about population increase in the highlands of Ethiopia and its potential to decrease runoff from the upper Nile Basin to the lowland countries of Sudan and Egypt. The present article examines long-term data on population, land use, land management, rainfall, and surface runoff rates from small test plots (30 m2 ) and micro-catchments (73-673 ha) in the highlands of Ethiopia and Eritrea, Although the data were 355 generated only on small areas, the results of the analyses can nevertheless be used to draw some conclusions relevant to the highland-lowland water controversies that have persisted in this particular region for many decades. The data indicate that there have been no significant trends over the long term in total annual rainfall in the highlands over the past 30-50 years. Nevertheless, test plot surface runoff rates are clearly influenced by land use and soil degradation, and hence by population density and duration of agriculture. In effect there is 5-30 times more surface runoff from cultivated or degraded test plots than from forested test plots. Analysis and interpretation of data support the hypothesis that surface runoff and sediment yield from the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands into the upper Nile Basin have most probably increased in the long term due to intensified land use and land degradation induced by population increase, when seen in a historical perspective. Rates of base flow, in turn, must have decreased during the same period, but to a much lesser extent, although conclusive empirical evidence cannot be gained from this experimental setting. One can assume that soil and water conservation measures aiming to ensure long-term livelihoods in the humid to sub-humid highlands will, on the one hand, barely affect overall catchment runoff to the downstream areas, though they will considerably reduce surface runoff and soil loss on slopes as well as river sedimentation rates. On the other hand, in a semiarid catchment where intensive soil and water conservation was carried out, reduction in runoff rates was more pronounced. It can be concluded that population increase in the Ethiopian highlands increased overall runoff rates to lowland areas in earlier times, while recent efforts to conserve watersheds might affect total runoff rates in catchments only in semiarid parts, and much less in humid parts of the Ethiopian highlands. 1860 Surface erosion assessment in two Calabrian basins (southern Italy) Antronico L., Coscarelli R. and Terranova O. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (16-22) The present study presents an assessment of the erosion for two basins located on the Ionian side of southern Calabria (southern Italy). Two different approaches are considered to evaluate soil erosion: a qualitative method, based on aerial photo interpretative analysis, and a quantitative method, based on the RUSLE model. The percentage of area affected overall by surface erosion proves to be greater using the quantitative approach (38.5%) compared to the qualitative (13.3%). The mean erosion estimated using RUSLE is about 3.5 mm year-1 and can be compared with the values for Calabria reported in the literature. The application of the two approaches has shown that the spatial-temporal distribution of the parameters influencing the erosive process plays a relevant role. 1861 Gully erosion: Impacts, factors and control Valentin C., Poesen J. and Li Y. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (132-153) Gully erosion attracts increasing attention from scientists as reflected by two recent international meetings [Poesen and Valentin (Eds.), Catena 50 (2-4), 87-564; Li et al., 2004. Gully Erosion Under Global Change. Sichuan Science Technology Press, Chengu, China, 354 pp.]. This growing interest is associated with the increasing concern over off-site impacts caused by soil erosion at larger spatial scales than the cultivated plots. The objective of this paper is to review recent studies on impacts, factors and control of gully erosion and update the review on ‘gully erosion and environmental change: importance and research needs’ [Poesen et al., 2003. Catena 50 (2-4), 91-134.]. For the farmers, the development of gullies leads to a loss of crop yields and available land as well as an increase of workload (i.e. labour necessary to cultivate the land). Gullies can also change the mosaic patterns between fallow and cultivated fields, enhancing hillslope erosion in a feedback loop. In addition, gullies tend to enhance drainage and accelerate aridification processes in the semi-arid zones. Fingerprinting the origin of sediments within catchments to determine the relative contributions of potential sediment sources has become essential to identify sources of potential pollution and to develop management strategies to combat soil erosion. In this respect, tracers such as carbon, nitrogen, the nuclear bomb-derived radionuclide 137 Cs, magnetics and the strontium isotopic ratio are increasingly used to fingerprint sediment. Recent studies conducted in Australia, China, Ethiopia 356 SOILS and USA showed that the major part of the sediment in reservoirs might have come from gully erosion. Gullies not only occur in marly badlands and mountainous or hilly regions but also more globally in soils subjected to soil crusting such as loess (European belt, Chinese Loess Plateau, North America) and sandy soils (Sahelian zone, north-east Thailand) or in soils prone to piping and tunnelling such as dispersive soils. Most of the time, the gullying processes are triggered by inappropriate cultivation and irrigation systems, overgrazing, log haulage tracks, road building and urbanization. As exemplified by recent examples from all over the world, land use change is expected to have a greater impact on gully erosion than climate change. Yet, reconstructions of historical causes of gully erosion, using high-resolution stratigraphy, archaeological dating of pottery and 14 C dating of wood and charcoal, show that the main gully erosion periods identified in Europe correspond to a combination not only of deforestation and overuse of the land but also to periods with high frequency of extreme rainfall events. Many techniques have proved to be effective for gully prevention and control, including vegetation cover, zero or reduced tillage, stone bunds, exclosures, terracing and check dams. However, these techniques are rarely adopted by farmers in the long run and at a larger spatial scale because their introduction is rarely associated with a rapid benefit for the farmers in terms of an increase in land or labour productivity and is often contingent upon incentives. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1862 Monitoring of gully erosion on the Loess Plateau of China using a global positioning system Wu Y. and Cheng H. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (154-166) With the development of a technique, global positioning system (GPS) has become progressively less expensive, lighter and easier to use. The accuracy of GPS has been improved and it appears applicable to the continuously monitoring morphology changes on the earth surface with small and slow change. The objective of this study is to use GPS to measure the morphology of gullies in a small catchment near Suide, Shaanxi Province, China. There are three main gully types in the study area: bank gullies, floor gullies, and hill slope gullies, and this study mainly focuses on the hill slope gullies. The hill slope gullies in the study area are mainly discontinuous and are developing rapidly. The gully density in the study area is very large. The retreat rate of hill slope gullies is 0.16-2.02 m year-1 . The relationships between the upslope drainage area (A) and the critical slope gradient (S) for hill slope gullies is S = 0.1839A-0.2385 . The values of AS2 range from 41 to 814 m2 for the hill slope gully headcuts, and most of them fell into the range of 100-300 m2 . Both of these relationships are suggested as indexes for estimating the location of gully headcuts. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1863 Spatial and temporal assessment of linear erosion in catchments under sloping lands of northern Laos Chaplot V., Coadou Le Brozec E., Silvera N. and Valentin C. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (167-184) Linear erosion (LE), including rilling and gullying, has been identified as the major problem for sustainable agriculture in steepland areas. It causes severe environmental, economic, and social impacts. This issue is even more crucial in those areas undergoing rapid changes in land use, as for example northern Laos, and may dramatically affect soil conservation. Despite an increasing interest in the sloping lands of tropical areas, field evaluations of LE are still infrequent. Furthermore, the controlling environmental factors of topography, land use, climate and soils at the catchment level are seldom analysed. Our main objective was to quantify the spatial and temporal variations of LE at the catchment level and at a yearly basis. The study was conducted in a 0.62 km2 watershed of Laos (Luang Prabang province) representative of the slash and burn systems of sloping lands. Linear erosion was monitored from 2001 to 2003 within 9 sub-catchments of differing surface areas, topographic characteristics and land use. The length, depth and width of the linear erosion features were recorded every 5-m from their headcuts to their outlets in order to estimate the total catchment LE. 52 linear features, mainly rills, were formed or developed within the study area with a mean erosion rate of 1.3 Mg ha-1 y-1 . LE rates ranged between 0.1 Mg ha-1 y-1 in 2003 to 2.4 Mg ha-1 y -1 in 2001. LE features mostly occurred within croplands where erosion rates reached 18 Mg ha-1 y-1 . In 2001 and 2002 there was a significant correlation between LE and the proportion of the catchment area under crops (r = 0.88 and r = 0.69, respectively). However this was not the case in 2003 when few rills developed. In 2002 only, LE correlated well with the catchment surface area, the mean slope gradient and the sub-catchment perimeter confirming the non-constancy of LE landscape relation under varying rainstorm conditions. A linear regression model for LE prediction at the catchment level, generated from 2001 data, was able to explain 78% of LE variance for the 9 sub-catchments. However, this model was unable to predict accurately LE for 2002 and 2003 (ME > 5 Mg ha-1 y-1 ). This method for quantifying the linear erosion at the catchment level and some of its controlling factors can also be used for prediction over larger areas since topography and land use data, closely correlated with LE, are easily accessible. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1864 Gully incision as a key factor in desertification in an arid environment, the Negev highlands, Israel Avni Y. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (185-220) Gully incision has been eroding the alluvial sediments and loess soils deposited and developed along the valleys in the arid and semiarid regions of Israel. This phenomenon is critical in the arid regions of the Negev Highlands where the agricultural fields, the main floral biomass and the areas which have the highest grazing value, are limited to narrow valleys filled with redeposited loessial sediments. The headcut migration and gully development in the region were studied between 1990 and 2001 in three representative drainage basins (Zipporim, Revivim and Sekher). During flood events, the runoff penetrates the alluvial cover of the valleys, forming vertical headcuts, which gradually retreat up the valley. The runoff is channeled into narrow gullies, preventing the floodwater from spreading over the whole width of the valley. The change in irrigation efficiency along the valleys is reflected in a sharp estimated drop of 70-90% in the floral biomass, causing the reduction of the range value by 83-99%. During the monitoring time interval (1990-2001), the linear gully retreat in the study area ranged between 12.3 and 250 m an average rate of 1.12-22.7 m year-1 for each gully head. The process is accompanied by erosion of soil, which has high agricultural and range value. The total soil losses in these sites ranged between 800 and 9000 m3 at an average rate of 81-818 m3 year-1 for each gully head, which is equivalent to 121-1227 Mg year-1 . During the monitoring period, approximately 0.110.87 ha of land lost its agricultural and range value in each basin under study, at an average rate of 0.01-0.079 ha year-1 . Since the Byzantine period (1400 BP), approximately 6.5 ha, which is 10% of the land that had high agricultural and range value in the Zipporim valley, lost its value due to gully erosion. No recovery effects of the gully channels were found in the nearby region. The soil erosion is generated by a long-term natural dynamic change in the soil / rock ratio evolving within the drainage basins through time since the termination of the last glacial phase. The loessic sediments, originally deposited within the drainage basins during the late Pleistocene glacial stage, are being removed under the present Holocene climate in several erosion stages. This ongoing phenomenon is causing degradation of soil and biomass and is severely reducing the agricultural and range potential of the region. These parameters indicate that an ongoing process of desertification is active in the arid environment of the Negev Highlands, and is advancing in proportion to the headcut retreat rates in the region. The soil erosion and headcut retreat have been active in the Negev Highlands for the last few millennia. If these processes continue in the future, the Negev Highlands region will lose its agricultural potential within a few millennia. However, the fact that the ancient inhabitants of the region implemented successful long-term land conservation techniques already 3000 years ago, implies that a sustainable land management policy can be adapted to the Negev Highlands, as well as to other semi-arid regions in the Middle East. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1865 Rapid development and infilling of a buried gully under cropland, central Belgium Vanwalleghem T., Bork H.R., Poesen J. et al. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (221-243) Analysis of contemporary and past gully erosion and infilling SOILS processes allowed to reconstruct the long-term evolution of a permanent gully system under cropland. An active and a buried gully under cropland were investigated. The recent sediment deposits within the active gully, adjacent to the buried gully, showed that the recent gully was filling in at a mean rate of 6.4 cm a -1 . In the buried gully, several erosion and deposition phases could be identified and the type of deposited sediments revealed a complex infilling history. Charcoal, pottery and brick fragments of different sizes were found at all depths of the gully infilling. Their age indicates that the first gully incised after the midst of the 17th century, most probably in the second half of the 18th century or the early 19th century. Gully morphology and analogy with the processes in the recent gully indicate that the buried gully filled in rapidly. Overall, five cycles of cut and fill occurred in 350 years or less and four cycles even within little less than a few decades, indicating that gully development and infilling under cropland can be very rapid processes. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1866 History, origin and extent of soil erosion on Easter Island (Rapa Nui) Mieth A. and Bork H.- R. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (244-260) The isolated Easter Island (Rapa Nui) is an outstanding example of land degradation caused by land use in a sensitive ecosystem. The focus of the investigation was placed on Poike peninsula, the most eastern part of Rapa Nui. While Poike peninsula was once supplied with fertile soils, in large areas desertification takes place today. Detailed analysis of soil profiles allowed the reconstruction of the history and of causes and effects of soil erosion and gullying in the context of land use history and cultural evolution. The results of the stratigraphic analysis prove that from the beginning of human settlement around AD 300/600 until AD 1280 the agriculture on Poike peninsula was characterised by sustainable land use and a traditional type of agro-forestry. Soil erosion was not significant. At around AD 1280 the woodland on Poike, dominated by the endemic palm Jubaea sp., was cleared by slashing and burning. Intensive farming on the upper slopes of the volcanic peninsula resulted in sheet erosion lasting until the 20th century. Settlements and ceremonial places which were built around AD 1300 on downslope areas were buried soon by sediments. Agriculture ceased around AD 1400 on downslope areas as the fertile soils were completely eroded. From AD 1400 until the late 19th century sheet erosion and the accumulation of fine-layered sediments migrated upslope. On average 8.6 Mg of soil per hectare and per year were reworked by erosion (eroded and accumulated within the catchment). Gullying began on Rapa Nui with the sudden increase in the number of sheep during the early 20th century. Gullies are still developing on the island and their ongoing enlargement created extended badlands on Poike which pose a significant problem for ecological and archaeological conservation strategies. Gullying rates exceed 190 Mg ha -1 y-1 . © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1867 Runoff and erosion in the Black Marls of the French Alps: Observations and measurements at the plot scale Mathys N., Klotz S., Esteves M. et al. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (261-281) The experimental basins of Draix in the southern French Alps have been monitored since 1984 in order to quantify and analyse the incidence and patterns of erosion in the badlands developed on Black Marl formations. In order to analyse the rainfall-runoff behaviour of the mudstone slopes, rainfall simulations were conducted on small plots 1 m2 in area. Four different local geomorphologic conditions were selected for the experiments: (a) steep slope parallel or (b) perpendicular to the bedding, (c) moderate slope and (d) gravel-covered surface, both parallel to the bedding. Rainfall simulations were performed at a moderate intensity (12-25 mm h-1 ) for 30 min on three plots in each location. Different delays between simulations offered different initial soil wetnesses. A simulation during high-intensity rainfall (90-150 mm h-1 ) for 30 min was made on one plot of each type. One plot of each type was selected for monitoring during the following summer and autumn. In dry conditions, runoff was low or negligible. A second simulation carried out 1 day later again produced very low runoff coefficients. Runoff increased slightly when the interval between rainfall simulations was reduced to 30 min. In this case, a few grams of sediment were eroded, 357 whereas no erosion was observed in the first two cases. Under high-intensity conditions, runoff began quickly and the runoff coefficients were high (20-50%). Erosion was notable, but not significantly different from dry conditions. The behaviour was very different during natural rainfall events, in particular summer storms: even if the mean rainfall intensity was lower than 60 mm h-1 in 30 min, short periods of high intensity (more than 100 mm h-1 in 5 min) revealed substantial erosion activity: more than 700 g m-2 on all the plots for a rainfall event of 54 mm in 3 h and more than 600 g m -2 for an event producing 26 mm. However, the runoff coefficients were on the same order as those of the last experiment under high-intensity conditions (32-55%). The rainfall intensity over the short duration and the kinetic energy of the raindrops were the main factors influencing particle detachment and movement. 1868 Stochastic components in the gully erosion modelling Sidorchuk A. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (299-317) The great complexity of the geo-mechanical, structural, and electro-chemical forces in soil, as well as of initial and boundary conditions in the equations of hydrodynamics, leads to a necessity of spatial/temporal averaging of deterministic equations related to soil behaviour. The stochastic terms, which appear in the equations after averaging procedures, must be incorporated into the modelling of erosion features. In this study, a new method of estimating detachment rate was used in stochastic gully erosion modelling. It is based on estimation of the probability of excess of driving forces above resistance forces in the interaction of water flow and structured soil. Knowledge of the probability density functions for the flow and soil main characteristics (as flow velocity, soil cohesion, aggregate size and others) makes it possible to calculate theoretically the rate of cohesive soil erosion for any combination of these stochastic variables. The proposed theory allows explicit explanation of relationships between detachment rate and flow/soil characteristics. Detachment rate increases with flow velocity more rapidly for soil with higher cohesion and larger aggregates. This theory also shows great difference in type of soil erosion for relatively high and relatively low flow velocities, and explains rather high errors in calculating of soil erosion rate even with detailed models. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights rserved. 1869 Dynamic modelling for linear erosion initiation and development under climate and land-use changes in northern Laos Chaplot V., Giboire G., Marchand P. and Valentin C. Catena 2005 63/2-3 (318-328) Linear erosion (LE) induced either by piping or overland flow is one of the most active factors in the evolution of soils. During single storm events LE may remove enormous amounts of soil material from the uplands to the bottomlands and has thus become a broad challenge for food supply, food security, and human health. Recent and rapid changes in land-use and climate patterns in the sloping lands of tropical areas may dramatically increase LE. Our main objective was to investigate to what extent one could use direct flow velocity estimations from dynamic models for predicting LE initiation and development at the event level. The second objective was to estimate the impact of expected landuse and climate changes on LE. The study was conducted in the 0.62 km 2 watershed of northern Laos presented inChaplot et al. (2005). Field observations of the formation and the development of LE features throughout 2001 were compared to flow velocity estimations from an existing surface water routing algorithm developed at Utrecht University ([De Roo, A.P.J., Wesseling, C.G. and Ritsema, C.J. 1996. LISEM: a single event physically based hydrologic and soil erosion model for drainage basins. I: theory, input and output. hydrological processes 10 (8): 1107-1117.]). In 2001, two main rainfall events were responsible for the formation or development of 14 linear features with a total length of 972 m and an erosion rate of 3.5 Mg ha-1 . The water routing algorithm was calibrated using the water and the sediment hydrographs observed at the watershed outlet during the first rainfall event. Assuming realistic estimations of flow velocity in hillslopes, a threshold of 0.062 m s-1 for linear erosion estimated over 10-m cells was defined. This threshold, validated using the remaining rainfall event, accurately predicted the length (mean error of estimate of less than 15%) and location of LE features. 358 SOILS Using this simulation tool, an increase of the percentage of land under cultivation from 9% to 100% resulted in 600% increase in linear erosion. The tested scenarios of climate changes had less impact on linear erosion. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1870 Soil erosion and sediment deposition in the Belgian loess belt during the Holocene: Establishing a sediment budget for a small agricultural catchment Rommens T., Verstraeten G., Poesen J. et al. Holocene 2005 15/7 (1032-1043) A method to establish a Holocene sediment budget for a 103 ha agricultural catchment representative for the Belgian loess belt is presented. Soil erosion and sediment deposition were determined based on 185 coring locations and a large excavation in the valley bottom. Results were integrated in a GIS and interpolation techniques applied to derive spatial patterns of erosion and sedimentation. Total soil erosion, sediment deposition and sediment export were calculated and the results show that volumes are highly dependent on the interpolation technique used. Sediment delivery ratios between 20% and 42% are derived and are consistent with data reported in previous studies. This clearly shows that the majority of the sediments produced during the Holocene have been stored near their source area and have not been delivered to the downstream rivers. The spatial distribution of soil erosion and sediment deposition within the catchment is strongly dependent on slope gradient and position within the catchment, which suggests that, since human impact began, topography has been the main factor determining longterm soil erosion and sedimentation. © 2005 Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1871 Kinematics of flow within headcut scour holes on hillslopes Bennett S.J. and Alonso C.V. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-12) [1] The development and migration of headcuts in rills and gullies can adversely impact soil resources in agricultural areas and accelerate landscape degradation worldwide. Analytical treatments of this erosion process have been based on a turbulent impinging jet analogue, though partially validated by field and laboratory data. Experiments were conducted using fixed headcut models to define the mean flow structure within these erosional features and to assess the applicability of similarity arguments for jets to characterize this flow domain. These data show that (1) flow within headcut scour holes is analogous to plane turbulent reattached wall jets and (2) similarity arguments used to define the limits, length scales, and velocity distributions in classical free jets and wall jets are applicable within discrete regions of the headcut scour hole domain but are affected by the ventilation characteristics of the overfall. This study contributes new knowledge on the hydrodynamics within headcut scour holes, and it confirms the applicability of jet theory for analyzing such soil erosion processes. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1872 An adaptive management process for forest soil conservation Curran M.P., Maynard D.G., Heninger R.L. et al. Forestry Chronicle 2005 81/5 (717-722) Soil disturbance guidelines should be based on comparable disturbance categories adapted to specific local soil conditions, validated by monitoring and research. Guidelines, standards, and practices should be continually improved based on an adaptive management process, which is presented in this paper. Core components of this process include: reliable monitoring protocols for assessing and comparing soil disturbance for operations, certification and sustainability protocols; effective methods to predict the vulnerability of specific soils to disturbance and related mitigative measures; and, quantitative research to build a database that documents the practical consequences of soil disturbance for tree growth and soil functions. 1873 Enhanced dust deposition by trees recently established on degraded rangeland McGowan H. and Ledgard N. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 2005 35/3 (269-277) Results from 2 years of dust deposition monitoring in a 10-yearold Pinus nigra plantation near Lake Tekapo are presented. They show that recently established plantations significantly enhance dust deposition rates. This could reverse a cycle of soil loss and enhance vertical accretion of soil, which would provide more options for future land use. However, observations indicate that even under such enhanced conditions for soil formation, it would take several thousand years to replace the soil lost to erosion since European farming practices were first introduced to the northern section of the Mackenzie Basin. 1874 Response of sediment production to land-use change in Luergou watershed of Loess Plateau (Chinese) Zhang Z., Wang S., Sun G. et al. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1607-1612) The study on the effects of different land use patterns on the sediment production in Luergou watershed of Loess Plateau indicated that in comparing with 1982, the areas of forest and grass and of terrace in 1989 increased by 5% and 2.09%, respectively, while that of slope plowland decreased by 1.5%, with the area of naked land and shrubbery respectively increased and decreased a little. During 1998-2000, with the increase of vegetation cover and the decrease of steep slope plowland, the sediment production reduced significantly under high precipitation, 85 326 and 52 937 t under the precipitation of 803 and 786 mm, respectively, and not distinguishable in dry years. The reduction effect had a strong seasonality, which consisted with rainfall distribution. For example, in a month with 50 mm precipitation, the mean daily sediment concentration was reduced by 6 kgm-3 , while in a month with 100 mm precipitation, the reduction was 12 kgm-3 . Rainfall intensity also played an important role in soil erosion and sediment production, regardless of land use conditions. 1875 Effects of forest vegetation on runoff and sediment production on sloping lands of Loess area (Chinese) Zhang X., Yu X., Wu S. et al. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1613-1617) Based on the 1985-2003 fixed-position data in 9 runoff plots of Caijiachuan watershed in the Jixian county of Shanxi Province in loess area, this paper discussed the relationships between vegetation and runoff and sediment production on sloping lands of loess area. The results showed that natural-secondary forest had better function in soil and water conservation than artifical Robinia pseudoacacia forest, with runoff and sediment produced 65%82% and 23%-92%, respectively. Multiple regression analysis indicated that runoff and sediment production had a significant correlation with rainfall and its intensity, but this relationship was decreased gradually with increasing canopy density. Different land-use type had different runoff and sediment production, e. g., Ostryopsis davidiana and natural-secondary forests had the least runoff and sediment production, artificial Robinia pseudoacacia and Pinus tabulaeformis forests had 5 folds of it as much as Ostryopsis davidiana forest, mixed apple trees and crops had 17.14 and 3.96 folds of it than Ostryopsis davidiana forest, respectively, while high-standard soil preparation could decrease the production obviously. Gray correlation analysis suggested that the stand canopy density and the biomass of herb and litter were the most important factors affecting the runoff and sediment production on sloping land, whose gray correlation degrees all exceeded 0.6. Mixed forest with multi-layer stand structure and shrub forest should be developed in vegetation re-construction of loess area, which could help to increase the coverage and litter thickness to dramatically decrease the runoff and sediment production on sloping land. 1876 Mechanism of watershed soil erosion control by vegetation (Chinese) Qin F., Yu X., Zhang M. and Xie Y. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1618-1622) From the view of hydrodynamics, this paper studied the acting mechanism of tree, grass and forest litter on slope runoff velocity and kinetic energy. The results showed that slope runoff head loss was related to slope gradient, forest density, net rainfall intensity and slope length. The relationship of water head loss with the distance among trees and the diameter at the ground of tree was E / (D/b)4/3 . The grass on slope turned to be curved with s flowing, and thus, increased the bottom resistance of flow, and reduced the HYDROLOGY shearing stress of soil surface. Therefore, silt-carrying capacity decreased dramatically. The analysis of actually measured materials of each rainfall, runoff and sediment, and the comparison of Qiaozi eastern gully and Qiaozi west gully in Tianshui city of Gansu Province showed that under same precipitation condition, the runoff, sediment yield, flood peak discharge and maximum sediment transport rate in treated watershed was less than those in untreated watershed, suggesting that vegetation was obviously beneficial to water reservation and water and soil conservation. 1877 Soil properties and water holding capacities of Michelia macclurei, Schima superba and Castanopsis fissa stands (Chinese) Xue L., Li Y., Qu M. et al. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1623-1627) The study showed that the soil density, total porosity, natural water capacity and capillary moisture capacity were 1.19 gcm-3 , 56.73%, 15.7% and 43.2% in Michelia macclurei stand, 1.26 gcm-3 , 54.18%, 13.0% and 37.8% in Schima superb stand, and 1.06 gcm-3 , 60.74%, 19.4%, and 45.8% in Castanopsis fissa stand, respectively. Soil water holding capacity and aeration were good in Castanopsis fissa stand but bad in Schima superba stand, whereas Michelia macclurei stand had a medium water holding capacity and a bad aeration. The water holding capacity of litter per tree was in order of Michelia macclurei (20 kg) > Castanopsis fissa (15 kg) > Schima superba (8 kg), whereas that of litter in stand was Castanopsis fissa (17 thm-2 ) > Michelia macclurei (16 thm-2 ) > Schima suPerba (13 thm-2 ). The nutrient storage of litter per tree was 112.71, 31.20 and 87.30 g in Michelia macclurei, Schima superba and Castanopsis fissa stands, respectively, and that of litter in stand was 84.35, 51.86 and 98.11 kghm-2 , respectively. The soil in the three stands was strong acidic, and the content of soil organic matter, total N, total P, total K, alkalized N, available P and available K was 18.43 g. kg-1 , 0.69 gkg-1 , 0.17 gkg-1 , 5.83 gkg-1 , 45.67 mgkg-1 , 0.83 mgkg-1 and 23.13 mgkg-1 in Michelia macclurei stand, 13.40 gkg-1 , 0.68 gkg-1 , 0.20 gkg-1 , 12.32 gkg-1 , 40.78 mgkg-1 , 0.85 mgkg-1 and 90.63 mgkg-1 in Schima superba stand, and 28.50 gkg-1 , 0.97 gkg-1 , 0.23 gkg-1 , 18.77 gkg-1 , 73.40 mgkg-1 , 1.45 mgkg-1 and 66.50 mgkg-1 in Castanopsis fissa stand, respectively. Soil bacteria accounted for > 94% of soil microbes, and their individuals were 41105, 34104 and 5.3104 g-1 in Michelia macclurei, Schima superba and Castanopsis fissa stands, respectively. The activities of soil urease, catalase and phosphatase in Castanopsis fissa stand were the greatest among the three stands, while soil cellulase activity in Michelia macclurei stand was greater than that in other two stands. In a word, soil fertility of Castanopsis fissa stand was the highest among three test stands. 1878 Landscape pattern and its functioning after ecological reconstruction in black soil region of northeast China (Chinese) Wei J. and Xiao D. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1699-1705) Taken Baiquan County in Heilongjiang Province as a case, this paper studied the effects of regional ecological reconstruction on agricultural landscape pattern and its functioning in soil and water conservation, with the spatial expression and quantity identification investigated based on Geographic Information System (GIS) and field data. The landscape pattern index in class scale, transition matrix of landscape elements, macrostructure of shelterbelt networks, and spatial distribution and hydrological characteristic of reservoirs and ponds in 1989 and 2002, as well as the effects of landscape pattern and its spatial configuration change on soil and water loss were compared. The results showed that artificial ecological reconstruction changed the quantity and spatial configuration of landscape patterns in regional scale, and exerted a significant effect on soil and water conservation. From 1989 to 2002, farmland area reduced 24 731.01 hm2 , while forest land, grassland and water area increased 11 728.56, 1 838.97 and 1 190.97 hm2 , respectively. The controlled eroded land increased by 55%, and the shelterbelt-protected farmland increased by 82.2%. The number and storage capacity of reservoirs and ponds added up to 1 490 and 2.4  108 m3 , respectively, and 43.7% of intercepted surface runoff of whole landscape was collected. 359 1879 Soft-ridged bench terrace design in hilly loess region (Chinese) Cao S., Chen L. and Gao W. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1443-1449) Reconfiguration of hillside field into terrace is regarded as one of the key techniques for water and soil conservation in mountainous regions. On slopes exceeding 30°, the traditional techniques of terracing are difficult to apply as risers(i. e., backslopes), and if not reinforced, are so abrupt and easy to collapse under gravity alone, thus damaging the terrace. To improve the reconfiguration of hillside field into terrace, holistic techniques of soft-ridged bench terrace engineering, including revegetation with trees and planting grasses on riser slopes, were tested between 1997 and 2001 in Xiabiangou watershed of Yan’an, Shaanxi Province. A "working with Nature" engineering approach, riser slopes of 45°, similar to the pre-existing slope of 35°, was employed to radically reduce gravity-erosion. Based on the concepts of biodiversity and the principles of landscape ecology, terrace benches, bunds, and risers were planted with trees, shrubs, forage grasses, and crops, serving to generate a diverse array of plants, a semiforested area, and to stabilize terrace bunds. Soft-ridged bench terrace made it possible to significantly reduce hazards arising from gravity erosion, and reduce the costs of individual bench construction and maintenance by 24.9% and 55.5% of the costs under traditional techniques, respectively. Such a construction allowed an enrichment and concentration of nutrients in the soils of terrace bunds, providing an ideal environment for a range of plants to grow and develop. The terrace riser could be planted with drought-resistant plants ranging from forage grasses to trees, and this riser vegetation would turn the exposed bunds and risers existing under traditional techniques into plant-covered belts, great green ribbons decorating farmland and contributing to the enhancement of the landscape biology. 1880 A preliminary study on vegetation-erosion dynamics and its applications Wang Z., Wang G., Li C. and Wang F. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/5 (689-700) Vegetation-erosion dynamics is a new interdisciplinary science, studying the laws of evolution of watershed vegetation under the action of various ecological stresses. Introducing a qualitative expression of ecological stresses in this paper, the present authors establish the coupled differential equations for the vegetationerosion process and derive a theoretical solution. The model is applied to the Anjiagou watershed on the Loess Pateau and the Xiaojiang watershed and its sub-watersheds on the Yunnan Plateau. The calculated results agree well with the vegetation development processes. Abstracted from the differential equations the so-called vegetation-erosion chart is worked out, with which we can predict the development trend of vegetation under no human stresses. It is demonstrated that the erosion control is important for vegetation development and reforestation must be a long-term strategy. On the Yunnan Plateau with relatively high precipitation and temperature, vegetation can be greatly improved if erosion is controlled. On the dry and cold Loess Pateau suffering from high rate of soil erosion, however, vegetation can effectively control erosion but erosion reduction exhibits low effectiveness on vegetation development. Vegetation in the area is not stable and management is always needed to maintain the vegetation. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. HYDROLOGY 1881 Using stable isotope tracers to assess hydrological flow paths, residence times and landscape influences in a nested mesoscale catchment Rodgers P., Soulsby C., Waldron S. and Tetzlaff D. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/3 (139-155) 18 O measurements in precipitation and stream waters were used to investigate hydrological flow paths and residence times at nested spatial scales in the mesoscale (233 km2 ) River Feugh catchment in the northeast of Scotland over the 2001-2002 hydrological year. Precipitation 18 O exhibited strong seasonal variation, which although significantly damped within the catchment, was reflected in stream water at six sampling sites. This 360 HYDROLOGY allowed 18 O variations to be used to infer the relative influence of soil-derived storm flows with a seasonally variable isotopic signature, and groundwater of apparently more constant isotopic composition. Periodic regression analysis was then used to examine the sub-catchment difference using an exponential flow model to provide indicative estimates of mean stream water residence times, which varied between approximately 3 and 14 months. This showed that the effects of increasing scale on estimated mean stream water residence time was minimal beyond that of the smallest (ca. 1 km2 ) headwater catchment scale. Instead, the interaction of catchment soil cover and topography appeared to be the dominant controlling influence. Where sub-catchments had extensive peat coverage, responsive hydrological pathways produced seasonally variable 18 O signatures in runoff with short mean residence times (ca. 3 months). In contrast, areas dominated by steeper slopes, more freely draining soils and larger groundwater storage in shallow valley-bottom aquifers, deeper flow paths allow for more effective mixing and damping of 18 O indicating longer residence times (> 12 months). These insights from 18 O measurements extend the hydrological understanding of the Feugh catchment gained from previous geochemical tracer studies, and demonstrate the utility of isotope tracers in investigating the interaction of hydrological processes and catchment characteristics at larger spatial scales. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1882 Discussion on hydrologic scaling (Chinese) Zhong Y., Jin C. and Pei T. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/8 (1537-1540) Hydrologic scaling is the hotspot and frontier of today’s hydrologic research, which includes three different meanings distinguished from each other, i.e., process scale, observation scale and modelling scale. As a characteristic of hydrologic scale, dominant process scale has been paid more attention. Hydrologic scaling includes the scaling of hydrologic models, parameters, state variables and inputs, which owns special research methods respectively. The difficulty of hydrologic scaling mainly comes from the organized complexity of hydrologic systems, the heterogeneity and variability in space and time, and the insufficiency of data. The ubiquitous self-similarity of natural river networks makes itself an important part of hydrologic scaling research. The combination of various techniques and theories is needed to motivate hydrologic scaling research. Precipitation assessment 1883 Composition of wet and bulk deposition in Erzurum, Turkey Bayraktar H. and Turalioglu F.S. Chemosphere 2005 59/11 (1537-1546) Seasonal variations in the chemical characteristics of wet and bulk deposition samples collected in Erzurum were investigated for the period March 2002-January 2003. Major cations (Ca2+ , K+ , Mg 2+ ) and major anions (SO24 , NO 3 ) were determined in bulk and wet deposition samples; pH was also measured in wet deposition. The average pH of the wet deposition at Erzurum was 6.6 due to extensive neutralization of the acidity. A strong relationship between pH and SO24 concentrations was observed in all seasons; however, only a weak relationship was found between pH and NO-3 . On a seasonal basis, the correlation between Ca2+ and SO24 concentrations was stronger in winter than in summer. Seasonal variations of ions were examined in both wet and bulk deposition samples. Although maximum concentrations of anions generally occurred during winter and spring, cation concentrations peaked in summer for both wet and bulk deposition. Results indicated that Ca2+ was the dominant cation and SO24 the dominant anion in all deposition samples at Erzurum. Even though correlations among the crustal ions (calcium, magnesium and potassium) were high, the relationship between anthropogenic ions (sulfate and nitrate) was less clear in bulk deposition. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1884 Error characteristics of rainfall measurements by collocated Joss-Waldvogel disdrometers Tokay A., Bashor P.G. and Wolff K.R. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/5 (513-527) Error characteristics of rainfall measurements were studied using six collocated Joss- Waldvogel (JW) disdrometers that are located at NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility. The six disdrometer means of rain rate R, reflectivity Z, and differential reflectivity ZDR, for a given minute were considered as a reference. The maximum deviations of R, Z, and ZDR from the mean in a rain event were 0.6 mm h-1 , 1.3 dB, and 0.05 dB, respectively. Rainfall statistics were then examined between disdrometer pairs. The root-mean-square (rms) difference of R, Z, and ZDR between paired disdrometers in a rain event were as high as 3.2 mm h-1 , 3.7 dB, and 0.3 dB, respectively. The rms difference of R and ZDR were even higher when the disdrometer observations were stratified based on reflectivity intervals. The differences in disdrometer rainfall measurements have a potential impact when the disdrometers are considered as calibration tools for vertically pointing and scanning radars. The differences between the disdrometer measurements also result in differences in coefficients and exponents of the derived relations between radar parameters and rain rate. Among the four different relations between radar parameters and rain rate, the absolute difference in rain rate R from two different JW disdrometers was highest in R(ZH, ZDR) and lowest in R(KDP, ZDR). The other two relations were R(Z) and R(KDP). The R increases with increasing horizontally polarized reflectivity ZH, and differential specific phase KDP in both single- and dual-parameter rainfall estimators, while the R increases with decreasing ZDR in dual-parameter rainfall estimators. Several sources of JW disdrometer malfunctions were also presented. The hardware problems were the leading cause for the malfunction of the JW disdrometers, as identified by the manufacturer. A single JW disdrometer could have inherent measurement errors that can only be identified in the presence of collocated (preferably two) rain-measuring instruments. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 1885 Investigation of the rainfall variability in central Tunisia Kingumbi A., Bargaoui Z. and Hubert P. Hydrological Sciences Journal 2005 50/3 (493-508) The decrease in runoff of the Merguellil basin, Tunisia recorded during the decade 1989-1998 led to the study of several time series derived from daily rainfall. It was found that variability characteristics related to daily rainfall greater than 30 mm are significantly different among successive time periods. In addition, the probability distributions of these rains, recorded at different raingauge sites, are significantly different between the period 1976-1989 and the prior and posterior observation periods. Furthermore, the surface covered by daily rains greater than 30 mm decreased between 1976 and 1989. It was also noted that the probability distributions of the surfaces covered changed significantly after 1976. The combination of human action and pluviometric variability (rainfall increase in the period 1989-1998, notably the increase in the number of days of rainfall greater than 30 mm) may explain the decrease in runoff of Merguellil Wadi. Copyright © 2005 IAHS Press. 1886 Comparison of rain gauge observations with modeled precipitation over Cyprus using contiguous rain area analysis Tartaglione N., Mariani S., Accadia C. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2147-2154) Verification of modeled rainfall with precipitation observed by a rain gauge network has been performed in a case study over the Cyprus Island. Cyprus has a relatively dense rain gauge network. The applied verification method is the Contiguous Rain Area (CRA) analysis. Some drawbacks of the CRA method are pointed out when it is applied to such a case study. Impact on the CRA results, when considering different dimensions of the verification sub-domain and different types of indicators (correlation and mean square error) used in the comparison, are discussed. Results indicate that care should be taken when verification of modeled rainfall is performed over a domain smaller than the model one. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. HYDROLOGY 1887 A model for estimation of rain rate on tropical land from TRMM microwave imager radiometer observations Prabhakara C., Iacovazzi R., Yoo J.- M. and Kim K.- M. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (595-609) Over the tropical land regions scatter plots of the rain rate (RPR ), deduced from the TRMM Precipitation Radar (PR) versus the observed 85 GHz brightness temperature (T85v ) made by the TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) radiometer, for a period of a season over a given geographic region of 3°5° (lat  Ion), indicate that there are two maxima in rain rate. One strong maximum occurs when T85v has a value of about 220 K, and the other weaker one when T85v is much colder
150 K. Also these two maxima are vividly revealed in plots of RPR vs. (T19v -T37v ). The strong maximum occurs when (T19v -T37v ) is
20 K and the weaker maximum when it is greater than
40 K. Together with the help of a) earlier investigations based on airborne Doppler Radar observations and b) radiative transfer theoretical simulations, we infer the strong maximum is a result of relatively weak scattering due to super cooled rain drops and water coated ice hydrometeors associated with a developing thunderstorm (Cb) that has a strong updraft. The other maximum is associated with strong scattering due to ice particles that are formed when the updraft collapses and the rain from the Cb is transitioning from convective type to stratiform type. Incorporating these ideas with a view to improve the estimation of rain rate from existing operational method applicable to the tropical land areas, we have developed a rain retrieval model. This model utilizes two parameters, that have a horizontal scale of
20 km, deduced from the TMI measurements at 10, 19, 21 and 37 GHz(T10v , T19v , T21v , T37v ). The third parameter in the model, namely the mean horizontal gradient (K km-1 ) within the 20 km scale, is deduced from TMI measurements at 85 GHz that have the scale of
5 km. Utilizing these parameters our retrieval model is formulated to yield instantaneous rain rate on a scale of 20 km. This retrieval model is initially tuned with the help of a limited amount of PR rain rate. After initial tuning, the model is applied to widely different tropical land areas, and for different seasons. Our estimates of instantaneous rain rate, on a scale of 20 km, and seasonal averages on a scale of 3°5° (lat  Ion) agree better with PR than that given by the operational TMI rain retrievals. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 1888 Accuracy verification of spaceborne radar estimates of rain rate Amitai E., Liao L., Llort X. and Meneghini R. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (2-6) The distribution of rain rate is of great concern for many hydrological applications. Probability distribution functions (pdf) of rain rate can now be obtained from spaceborne radar observations. Effort to evaluate these pdfs using ground observations is described. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 1889 Semi-operational rainfall observations with X-band multi-parameter radar Maki M., Iwanami K., Misumi R. et al. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (12-18) Three-year semi-operational observations of rainfall distributions with NIED X-band multi-parameter (or polarimetric) radar started in the Kanto area of Japan from July 2003. The purposes and outlines of the radar observations with networks of rain gauges and disdrometers for ground validations are described. Preliminary results of validation analysis of polarimetric rain rate estimators show the usefulness of X-band multi-parameter radar for hydrological and meteorological applications in a small area. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 1890 Combining radar and rain gauge rainfall estimates using conditional merging Sinclair S. and Pegram G. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (19-22) The Hydrologist’s traditional tool for measuring rainfall is the rain gauge. Rain gauges are relatively cheap, easy to maintain and provide a direct and suitably accurate estimate of rainfall at a point. What rain gauges fail to capture well is the spatial variability of rainfall with time, an important aspect for the credible modelling of a catchment’s response to rainfall. This spatial 361 variability is particularly evident at short timescales of up to several days. As the period of accumulation increases, the expected spatial variability is reduced and rain gauges provide improved spatial rainfall estimates. Because of the fractal variability of rainfall in space, simple interpolation between rain gauges does not provide an accurate estimate of the true spatial rainfall field, at short time scales. Weather radar provides (with a single instrument) a highly detailed representation of the spatial structure and temporal evolution of rainfall over a large area. Estimated rainfall rates are derived indirectly from measurements of reflectivity and are therefore subject to a combination of systematic and random errors. This article describes a recently proposed merging technique and presents an application to simulated rainfall fields. The technique employed is Conditional Merging (Ehret, 2002), which makes use of Kriging to extract the optimal information content from the observed data. A mean field based on the Kriged rain gauge data is adopted, while the spatial detail from the radar is retained, reducing bias, but keeping the spatial variability observed by the radar. The variance of the estimate is reduced in the vicinity of the gauges where they are able to provide good information on the true rainfall field. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 1891 Rainfall modeling for integrating radar information into hydrological model Morin E., Goodrich D.C., Maddox R.A. et al. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (23-30) A spatial rainfall model was applied to radar data of air mass thunderstorms to yield a rainstorm representation as a set of convective rain cells. The modeled rainfall was used as input into hydrological model, instead of the standard radar-grid data. This approach allows a comprehensive linkage between runoff responses and rainfall structures. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 1892 Radar rainfall estimation in the New Zealand context Gray W. and Larsen H. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (31-34) Difficulties commonly encountered in precipitation measurement by radar include errors from radar reflections from the surface, errors in extrapolating from measurements aloft, and errors through inadequately sampling a fluctuating signal. These error sources are discussed, along with the skill of the solutions that have been implemented. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 1893 Nowcasting for New Zealand Gray W., Larsen H. and Seed A. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (35-39) Techniques are assessed for analysing the skill with which weather radar data can be extrapolated to provide short-term rainfall forecasts. In addition to visual inspection, forecast skill is assessed using catchment-averaged statistics - comparing analyses with rain gauge averages, forecasts with analyses and forecast river flow with measured flow. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 1894 Assessing error in hydrological and hydraulic model output flows Robbins G.L. and Collier C.G. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (47-53) A hydraulic model of an urban drainage system with a Bayesian post processor is used to assess the uncertainty in model output flows associated with the use of measurements of rainfall made using raingauges, microwave link attenuation measurements and weather radar. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 1895 Errors in surface rainfall rates retrieved from radar due to wind-drift Lack S.A. and Fox N.I. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (71-77) This article describes a series of experiments based on real data wherein the advection of the precipitation below the radar-sampled volume is estimated using Doppler radar determined wind fields. The experiments show that even at standard resolutions of 2 km the error can be extensive, and at higher resolutions and greater ranges (higher beam elevations) the errors become 362 HYDROLOGY very large. Errors are assessed using different Z-R relationships and resolutions as high as 0.5 km. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 1896 Use of a stochastic precipitation nowcast scheme for fluvial flood forecasting and warning Pierce C., Bowler N., Seed A. et al. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (78-83) In collaboration with the Bureau of Meteorology (Melbourne, Australia), the Met Office (Joint Centre for Hydro-Meteorological Research, UK) has developed a stochastic precipitation nowcast scheme, designed to model and predict the PDF of surface rain rate and rain accumulation in space and time. Here we demonstrate the range of probabilistic products generated by the scheme, and their potential applications for fluvial flood forecasting and warning. With the aid of a hydrological model (the PDM), we consider the use of ensembles of predicted catchment rain accumulation in evaluating the range of possible river flow responses from a given catchment. When employed in conjunction with a catchment specific, cost-based decision-making model, we highlight the value of PDFs of forecast catchment rainfall accumulation and river flow as an aid to objective decision making within the flood warning process. © Crown Copyright 2005. Reproduced with the permission of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1897 Virtual CSU-CHILL radar: The VCHILL Chandrasekar V., Cho Y.- G., Brunkow D. and Jayasumana A. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (979987) The Virtual CHILL (VCHILL) system makes it possible to transfer the educational and research experience of the Colorado State University dual polarization radar to remote locations over the Internet. The VCHILL operation includes remote control of radar and display of radar images, as well as the ability to locally process high-bandwidth radar data transferred over data networks. The low-bandwidth VCHILL operation allows the distant users to access the archived and real-time data estimated at the radar site and simultaneously display them on their local systems. A parallel receiver was developed exclusively for the high-bandwidth VCHILL. End-system architectures were designed to accommodate the demands of the high-bandwidth VCHILL operations in real time. A graphic user interface was also developed with the objective of easy installation and usage at various end-user institutions. The VCHILL not only expands the education experience provided by the radar system, but also stimulates the development of innovative research applications for atmospheric remote sensing. The VCHILL is being used by several universities for research and education. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 1898 Regional rainfall frequency analysis for the state of Michigan Trefry C.M., Watkins Jr. D.W. and Johnson D. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2005 10/6 (437-449) Effective storm water management plans depend on reliable rainfall intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) relationships. Due to the perception of high-intensity rainfall events as occurring more frequently than expected, the Michigan Dept. of Transportation (MDOT) commissioned a study to update rainfall IDF estimates for each of seven durations (1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 18, and 24 h) and six recurrence intervals (2, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 years). In contrast to a traditional at-site frequency analysis using method of moments estimators, this study applied a regional frequency analysis approach based on L-moments. Data were compiled from 76 hourly recording stations and 152 daily recording stations, and trend and outlier analyses were conducted on both annual maximum series (AMS) and partial duration series (PDS) data. With the entire state considered a homogeneous region, two regional index flood models were applied: a generalized Pareto distribution fit to PDS data (PDS/GPA model), and a generalized extreme value distribution fit to AMS data (AMS/GEV model). Verification of results indicated that the revised rainfall IDF estimates provide more reliable values than those previously used. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering © ASCE. 1899 Short duration rainfall frequency analysis in Michigan using scale-invariance assumptions Gerold L.A. and Watkins Jr. D.W. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2005 10/6 (450-457) Intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) estimates are important statistical summaries of precipitation records used for hydrologic engineering design. To make use of recent data and modern statistical methods, the IDF estimates for the state of Michigan have been updated using a regional frequency analysis procedure. Since short duration data (less than one hour) are only available in the Detroit metropolitan area, scale-invariance assumptions are used to estimate short-duration IDF values throughout the state. Both simple scaling and multiscaling models are considered, and the simple scaling model is selected for practical purposes. Verification results indicate that the short-duration estimates are consistent with historical observations. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering © ASCE. 1900 Reconstructing solid precipitation from snow depth measurements and a land surface model Cherry J.E., Tremblay L.B., D´ery S.J. and Stieglitz M. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-15) [1] The amount and distribution of snowfall in the Arctic has significant effects on global climate. However, measurements of snowfall from gauges are strongly biased. A new method is described for reconstructing snowfall from observed snow depth records, meteorological observations, and running the NASA Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction Project Catchment Land Surface Model (NSIPP CLSM) in an inverse mode. This method is developed and tested with observations from Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed. Results show snowfall can be accurately reconstructed on the basis of how much snow must have fallen to produce the observed snow depth. The mean cumulative error (bias) of the reconstructed precipitation for 11 snow seasons is 29 mm snow water equivalent (SWE) for the corrected gauge measurement compared to -77 mm SWE for the precipitation from the corrected show gauges. This means the root-mean-square error of reconstructed solid precipitation is 30% less than that of gauge corrections. The intended application of this method is the pan-Arctic landmass, where estimates of snowfall are highly uncertain but where more than 60 years of historical snow depth and air temperature records exist. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1901 Empirical mode decomposition in 2-D space and time: A tool for space-time rainfall analysis and nowcasting Sinclair S. and Pegram G.G.S. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/3 (127-137) A data-driven method for extracting temporally persistent information, at different spatial scales, from rainfall data (as measured by radar/ satellite) is described, which extends the Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) algorithm into two dimensions. The EMD technique is used here to decompose spatial rainfall data into a sequence of high through to low frequency components. This process is equivalent to the application of successive low-pass spatial filters, but based on the observed properties of the data rather than the predetermined basis functions used in traditional Fourier or Wavelet decompositions. It has been suggested in the literature that the lower frequency components (those with large spatial extent) of spatial rainfall data exhibit greater temporal persistence than the higher frequency ones. This idea is explored here in the context of Empirical Mode Decomposition. The paper focuses on the implementation and development of the two-dimensional extension to the EMD algorithm and it’s application to radar rainfall data, as well as examining temporal persistence in the data at different spatial scales. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1902 Archival precipitation data set for the Mississippi River Basin: Evaluation Nelson B.R., Krajewski W.F., Smith J.A. et al. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) The goals of the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Continental-Scale International Project (GCIP) point to the need fo high resolution data sets on all elements of the land surface and atmospheric hydrologic cycle. A high resolution precipitation HYDROLOGY data set has been derived from radar reflectivity observations taken from the National Weather Service WSR-88D radars in the continental U.S. To evaluate the product the authors provide several case studies of radar-rain gauge comparisons at locations throughout the Mississippi River Basin. They present bias, root mean square difference, fractional standard difference, and correlation coefficient statistics for radar-rain gauge comparisons for the hourly, daily, monthly, yearly and warm season temporal scale. These point (gauge) and pixel (radar) comparisons show large discrepancies at the hourly scale, on the order of 600-800%. An evaluation of the differences associated with temporally integrated estimates shows marked reduction in these discrepancies. At the long-term (warm season), these reduce to about 10%. An estimate of the difference in the comparison of the long term accumulation of gridded gauge based estimates and radar estimates at 0.25°  0.25° shows values in the range of 20% but decrease to about 15% after applying filtering techniques in the basin-wide comparisons. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. Precipitation quality 1903 Trace metals in bulk precipitation and throughfall in a suburban area of Japan Hou H., Takamatsu T., Koshikawa M.K. and Hosomi M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/20 (3583-3595) Throughfall and bulk precipitation samples were collected monthly for 1.5 years over bare land and under canopies of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora), Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), and bamboo-leafed oak (Quercus myrsinaefolia) in a suburban area of Japan. Samples were analyzed for dissolved Al, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Ag, In, Sn, Sb and Bi by ICP-AES and ICP-MS. The metal concentrations were higher in throughfall, especially that of C. japonica, than bulk precipitation. Enrichment ratios (ERs: ratios of metal concentrations in throughfall to those in bulk precipitation) ranged from 2.5 (Zn) to 5.3 (Ag) (3.9 on average), and ERs for slightly soluble metals were generally higher than those for easily soluble metals. Concentrations of Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn accounted for 99% of the total concentration of heavy metals in rainwater, whereas those of rare metals such as Ag, In, Sn, and Bi totaled <0.23%. Average concentrations of rare metals were 0.002 and 0.010 g l-1 for Ag, 0.001 and 0.005 g l -1 for In, 0.062 and 0.21 g l-1 for Sn, and 0.006 and 0.023 g l-1 for Bi in bulk precipitation and throughfall, respectively. The metal concentrations in rainwater were negatively correlated to the volume of rainwater, indicating that washout is the main mechanism that incorporates metals into rainwater. From the enrichment factors, that is, (X/Al)rain /(X/Al)crust , metals other than Fe were shown to be more enriched in rainwater than in the Earth’s crust, including those present as a result of leaching from soil dust (Mn) and from anthropogenic sources (Cu, Zn, Ag, In, Sn, Sb, and Bi). © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1904 Enhanced dissolution of volatile organic compounds into urban dew water collected in Yokohama, Japan Okochi H., Kataniwa M., Sugimoto D. and Igawa M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6027-6036) Simultaneous sampling of six chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHs) and five monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs) in dew water and in the ambient air was performed from 1998 to 2000 in Yokohama, Japan. Dichloromethane (volume-weighted mean concentration (VWM): 2.43 nM) and trichloroethylene (VWM: 2.91 nM) were abundant among CHs in dew water, while toluene (VWM: 9.69 nM) and p-dichlorobenzene (VWM: 6.06 nM) were abundant among MAHs. The contribution of total measured volatile organic compounds (VOCs) concentration to dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration in dew water was only 0.02 wt% on average. The concentrations of VOCs except for dichloromethane and benzene in dew water were several hundred times higher than those in rainwater collected at the same site. In particular more hydrophobic VOCs with higher octanol-water partition coefficient KOW tended to be concentrated in dew water, indicating that urban dew water has stronger hydrophobicity than rainwater. Dew water contained higher amounts of VOCs 363 than would have been expected from the ambient gas-phase concentrations and Henry’s law constants. The enrichment factors, which were defined as the ratio of the observed concentration to the estimated, ranged from 6.98 (for dichloromethane) to 62.7 (for trichloroethylene) on average. Relatively high correlations (r>0.55) between the enrichment factors of highly hydrophobic VOCs (Kow >103 ) and the ratios of DOC to total inorganic ion concentration (TIC), which could be a potential surrogate of surface tension for urban dew water, indicated that the existence of any dissolved organic compounds, which could reduce the surface tension, in dew water also caused the enrichment of highly hydrophobic VOCs. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1905 Study of chemical composition in wet atmospheric precipitation in Eshidiya area, Jordan Al-Khashman O.A. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (61756183) The present study investigated the chemical composition of wet atmospheric precipitation samples in the Eshidiya area in south Jordan. The samples were analyzed from October 2003 to May 2004. All samples were analyzed for major ions (Cl- , NO3-, HCO3-, SO42-, Na+ , K+ , Ca 2+ , Mg2+ and NH4+) and trace metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe and Ni). The highest concentration of elements is observed at the beginning of the rainfall season when large amounts of dust accumulate in the atmosphere scavenged by rain. The daily sample pH values ranged from 5.33 to 7.90 with a median value of 6.65 0.68. Rain water quality is characterized by low salinity and neutralized pH. High values of pH were attributed to the neutralization by natural alkaline local dusts which contain a large fraction of calcite and dolomite. The major ions in rainwater samples showed high Ca 2+ , HCO3-, SO42-, Cl- and Mg2+ concentrations. For trace metals, the study identified that the origin of these metals from local anthropogenic activities (from soil and phosphate mine, heating activities during the cold period of year (January to April) and the anthropogenic activities. In general, the results of this study suggest that the rainwater chemistry is strongly influenced by natural sources rather than anthropogenic and marine sources. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1906 A comparison of snow quality in two swedish municipalities-Lule and Sundsvall Reinosdotter K. and Viklander M. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (3-16) In municipal planning of locations of snow deposits and investigations of the environmental effects of snow dumping, the partitioning of contaminants between particulate and dissolved matter is of great importance. This paper compares snow quality in two Swedish municipalities - Lule and Sundsvall over time. The two municipalities have differences in used de-icing material and winter conditions. Because Lule has a longer winter season and a lower average temperature, higher accumulations of chemicals were found in Lule than in Sundsvall. A multiple regression analysis indicated relationships between the dissolved fraction of heavy metals and the concentration of suspended solids and chloride. © Springer 2005. 1907 Fog- and rainwater chemistry in the tropical seasonal rain forest of Xishuangbanna, southwest China Wen J.L., Yi P.Z., Hong M.L. et al. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (295-309) Fogwater, fog drip and rainwater chemistry were examined at a tropical seasonal rain forest in Xishuangbanna, southwest China between November 2001 and October 2002. During the period of observation, 204 days with the occurrence of radiation fog were observed and the total duration of fog was 1949 h, of which 1618 h occurred in the dry season (November to April), accounting for 37.0% of the time during the season. The mean pH of fogwater, fog drip and rainwater were 6.78, 7.30, and 6.13, respectively. The ion with the highest concentration for fog- and rainwater was HCO3 - , which amounted to 85.2 and 37.3 eq l-1 , followed by Ca2+ , Mg2+ and NH4 + . Concentrations of NO3 - , HCO3 - , NH4 + , Ca2+ , and K+ in fogwater samples collected in the dry season were significantly greater when compared to those collected in the rainy season. It was found that the ionic concentrations in fog drip were higher than those in fogwater, except for NH4 + and H+ , 364 HYDROLOGY which was attributed to the washout of the soil- and ash-oriented ions deposited on the leaves and the alkaline ionic emissions by the leaves, since biomass burns are very common in the region and nearby road was widening. © Springer 2005. 1908 Stable isotopes in precipitation recording South American summer monsoon and ENSO variability: Observations and model results Vuille M. and Werner M. Climate Dynamics 2005 25/4 (401-413) The South American Summer Monsoon (SASM) is a prominent feature of summertime climate over South America and has been identified in a number of paleoclimatic records from across the continent, including records based on stable isotopes. The relationship between the stable isotopic composition of precipitation and interannual variations in monsoon strength, however, has received little attention so far. Here we investigate how variations in the intensity of the SASM influence 18 O in precipitation based on both observational data and Atmospheric General Circulation Model (AGCM) simulations. An index of vertical wind shear over the SASM entrance (low level) and exit (upper level) region over the western equatorial Atlantic is used to define interannual variations in summer monsoon strength. This index is closely correlated with variations in deep convection over tropical and subtropical South America during the mature stage of the SASM. Observational data from the International Atomic Energy Agency-Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation (IAEAGNIP) and from tropical ice cores show a significant negative association between 18 O and SASM strength over the Amazon basin, SE South America and the central Andes. The more depleted stable isotopic values during intense monsoon seasons are consistent with the so-called "amount effect", often observed in tropical regions. In many locations, however, our results indicate that the moisture transport history and the degree of rainout upstream may be more important factors explaining interannual variations in 18 O. In many locations the stable isotopic composition is closely related to El Ni˜no-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), even though the moisture source is located over the tropical Atlantic and precipitation is the result of the southward expansion and intensification of the SASM during austral summer. ENSO induces significant atmospheric circulation anomalies over tropical South America, which affect both SASM precipitation and 18 O variability. Therefore many regions show a weakened relationship between SASM and 18 O, once the SASM signal is decomposed into its ENSO-, and non-ENSO-related variance. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 1909 Review of precipitation monitoring studies in India A search for regional patterns Kulshrestha U.C., Granat L., Engardt M. and Rodhe H. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7403-7419) This study is a review of rain chemistry measurements reported in India. Data from nearly 100 stations were reviewed with regard to sampling location, sampling method and chemical analyses. Some characteristic differences were found between the concentrations in different environments in line with known distributions of emissions. This was most clearly seen for SO4 2with median concentration increasing from rural and suburban to urban and industrial environments, with concentrations of HCO3 - and H+ varying the opposite way. Ca2+ concentration was higher in suburban and industrial environments compared to rural and urban. Concentration of NH+4 was lower in rural than in the other locations. Sea salt concentration (Na+ and Cl - in approximately constant proportion) was higher in urban than in rural locations at the same distance from the sea. The reported data from rural and suburban locations were used to derive large-scale concentration fields over India. With knowledge of emission fields and with the aid of output from a regional transport model it was possible to see some limited spatial resemblance between modelled and observed concentrations in cases of NH4 + , NO-3 and SO24 . For soil dust, current models are very crude but here some resemblance could be seen: primarily limited spatial resemblance with Ca2+ , pH and HCO-3 with generally increasing values towards NW. Four sites, at least two of them located in forested environments, had a mean rainwater pH close to neutral (concentration of H+ and HCO -3 about equal). Other sites had on average an excess of HCO-3 , becoming very substantial in the direction of the Thar Desert in NW India. With this review we conclude that there is a need to better assure the quality of the data with regard to sampling methods, chemical analyses and spatial representativeness. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1910 Chemical characterization of fog and rain water collected at the eastern Andes cordillera Beiderwieden E., Wrzesinsky T. and Klemm O. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/3 (185-191) During a three month period in 2003 and 2004, the chemistry of fog and rainwater were studied at the "El Tiro" site in a tropical mountain forest ecosystem in Ecuador, South America. The fogwater samples were collected using a passive fog collector, and for the rain water, a standard rain sampler was employed. For all samples, electric conductivity, pH, and the concentrations 2of NH+4 , K+ , Na+ , Ca2+ , Mg2+ , Cl- , NO-3 , PO34 , and SO4 were measured. For each fog sample, a 5 day back trajectory was calculated by the use of the HYSPLIT model. Two types of trajectories occurred. One type was characterized by advection of air masses from the East over the Amazonian basin, the other trajectory arrived one from the West after significant travel time over the Pacific Ocean. We found considerably higher ion concentrations in fogwater samples than in rain samples. Median pH values are 4.58 for fog water, and 5.26 for the rain samples, respectively. The median electric conductivity was 23 S cm-1 for the fog and 6 S cm-1 for the rain. The continent samples exhibit higher concentrations of most ions as compared to the pacific samples, but these differences could not be detected statistically. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1911 Precipitation scavenging of 7 Be and 137 Cs radionuclides in air Ioannidou A. and Papastefanou C. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2006 85/1 (121-136) Atmospheric depositional fluxes of the naturally occurring 7 Be of cosmogenic origin and 137 Cs from fallout of the Chernobyl accident were measured over a 6-year period (January 1987-December 1992) at Thessaloniki, Greece (40°38
N, 22°58
E). Total precipitation accumulation during 1987-1992 varied between 33.7 cm and 65.2 cm, reflecting a relatively dry (precipitationfree) climate. The activity concentrations of 7 Be and 137 Cs in rainwater depended on the precipitation rate, being higher for low precipitation rates and lesser for high precipitation rates. 137 Cs was removed by rain and snow more efficiently than 7 Be. Snowfall was more efficient than rainfall in removing the radionuclides from the atmosphere. The annual bulk depositional fluxes of 7 Be varied between 477 and 1133 Bq m-2 y-1 and this variability was attributed to the amount of precipitation and the variations of the atmospheric concentrations of 7 Be. The annual bulk depositional fluxes of 137 Cs showed a significant decrease over time from 1987 to 1992, resulting in a removal half-life of 1.33 years. The presence of 137 Cs in air, and therefore in rainwater and snow, long after the Chernobyl accident (26 April 1986) was mainly due to the resuspension process. The normalized depositional fluxes of both radionuclides showed maximal values during the spring season where the maximum amount of precipitation occurred. The relatively high positive correlation between 7 Be and 137 Cs normalized depositional fluxes indicates that the scavenging process of local precipitation controlled the fluxes of both radionuclides. The dry depositional flux of 7 Be was less than 9.37% of total (wet and dry) depositional flux. The fraction of dry-to-total depositional flux of 137 Cs was much higher than that of 7 Be, due to the resuspended soil. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Interception, throughfall and stemflow 1912 Retention and translocation of foliar applied 239,240 Pu and 241 Am, as compared to 137 Cs and 85 Sr, into bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris) Henner P., Colle C. and Morello M. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2005 83/2 (213-229) HYDROLOGY 241 Am, 239,240 Pu, 137 Cs 85 Sr and was evaluated Foliar transfer of after contamination of bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris) at the flowering development stage, by soaking their first two trifoliate leaves into contaminated solutions. Initial retentions of 241 Am (27%) and 239,240 Pu (37%) were higher than those of 137 Cs and 85 Sr (10-15%). Mean fraction of retained activity redistributed among bean organs was higher for 137 Cs (20.3%) than for 239,240 Pu (2.2%), 241 Am (1%) or 85 Sr (0.1%). Mean leafto-pod translocation factors (Bq kg-1 dry weight pod/Bq kg-1 dry weight contaminated leaves) were 5.0  10 -4 for 241 Am, 2.7  10-6 for 239,240 Pu, 5.4  10-2 for 137 Cs and 3.6  10-4 for 85 Sr. Caesium was mainly recovered in pods (12.8%). Americium and strontium were uniformly redistributed among leaves, stems and pods. Plutonium showed preferential redistribution in oldest bean organs, leaves and stems, and very little redistribution in forming pods. Results for americium and plutonium were compared to those of strontium and caesium to evaluate the consistency of the attribution of behaviour of strontium to transuranium elements towards foliar transfer, based on translocation factors, as stated in two radioecological models, ECOSYS-87 and ASTRAL. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1913 Liquid and chemical fluxes in precipitation, throughfall and stemflow: Observations from a deciduous forest and a red pine plantation in the midwestern U.S.A. Pryor S.C. and Barthelmie R.J. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 163/1-4 (203-227) Wet deposition (WD), throughfall (TF) and stemflow (SF) measurements undertaken in a deciduous forest show 85% of the WD liquid flux is observed as TF and approximately 2% as SF. TF and SF were observed to be enriched in base cations and accordingly had an average pH of 6.1 and 5.9, respectively relative to a WD pH of 5.1. The seasonal variability of TF pH below the deciduous canopies was more pronounced than that of WD though both exhibited a growing season maximum, and there is evidence that the seasonal variability of TF pH below the pines is inverted relative to the deciduous canopies likely due to enhanced dust capture and buffering by calcium carbonate. TF ion concentrations differed significantly between deciduous and pine canopies during the growing season, and there is some evidence that variation in sky view factor of 0.18-0.22 is sufficient to manifest statistically differing TF composition below sugar maples. The total atmospheric flux of inorganic nitrogen to the forest is approximately 14-18 kg-N ha-1 yr-1 with approximately half taken up by the canopy. Associated experiments designed to quantify uncertainties in the nutrient fluxes included laboratory tests of the Aerochem automated wet-dry sampler. These experiments indicate the delay in initiating sample collection is less than half a minute for rainfall rates above 1 cm h-1 , but may increase substantially for lower precipitation rates. © Springer 2005. 1914 Rainfall interception model of forest canopy: A preliminary study (Chinese) Guo M., Yu P., Wang Y. et al. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1633-1637) Canopy interception is an important hydrological process in forest ecosystem, and its modelling is of significance to understand and estimate the rainfall interception by the canopy. In this paper, a canopy rainfall interception model was established by dividing a rain incident into a set of short period, calculating the rainfall distribution intercepted by the canopy, and educing the process of the rain incident. This model considered the effects of the dryness of canopy and trunk on the evaporation from wet canopy and trunk during one rain incident, and introduced two factors, leaf area index (LAI) and surface area of trunk per unit area of ground (SAI), when computing the evaporation. The application of the model to simulate the rainfall interception process in a Larix principis-rupprechtii plantation in Guyuan, south Ningxia Hui autonomous region of China showed that the simulated and measured throughfall were identical, and the absolute deviation between simulated and measured results was within 1 mm. But, when the precipitation was smaller than 6 mm, the simulated throughfall was lower than the measured one. The values of simulated stemflow were lower than the measured values, and the relative deviation between simulated and measured values was smaller when the precipitation was larger. The process of 365 throughfall in the forest was also simulated, with the results fitted well to the measured one. Evaporation and transpiration 1915 Evaporation and land surface energy budget at the Salar de Atacama, Northern Chile Kampf S.K., Tyler S.W., Ortiz C.A. et al. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (236-252) Playa systems are driven by evaporation processes, yet the mechanisms by which evaporation occurs through playa salt crusts are still poorly understood. In this study we examine playa evaporation as it relates to land surface energy fluxes, salt crust characteristics, groundwater and climate at the Salar de Atacama, a 3000 km2 playa in northern Chile containing a uniquely broad range of salt crust types. Land surface energy budget measurements were taken at eight representative sites on this playa during winter (August 2001) and summer (January 2002) seasons. Measured values of net all-wave radiation were highest at vegetated and rough halite crust sites and lowest over smooth, highly reflective salt crusts. Over most of the Salar de Atacama, net radiation was dissipated by means of soil and sensible heat fluxes. Dry salt crusts tended to heat and cool very quickly, whereas soil heating and cooling occurred more gradually at wetter vegetated sites. Sensible heating was strongly linked to wind patterns, with highest sensible heat fluxes occurring on summer days with strong afternoon winds. Very little energy available at the land surface was used to evaporate water. Eddy covariance measurements could only constrain evaporation rates to within 0.1 mm d-1 , and some measured evaporation rates were less than this margin of uncertainty. Evaporation rates ranged from 0.1 to 1.1 mm d-1 in smooth salt crusts around the margin of the salar and from 0.4 to 2.8 mm d-1 in vegetated areas. No evaporation was detected from the rugged halite salt crust that covers the interior of the salar, though the depth to groundwater is less than 1 m in this area. These crusts therefore represent a previously unrecorded end member condition in which the salt crusts form a practically impermeable barrier to evaporation. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1916 Effects of vapor-pressure deficit and net-irradiance calculation methods on accuracy of standardized PenmanMonteith equation in a Humid climate Yoder R.E., Odhiambo L.O. and Wright W.C. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 2005 131/3 (228-237) The effects of some common vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and net irradiance (Rn ) calculation methods on the accuracy of ETo values estimated by using the standardized ASCE Penman-Monteith (ASCE-PM) equation for short grass were examined by comparing the estimated ETo values with measured ETo , values in a humid climate. Sensitivity analysis showed 17% and 84% change in the estimated daily ETo values per unit change in the calculated VPD and Rn values, respectively. A total of 12 VPD and 27 Rn calculation methods were examined. Analyses of variance indicated lack of equality in the means of estimated ETo values obtained by different VPD and Rn methods. The percent mean error in the estimated ETo values ranged from -0.9 to -8.4% for VPD methods and from -0.3 to -19.7% for Rn methods. On the basis of the coefficient of determination (r2 ) and the standard error of the estimated (Sy/x ) values, the VPD calculated from saturation vapor pressure (es ), estimated by averaging the es at the maximum and minimum daily air temperatures, and actual vapor pressure (ea ), estimated by using either the average of minimum and maximum relative humidity or the dew-point temperature, gave more accurate results. Net irradiance (Rn ) estimated by using a regression of relative short-wave solar irradiance, as well as a linear regression on the square root of ea , resulted in relatively more accurate estimates of ETo , than that obtained by methods based on ea or clear-sky data alone. These results indicate that in a humid climate, some of the VPD and Rn methods have a significant effect on the accuracy of the ETo estimated by using the standardized ASCE-PM equation. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering © ASCE. 366 HYDROLOGY 1917 Sensitivity of the food and agriculture organization Penman-Monteith evapotranspiration estimates to alternative procedures for estimation of parameters Nandagiri L. and Kovoor G.M. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 2005 131/3 (238-248) Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo ) is a key variable in procedures established for estimating evapotranspiration rates of agriculture crops. As per internationally accepted procedures outlined in the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56 (FAO-56), using the Penman-Monteith (PM) combination equation is the recommended approach to computing ETo from ground-based climatological observations. Applying of the PM equation requires converting input climate and site data into a number of parameters, and FAO-56 recommends exact procedures for estimating these parameters. However, a plethora of alternative procedures for estimating parameters exist in literature. As a consequence, it is likely that ambiguous results may be obtained from the FAO-56 PM equation because of the adoption of such alternative (nonrecommended) supporting equations. The purpose of the present study is to evaluate differences that could arise in FAO-56 ETo estimates if nonrecommended equations are used to compute the parameters. Using historical climate records from 1973 to 1992 of a station located in the humid tropical region of Karnataka State, India, monthly ETo , estimates computed by FAO-56 recommended procedures were statistically compared with those obtained by introducing alternative procedures for estimating parameters. In all, 13 alternative algorithms for ETo estimation were formulated, involving modified procedures for parameters associated with weighting factors, net radiation, and vapor-pressure-deficit terms of the PM equation. For the 240-month period considered, nine of these algorithms yielded ETo estimates that were in close correspondence with FAO-56 estimates as indicated by mean absolute relative difference (AMEAN) values within 1% and maximum absolute relative difference (MAXE) values within 2%. The remaining four algorithms, involving nonrecommended procedures for the vapor-pressure-deficit and net-radiation parameters, yielded considerably different ETo estimates, giving rise to AMEAN values in the range of 2 to 8% and MAXE values ranging between 8 and 28%. The results of this study highlight the need for strict adherence to recommended procedures, especially for estimating of vapor-pressure-deficit and net-radiation parameters if consistent results are to be obtained by the FAO56 approach. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering © ASCE. 1918 Simplified estimation of reference evapotranspiration from pan evaporation data in California Snyder R.L., Orang M., Matyac S. and Grismer M.E. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 2005 131/3 (249-253) Evaporation pan (Ep ) data are often used to estimate reference evapotranspiration (ETo ) for use in water resource planning and irrigation scheduling. This paper reviews equations to estimate ETo from Ep and provides a simpler method to make this conversion for arid climatic conditions like in California. The new method accounts for fetch differences by first adjusting the EP rates to values expected for 100 m of grass fetch. Then it relies on an empirical relationship between ETo and the adjusted Ep to determine Kp values; thus, eliminating the need for relative humidity and wind speed data that are often unavailable. The method is conceptually simpler, easier to code into computer applications, and within California, it gave better results than methods based on relative humidity and wind speed. However, the method might require calibration in more humid or windier climates. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering © ASCE. 1919 Data reconciliation on the complex hydraulic system of Canal de Provence Deltour J.- L., Canivet E., Sanfilippo F. and Sau J. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 2005 131/3 (291-297) A data reconciliation module, based on the measurements from the hydraulic network, has been recently developed and implemented in the supervisory system of the Soci´et´e du Canal de Provence (SCP). The software has initially been used daily to check the measured flow on the main canal. The data reconciliation occurs just after the measurement process. The measurement network on the hydraulic system includes many sensors subject to failure or deviation and is spread over a huge area. In addition, discharge and volume measurements in open-channel hydraulic networks are characterized by large uncertainties. The objective of the data reconciliation is to take advantage of information redundancy on a system to make a cross-check of real-time measurements. By using this information redundancy, a data reconciliation module allows detection of inconsistent measurements and measurement deviations and provides corrected values whether the initial measurements are valid, biased, or invalid. A derived consequence is better scheduling of the maintenance of sensors. The results are corrected values for measured variables and proposed values for nonmeasured quantities. A statistical analysis of the results is performed. This analysis allows evaluation of the uncertainties attached to the estimated flows and volume values. It allows also detecting invalid measurements and drift of sensors and making decisions about which maintenance operations to perform. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering © ASCE. 1920 An approach to estimating evapotranspiration in the Urumqi River basin, Tianshan, China, by means of remote sensing and a geographical information system technique Zhang W., Chen J., Ogawa K. and Yamaguchi Y. Hydrological Processes 2005 19/9 (1839-1854) An approach that makes use of meteorological measurements and the spatial perspective provided by satellite data to estimate the time series (monthly or daily) of evapotranspiration (ET) over heterogeneous terrain two-dimensionally has been developed and tested in the Urumqi River basin, Tianshan, China. The formulae utilized in the estimation of actual ET are based on Kojima’s equation for a glacier/snow-covered area and Morton’s complementary relationship for the other land-cover classes. Data integration and image processing for the estimated ET were all executed on a raster image file that combines Landsat TM (red and NIR reflectance data), land-cover classification and digital elevation model (DEM) in association with the use of meteorological data under a geographic information system (GIS) environment. The specific type of model (either Kojima’s or Morton’s) and the extent to which it should be applied are determined jointly by the land-cover categories and an algorithm describing the seasonal land-cover changes. The spatially distributed meteorological parameters driving the model were either interpolated from the routine observations with PRISM in the sparse network of meteorological stations or calculated by the relationships of these parameters with those routinely observed. Ground-surface albedo data were derived by two approaches. For the season when the TM scene was acquired it was obtained by weighting the Landsat TM red and NIR reflectance data. For the other seasons, when the TM scene is not available, it was approximated by multiplying the empirical parameters in regard to each land-cover category with the albedo map of the season when the TM scene was available. As a result, time series of ET can be obtained not only quantitatively, but also visually as a two-dimensional image map. The approach proposed was applied to the Urumqi River basin, China. With field lysimeter data and estimates by the water balance method and the converted results from pan measurements as standard, a method validation was conducted and the accuracy of ET estimation by the approach was evaluated. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1921 Evapotranspiration from a riparian fen wetland Andersen H.E., Hansen S. and Jensen H.E. Nordic Hydrology 2005 36/2 (121-135) Evapotranspiration rates were measured in a riparian fen wetland dominated by vascular vegetation and surrounded by open agricultural areas and forests. The wetland is situated on a floodplain in central Denmark. Measurements were taken throughout the growing season (April-September) of 1999. Evapotranspiration rates were higher than th ose published for other wetland types, with an average of 3.6 mm d-1 during the growing season and a peak rate of 5.6 mm d-1 . Daily average evapotranspiration was 110% of Penman’s potential open water evaporation. Evatranspiration was the dominant sink in the energy balance of the wetland studied. During the day, evapotranspiration accounted for 82% of the available radiant energy, Rn . Due to the presence of deposited fine-grained sediments, soil-water availability was HYDROLOGY kept high at all times which resulted in moderate canopy resistances, rc . (overall mean = 32 sm-1 ). Evapotranspiration was controlled by a combination of driving forces: Rm saturation vapour pressure deficit, D, and rc . It is hypothesized that the results presented in this study are conditioned by the proximity of the wetland to drier upland areas. During periods with high evaporative demand and low precipitation, warm, dry air is formed over the upland areas and wetland evapotranspiration rates are enhanced by local advection. Indicative evidence for the hypothesis is presented. Although the absolute magnitude of the results reported is only directly relevant to similar sites in Denmark, the processes and controls described are considered to be representative of riparian wetlands subjected to frequent flooding and/or with a high groundwater table, with vascular vegetation, and which are narrow corridors in open agricultural landscapes. © IWA Publishing 2005. 1922 Dynamics of transpiration and evaporation following a moisture pulse in semiarid grassland: A chamber-based isotope method for partitioning flux components Yepez E.A., Huxman T.E., Ignace D.D. et al. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (359-376) We describe a novel method for partitioning evapotranspiration (ET) from isotopic measurements of water vapor within large (4.86 m3 ) plot-scale gas exchange chambers. Using this approach, the short-term (15-day) dynamics of transpiration (T) and evaporation (E) in experimental replicated stands of the invasive grass Eragrostis lehmanniana and the native Heteropogon contortus were assessed following a 39-mm irrigation event in semiarid grassland in southeastern Arizona, USA. Water vapor samples (20-40 L each) were collected sequentially during a 6min transient increase of vapor concentration inside the chambers and used to produce Keeling plots (isotope mixing relationships) for identification of the isotopic composition of ET and partitioning of component fluxes. The method worked well in plots free of grass cover and in the sparsely covered plots of E. lehmanniana. Keeling plot estimates of the isotopic composition of soil evaporation ( E ) in bare plots closely matched modeled values, lending strong support for the validity of the chamber approach. T/ET increased in stands of E. lehmanniana from 0.35 0.07 on day 1 to 0.43 0.08 on day 3 after the irrigation pulse, but decreased to 0.22 0.05 by day 7 as the soil surface dried. Estimates of stand transpiration from the Keeling plot chamber method were positively correlated (Pearson’s r = 0.76, p = 0.0004, n = 17) with independent estimates based on leafto-canopy scaling of stomatal conductance. We were unable to calculate T/ET on days 1 and 3 in plots of H. contortus because Keeling plot intercepts did not fall within the range of soil and canopy end-member isotope values. This likely occurred due to unaccounted effects of a wet litter layer on the estimation of E . Our approach is useful for partitioning ET over a dynamic wetting event in semi-arid grassland at a scale relevant for experimental ecosystem studies, but requires further validation under a wide range of vegetation structures and environmental conditions. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1923 Comparative analysis of the actual evapotranspiration of Flemish forest and cropland, using the soil water balance model WAVE Verstraeten W.W., Muys B., Feyen J. et al. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/3 (225-241) This paper focuses on the quantification of the green - vegetation related - water flux of forest stands in the temperate lowland of Flanders. The underlying reason of the research was to develop a methodology for assessing the impact of forests on the hydrologic cycle in comparison to agriculture. The tested approach for calculating the water use by forests was based on the application of the soil water balance model WAVE. The study involved the collection of data from 14 forest stands, the calibration and validation of the WAVE model, and the comparison of the water use (WU) components - transpiration, soil and interception evaporation - between forest and cropland. For model calib ration purposes simulated and measured time series of soil water content at different soil depths, period March 2000-August 2001, were compared. A multiplesite validation was conducted as well. Actual tree transpiration calculated with sap flow measurements in three forest stands gave similar results for two of the three 367 stands of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), but WAVE overestimated the actual measured transpiration for a stand of poplar (Populus sp.). A useful approach to compare the WU components of forest versus cropland is scenario analysis based on the validated WAVE model. The statistical Profile Analysis method was implemented to explore and analyse the simulated WU time series. With an average annual rainfall of 819 mm, the results reveal that forests in Flanders consume more water than agricultural crops. A 30 years average of 491 mm for 10 forests stands versus 398 mm for 10 cropped agricultural fields was derived. The WU components, on yearly basis, also differ between the two land use types (transpiration: 315 mm for forest and 261 mm for agricultural land use; soil evaporation: 47 mm and 131 mm, for forest and cropland, respectively). Forest canopy interception evaporation was estimated at 126 mm, while it was negligible for cropland. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1924 Evapotranspiration of natural Quercus liaotungensis and Tilia paucicostata secondary stands in Liupan Mountains of Ningxia (Chinese) Xiong W., Wang Y., Yu P. et al. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1628-1632) With heat dissipation probe technique and combined with microlysimeter and hydrological methods, this paper studied the evapotranspiration of secondary Quercus liaotungensis and Tilia paucicostata stands, and its relationship to forest structure from August to September 2004. The results indicated that the stem sap flux density (SFD) Of Quercus liaotungensis and Tilia paucicostata changed regularly from day to night in later growth season. In relatively still period (nighttime), the SFD kept low values continuously, usually below 0.05 lcm-2 min-1 , while in active period (daytime), it increased quickly, usually below 0.25 lcm-2 . min-1 . The daily transpiration of whole-tree was estimated based on the calculation of daily cumulative SFD, which showed that there existed a significant difference between two tree species. The daily transpiration of Quercus liaotungensis reached 5.31 and 2.48 Ld-1 in sunny- and cloudy-days, 2.35 and 3.75 folds as that of Tilia paucicostata, respectively. There was no significant difference in daily leaf transpiration rate between these two shrub species. During measurement periods, the average daily stand evapotranspiration was 1.45 mmd-1 , including transpiration (0.72 mmd-1 ), soil evaporation (0.19 mmd-1 ), and canopy interception (0.54 mmd-1 ), which accounted for 49.6%, 13.3% and 37.1% of the total evapotranspiration, respectively. The results showed that the difference of whole-tree transpiration between tree species contributed significantly to the difference of tree canopy transpiration, while the difference of shrub canopy transpiration was on account of the leaf amount in the canopy. The effects of vertical layers in the stand on total stand evapotranspiration also differed, with a percentage of 65.8%, 20.9% and 13.3% for tree canopy, shrub canopy and floor, respectively, which meant that the transpiration and interception of tree canopy contributed most to the total evpotranspiration, followed by shrub transpiration, soil evaporation, and grass transpiration. Runoff, streamflow and basins 1925 A method for evaluating the accuracy of quantitative precipitation estimates from a hydrologic modeling perspective Gourley J.J. and Vieux B.E. Journal of Hydrometeorology 2005 6/2 (115-133) A major goal in quantitative precipitation estimation and forecasting is the ability to provide accurate initial conditions for the purposes of hydrologic modeling. The accuracy of a streamflow prediction system is dependent upon how well the initial hydrometeorological states are characterized. A methodology is developed to objectively and quantitatively evaluate the skill of several different precipitation algorithms at the scale of application-a watershed. Thousands of hydrologic simulations are performed in an ensemble fashion, enabling an exploration of the model parameter space. Probabilistic statistics are then utilized to compare the relative skill of hydrologic simulations produced 368 HYDROLOGY from the different precipitation inputs to the observed streamflow. The primary focus of this study is to demonstrate a methodology to evaluate precipitation algorithms that can be used to supplement traditional radar-rain gauge analyses. This approach is appropriate for the evaluation of precipitation estimates or forecasts that are intended to serve as inputs to hydrologic models. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 1926 A recent increase in western U.S. Streamflow variability and persistence Pagano T. and Garen D. Journal of Hydrometeorology 2005 6/2 (173-179) April-September streamflow volume data from 141 unregulated basins in the western United States were analyzed for trends in year-to-year variability and persistence. Decadal time-scale changes in streamflow variability and lag-1-yr autocorrelation (persistence) were observed. The significance of the variability trends was tested using a jackknife procedure involving the random resampling of seasonal flows from the historical record. The 1930s-50s was a period of low variability and high persistence, the 1950s-70s was a period of low variability and antipersistence, and the period after 1980 was highly variable and highly persistent. In particular, regions from California and Nevada to southern Idaho, Utah, and Colorado have recently experienced an unprecedented sequence of consecutive wet years along with multiyear extreme droughts. 1927 Comparative analysis of glacial and nival streamflow regimes with implications for lotic habitat quantity and fish species richness Fleming S.W. River Research and Applications 2005 21/4 (363379) Growing interest in the differential responses of glacial and nival rivers to climatic forcing, and in ecological distinctions between the two streamflow regimes, suggests the need for a better comparative understanding of how the annual hydrologic cycle differs with presence or absence of catchment glacial cover. In this study, timing and magnitude characteristics of the average annual hydrographs of five glacierized and four nival catchments in the southwestern Canadian subarctic are empirically identified and compared. Likely effects upon fish habitat are qualitatively assessed, and net fisheries potential is tentatively investigated using taxa richness data. The chief hydrological conclusions at P < 0.05 using Kolmogorov-Smirnov and empirical orthogonal function analyses are: (1) catchment glacial cover results in freshets that are longer, larger, and peak later than those experienced by the nival regime; (2) the winter baseflows of glacial rivers are also much higher on a unit-catchment-area basis; and (3) basin scale and degree of catchment glacial cover are of comparable importance in determining the magnitude of the annual hydrologic cycle. These differences arise from the greater availability, both in volume and over time, of meltwater in glacial catchments, which in part reflects the consistently negative alpine glacial mass balances observed both in the present study area and globally under historical climatic warming. Such regime distinctions result in increased spawning season and winter aquatic habitat availability, which may in turn offset negative habitat characteristics previously identified for glacial river ecosystems. While previous studies have suggested that glacial influences tend to decrease macroinvertebrate diversity and increase salmon populations, preliminary analysis of available fish species presence/absence data from the current study area tentatively appears to suggest similar or, perhaps, slightly higher fish taxa richness relative to nival streams; in all three cases, however, catchment lake cover may play a key hydroecological modifying role. The results strongly confirm and extend existing understanding of glacial-nival regime differences with respect to both streamflow and fisheries ecology, and raise new questions for future research. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1928 Assessing the effectiveness of enhancement activities in urban streams: I. Habitat responses Suren A.M., Riis T., Biggs B.J.F. et al. River Research and Applications 2005 21/4 (381-401) Effects of stream enhancement on habitat conditions in five spring-fed urban streams in Christchurch, New Zealand, were investigated. Stream enhancement consisted of riparian planting at three sites, and riparian planting and channel modifications at two sites, where a concrete dish channel and a timber-lined channel were removed, and natural banks reinstated. Sites were surveyed prior to enhancement activities and 5 years after, and changes in riparian conditions (composition, horizontal and vertical cover), instream conditions (bank modifications, inorganic and organic material on the streambed), and hydraulic conditions (wetted perimeter, cross-sectional area, depths and velocities) quantified. Enhanced sites generally had higher marginal vegetation cover, as well as increased overhanging riparian vegetation, reflecting planting of Carex sedges close to the water. Bed sediments changed at some sites, with the greatest change being replacement of a concrete channel with gravel and cobble substrate. Bryophyte cover declined at this site, reflecting loss of stable habitat where these plants grew. Bed sediments changed less at other sites, and cover of fine sediments increased in some enhanced sites, presumably from sediment runoff from nearby residential development. Filamentous algal cover decreased at one stream where shade increased, but increased in another stream where the removal of timber-lined banks and creation of a large pond decreased shade. Stream enhancement increased variability in velocity at three of the five sites, but overall changes to stream hydraulics were small. Although enhancement activities altered the physical conditions of the streams, major changes occurred only to riparian vegetation and bank conditions. Lack of other major changes to instream physical conditions most likely reflected the limited range of channel morphology alterations under-taken. Moreover, the flat topography of Christchurch and naturally low stream discharge further constrained changes to instream physical conditions from enhancement activities. Sediment inputs from continuing urban development also negated the effects of adding coarse substrates. These over-arching factors may constrain the success of future stream enhancement projects within Christchurch. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1929 Assessing the effectiveness of enhancement activities in urban streams: II. Responses of invertebrate communities Suren A.M. and McMurtrie S. River Research and Applications 2005 21/4 (439-453) The effects of habitat enhancement on the invertebrate communities in five urban streams in Christchurch, New Zealand, were investigated. All streams underwent riparian planting, while extensive channel modifications were made at two streams, where a concrete dish channel and a wooden timber-lined stream were removed and natural banks reinstated. Benthic invertebrates were collected before enhancement and 5 years after from the same locations. Invertebrates were also collected from control sites in each stream in 2001. Desired goals of enhancement activities included increasing the densities of mayflies and caddisflies, and decreasing densities of oligochaetes, snails and midges. Enhancement activities changed riparian vegetation and bank conditions, as well as substrate composition, instream organic matter and variability of instream velocities. Invertebrate communities prior to enhancement were typical of those in urban environments, and dominated by snails (Potamopyrgus, Physa), the amphipod Paracalliope, the hydroptilid caddisfly Oxyethira, oligochaetes and chironomids. Stream enhancement caused only small changes to the invertebrate community, with subtle shifts in overall abundance, species evenness, diversity, and ordination scores. Lack of a consistent strong response by invertebrates to enhancement activities, and continued absence of caddisflies and mayflies from enhanced sites may reflect lack of sufficient change to instream conditions as a result of stream enhancement, colonization bottlenecks for aerial stages of these animals, and the inability of individuals outside the urban watershed to perceive these enhanced ‘islands’ of good habitat. Alternatively, contamination of streambed sediments, excess sedimentation and reduced base flows may be limiting factors precluding successful invertebrate colonization in enhanced sites. These results highlight the importance of setting clear goals and objectives necessary to meet these goals. Enhancement of riparian zones in urban streams may not be adequate to improve benthic invertebrate communities. Identifying over-arching factors that potentially limit invertebrate communities will enable the enhancement potential of streams to be better assesed, and allow managers to identify sites where recovery of biological communities is pos- HYDROLOGY sible, and where such recovery is not. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1930 Changes toward earlier streamflow timing across western North America Stewart I.T., Cayan D.R. and Dettinger M.D. Journal of Climate 2005 18/8 (1136-1155) The highly variable timing of streamflow in snowmelt-dominated basins across western North America is an important consequence, and indicator, of climate fluctuations. Changes in the timing of snowmelt-derived streamflow from 1948 to 2002 were investigated in a network of 302 western North America gauges by examining the center of mass for flow, spring pulse onset dates, and seasonal fractional flows through trend and principal component analyses. Statistical analysis of the streamflow timing measures with Pacific climate indicators identified local and key large-scale processes that govern the regionally coherent parts of the changes and their relative importance. Widespread and regionally coherent trends toward earlier onsets of springtime snowmelt and streamflow have taken place across most of western North America, affecting an area that is much larger than previously recognized. These timing changes have resulted in increasing fractions of annual flow occurring earlier in the water year by 1-4 weeks. The immediate (or proximal) forcings for the spatially coherent parts of the year-to-year fluctuations and longer-term trends of streamflow timing have been higher winter and spring temperatures. Although these temperature changes are partly controlled by the decadal-scale Pacific climate mode [Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO)], a separate and significant part of the variance is associated with a springtime warming trend that spans the PDO phases. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 1931 The relationship between potentially erosive storm energy and daily rainfall quantity in England and Wales Davison P., Hutchins M.G., Anthony S.G. et al. Science of the Total Environment 2005 344/1-3 SPEC. ISS. (15-25) Erosive storm energy is the primary driver of soil detachment, and hence a major determinant of transfer of sediment and particulate phosphorus (P) to surface waters. Modelling of sediment and P loss at catchment scale, for example for the development of catchment and national mitigation policies, requires a spatially interpolated estimate of variation in erosion risk. To this end we present a method of estimating total rainfall erosivity, as kinetic energy (KE), for any location in England and Wales, from daily rainfall data or monthly climate data. Analysis of detailed, highresolution records from eleven contrasting sites showed strong predictive correlations between daily rainfall quantity and associated daily total kinetic energy estimated from hourly rainfall intensities. The coefficients showed systematic seasonal variation, with greatest KE per unit of rainfall in late summer and autumn months. In contrast, no systematic spatial variation was found as a function of location or continentality index. The relationships were integrated with probability distributions of rainfall quantity per rain day derived from spatial climate data (monthly rainfall totals and numbers of rain days). The resulting map captures and quantifies the effects of rainfall quantity and intensity patterns on risk of sediment detachment, and as such provides a critical input layer to catchment-scale models of sediment and P transfer. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1932 Temporal analysis of the frequency and duration of low and high streamflow: Years of record needed to characterize streamflow variability Huh S., Dickey D.A., Meador M.R. and Ruhl K.E. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (78-94) A temporal analysis of the number and duration of exceedences of high- and low-flow thresholds was conducted to determine the number of years required to detect a level shift using data from Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Two methods were used - ordinary least squares assuming a known error variance and generalized least squares without a known error variance. Using ordinary least squares, the mean number of years required to detect a one standard deviation level shift in measures of low-flow variability was 57.2 (28.6 on either side of the break), compared to 40.0 years for measures of high-flow variability. These means become 57.6 and 41.6 when generalized least squares is used. 369 No significant relations between years and elevation or drainage area were detected (P>0.05). Cluster analysis did not suggest geographic patterns in years related to physiography or major hydrologic regions. Referring to the number of observations required to detect a one standard deviation shift as ‘characterizing’ the variability, it appears that at least 20 years of record on either side of a shift may be necessary to adequately characterize highflow variability. A longer streamflow record (about 30 years on either side) may be required to characterize low-flow variability. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1933 Sensitivity analyses of a distributed catchment model to verify the model structure Sieber A. and Uhlenbrook S. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (216-235) Sensitivity analyses are valuable tools for identifying important model parameters, testing the model conceptualization, and improving the model structure. They help to apply the model efficiently and to enable a focussed planning of future research and field measurement. Two different methods were used for sensitivity analyses of the complex process-oriented model TAC D (tracer aided catchment model, distributed) that was applied to the meso-scale Brugga basin (40 km2 ) and the sub-basin St Wilhelmer Talbach (15.2 km2 ). Five simulations periods were investigated: two summer events, two snow melt induced events and one summer low flow period. The model was applied using 400 different parameter sets, which were generated by Monte Carlo simulations using latin hypercube sampling. The regional sensitivity analysis (RSA) allowed determining the most significant parameters for the complete simulation periods using a graphical method. The results of the regression-based sensitivity analysis were more detailed and complex. The temporal variability of the simulation sensitivity could be observed continuously and the significance of the parameters could be determined in a quantitative way. A dependency of the simulation sensitivity on initial- and boundary conditions and the temporal and spatial variability of the sensitivity to some model parameters was revealed by the regression-based sensitivity analysis. Thus, the difficulty of transferring the results to different time periods or model applications in other catchments became obvious. The analysis of the temporal course of the simulation sensitivity to parameter values in conjunction with simulated and measured additional data sets (precipitation, temperature, reservoir volumes etc.) gave further insight into the internal model behaviour and demonstrated the plausibility of the model structure and process conceptionalizations. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1934 Characterisation of streamflow regimes in central Spain, based on relevant hydrobiological parameters Sanz D.B. and Del Jal´on D.G. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (266-279) The biotic composition, structure, and function of aquatic, wetland, and riparian ecosystem depend largely on the hydrological regime (Poff, N.L., Ward, J.V., 1990. Implications of streamflow variability and predictability for lotic community structure: a regional analysis of streamflow patterns. Can. J. Fisheries Aquat. Sci. 46, 1805-1818; Richter, B.D., Baumgartner, J.V., Wiginton, R., Braun, D.P., 1997 How much water does a river need? Freshwater Biol. 37, 231-249). Available flow data for many rivers in the world can be used to validate these ecological theories. There is a demand for studies that use hydrological indices to establish criteria, which serve to group together regime types at a local level. Once this has been done, these hydrologically similar groups can be used to identify communities of living organisms that are linked to specific aspects of the river’s behaviour. An approach to characterise flow regimes in the river network of the Tagus basin in Spain is presented. The river Tagus (ro Tajo) is one of the seven major rivers of the Iberian peninsula. All hydrological data were acquired from the measurements made in the Tagus basin, at 25 gauging stations. Twelve variables were derived for each gauged site to describe variability and predictability of average streamflow conditions, and to describe the frequency, timing and intensity of high flow and low flow extremes. A hierarchical clustering routine was used to identify similar groups of rivers as defined in terms of similar characteristics of their streamflow regime. The variables 370 HYDROLOGY were also examined with simple correlations to determine if multicollinearity occurred, in order to reject redundant parameters or to identify similar behaviour trends between pairs of parameters. Some parameters have shown a tendency to increase or decrease along the east-west axis, suggesting that some of the studied characteristics may have a geographical cause. Cluster analysis, with the values of the 12 parameters, reveals two main groups, each of which splits into two main subdivisions. One of these subgroups contains six rivers with similar characteristics, can be considered to be ‘classic regular rivers’, the stations in this first subgroup are mostly situated geographically close to each other. At the other end, we have found a subgroup, with a high variation of flows over the year and high flood flows; these rivers are highly irregular rivers with great changes. This regular-irregular gradient found between the groups is similar to that observed by others authors (Poff, N.L., Allan J.D., 1995. Functional organization of stream fish assemblages in relation to hydrological variability. Ecology 76, 606-627), and strong associations have been documented with compositions of populations and probably reflect differences in other similar important environmental factors. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1935 Consensus seasonal Flood Forecasts and Warning Response System (FFWRS): An alternate for nonstructural flood management in Bangladesh Chowdhury Md.R. Environmental Management 2005 35/6 (716725) Despite advances in short-range flood forecasting and information dissemination systems in Bangladesh, the present system is less than satisfactory. This is because of short lead-time products, outdated dissemination networks, and lack of direct feedback from the end-user. One viable solution is to produce long-lead seasonal forecasts-the demand for which is significantly increasing in Bangladesh-and disseminate these products through the appropriate channels. As observed in other regions, the success of seasonal forecasts, in contrast to short-term forecast, depends on consensus among the participating institutions. The Flood Forecasting and Warning Response System (henceforth, FFWRS) has been found to be an important component in a comprehensive and participatory approach to seasonal flood management. A general consensus in producing seasonal forecasts can thus be achieved by enhancing the existing FFWRS. Therefore, the primary objective of this paper is to revisit and modify the framework of an ideal warning response system for issuance of consensus seasonal flood forecasts in Bangladesh. The five-stage FFWRS-i) Flood forecasting, ii) Forecast interpretation and message formulation, iii) Warning preparation and dissemination, iv) Responses, and v) Review and analysis-has been modified. To apply the concept of consensus forecast, a framework similar to that of the Southern African Regional Climate Outlook Forum (SARCOF) has been discussed. Finally, the need for a climate Outlook Fora has been emphasized for a comprehensive and participatory approach to seasonal flood hazard management in Bangladesh. © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 1936 Statistical guidelines for curve number generation Schneider L.E. and McCuen R.H. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 2005 131/3 (282-290) The accuracy of runoff curve numbers (CNs) is unknown, and empirical evidence has suggested that with the current CN table, hydrological systems are being over designed - which some believe is due to a variable known as the initial abstraction coefficient ( ). Therefore, guidelines to produce a new CN table are needed. In order to develop this set of guidelines, the following objectives were met: Determination of CN and sensitivity, assessment of the accuracy of alternative methods for determining CNs, examination of the effect of the range of data, and evaluation of the potential change in hydrologic design due to a new table. Using measured and simulated data, the methods of estimating the CN were evaluated and assessed for accuracy. A new method using concepts of lognormal frequency was developed and found to be more accurate than the current practices. It was also found that is an insensitive variable when compared to the CN, and therefore, may complicate the optimal fitting of the CNs. Finally, it was determined that developing a new CN table would affect the estimation of peak discharge rates, and thus hydrologic designs. Therefore, it may be advantageous to develop a new CN table based on peak discharge measurements rather than depths of rainfall and runoff. Guidelines that should lead to a revised CN model with improved accuracy are provided. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering © ASCE. 1937 Probability distribution type of Canadian annual minimum streamflow Yue S. and Pilon P. Hydrological Sciences Journal 2005 50/3 (427-438) The method of L-moment ratio diagrams along with the averaged weighted distance (AWD) is applied to identify a probability distribution of annual minimum streamflow, namely annual minimum daily streamflow in II climatic regions of Canada. Across the entire country, the Pearson type III probability distribution is an acceptable distribution for describing annual minimum streamflow with the 3-parameter lognormal and log Pearson type III distributions as potential candidates. Some minor differences in the probability distribution type among different climatic regions are also observed, which may be taken into account in the selection of the distribution type of annual minimum streamflow. Copyright © 2005 IAHS Press. 1938 Improving generalization of artificial neural networks in rainfall-runoff modelling Giustolisi O. and Laucelli D. Hydrological Sciences Journal 2005 50/3 (439-457) Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are general-purpose techniques that can be used for nonlinear data-driven rainfall-runoff modelling. The key issue to construct a good model by means of ANNs is to understand their structural features and the problems related to their construction. Indeed, the quantity and quality of data, the type of noise and the mathematical properties of the algorithm for estimating the usual large number of parameters (weights) are crucial for the generalization performances of ANNs. However, it is well known that ANNs may suffer from poor generalization properties due to the high number of parameters and non-Gaussian data noise. Therefore, in the first part of this paper, the features and problems of ANNs are discussed. Eight Avoiding Overfitting Techniques are then presented, considering that these are methods for improving the generalization of ANNs. For this reason, they have been tested on two case studies - rainfall-runoff data from two drainage basins in the south of Italy - in order to gain insight into their propertics and to investigate if there is one that absolutely gives the best performance. Copyright © 2005 IAHS Press. 1939 Variability in the discharge of South American rivers and in climate Gara N.O. and Mechoso C.R. Hydrological Sciences Journal 2005 50/3 (459-478) Changes in trend and quasi-periodicities are sought in the time series of river discharges in all major South American basins. The relationship between trends and quasi-periodicities found and climate variations on interannual and longer time scales are discussed. Consideration of multiple rivers gives insight into the geographical extent of hydrological signals and climate impacts. It is found that the streamflow of all major rivers of South America has experienced an increased trend since the early 1970s. It is suggested that this simultaneity may reflect the impact of a largescale climate change. All the time series of river streamflows that were analysed show El Ni˜no-like periodicities. Only for La Plata Basin do these explain a larger part of the total variance than the other quasi-periodicities. There are two other quasi-oscillations in the time series analysed: one of them with a longer period - around 17 years - and the other of about 9 years. Previous work has related these oscillations to sea-surface temperature anomalies in the Atlantic Ocean. Copyright © 2005 IAHS Press. 1940 Trends in frequency of precipitation extremes in the Yangtze River basin, China: 1960-2003 Su B., Xiao B., Zhu D. and Jiang T. Hydrological Sciences Journal 2005 50/3 (479-492) The spatial distribution and trends in the frequency of precipitation extremes over the last 44 years (1960-2003), especially since 1990, have been analysed using daily precipitation data from 147 stations in the Yangtze River basin. The research results HYDROLOGY are as follows: (1) The 15 mm precipitation isohyet approximately divides the precipitation extremes (corresponding to the 95th percentile) of the stations in the middle and lower Yangtze reaches (higher) from those of the upper Yangtze reaches (lower). Also the starting time of the precipitation extremes in the middle and lower Yangtze reaches is earlier than of those in the upper Yangtze reaches. Precipitation extremes are concentrated mostly in June in the middle and lower Yangtze reaches, and July in the upper Yangtze reaches. (2) During the period 1960-2003, the first two decades had fewer precipitation extremes than the last two decades. There have been significant increasing trends and step changes in frequency of annual total precipitation extremes and precipitation extremes with a 1-5 day gap in the middle and lower Yangtze reaches. Precipitation extremes occur more frequently in shorter periods, separated by a few days. Precipitation extremes are also becoming more concentrated in the month with the highest frequency of extremes (June) in the middle and lower Yangtze reaches. In the upper Yangtze reaches, there is an upward tendency of extreme events in June. Increasing precipitation extremes in June for both the middle and lower, and the upper Yangtze reaches will increase the probability of flooding if the observed trends of the last 40 years continue into the future. Copyright © 2005 IAHS Press. 1941 The use of digital elevation models in the identification and characterization of catchments over different grid scales Hancock G.R. Hydrological Processes 2005 19/9 (1727-1749) This study examines the ability of well-known hydrological and geomorphological descriptors and statistics to differentiate between catchments with spatially varying geology, size and shape subject to the same climate in the Northern Territory, Australia. The effect of digital elevation model grid resolution on these statistics is also examined. Results demonstrate that catchment descriptors such as the area-slope relationship, cumulative area distribution and hypsometric curve can differentiate between catchments with different geology and resultant morphology, but catchment network statistics are insensitive to differences in geology. Examination of the effects of digital elevation model grid scale demonstrates that while considerable catchment information can be gained at digital elevation grids greater than 10 m by 10 m, hillslope and hydrological detail can be lost. Geomorphic descriptors such as the area-slope relationship, cumulative area distribution, width function and Strahler statistics were shown to be sensitive to digital elevation model grid scale, but the hypsometric curve was not. Consequently, caution is needed when deciding on an appropriate grid resolution as well as the interpretation and analysis of catchment properties at grid scales greater than that for optimal hillslope and area aggregation definition. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1942 Estimation of Columbia River virgin flow: 1879 to 1928 Naik P.K. and Jay D.A. Hydrological Processes 2005 19/9 (18071824) The Columbia River is a major source of and conduit for Pacific Northwest economic activity, and is one of the more heavily modified rivers in North America. Understanding human and climate-induced changes in its hydrologic properties is, therefore, vital. Long streamflow records are essential to determining how runoff has changed over time, and Columbia River daily streamflow record at The Dalles began in 1878. To understand and separate anthropogenic and climate effects, however, it is also necessary to have a basin-scale estimate of virgin or naturalized flow. The United States Geological Survey has calculated a monthly averaged adjusted river flow at The Dalles for 1879-1999 that accounts for the effects of flow regulation. The Bonneville Power Administration has estimated the monthly averaged virgin flow at The Dalles, i.e. the flow in the absence of both flow regulation and irrigation depletion for 1929-89. We have estimated the monthly virgin flow of the Columbia River at The Dalles from records of irrigated area for the missing early years, i.e. for the period 1879-1928. In addition, to allow hindcasting of a virgin flow sediment transport for the system, a daily virgin flow index with realistic higher moments and spectral properties has been calculated. Examination of the virgin flow record shows that climate change since the late 19th century has decreased annual average flow volume by > 7%; irrigation depletion has reduced 371 the flow by another
7%. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1943 Sensitivity of soil moisture field evolution to rainfall forcing Yoo C., Kim S.- J. and Valdes J.B. Hydrological Processes 2005 19/9 (1855-1869) In this paper the temporal behaviour of soil moisture is modelled and statistically characterized by use of the zero-dimensional model for soil moisture dynamics and the rectangular pulses Poisson process model for rain all forcing. The mean, covariance and spectral density function of soil moisture (both instantaneous and locally averaged cases) are analytically derived to evaluate its sensitivity to the model parameters. Finally, the probability density function of soil moisture is derived to evaluate the effect of rainfall forcing. All the model parameters used have been tuned to the Monsoon ‘90 data. Results can be summarized as follows. (1) Only the soil moisture model parameters ( and nZr ) are found to affect the autocorrelation function in a distinguishable manner. On the other hand, both the rainfall model parameter () and the effective soil depth (nZr ) are found to be of impact to the soil moisture spectrum. However, as the smoothing (or damping) effect of soil is so dominant, about 20% variation of one parameter seems not to affect significantly the second-order statistics of soil moisture. (2) More difference can be found by applying a longer averaging time, which is found to obviously decrease the variance but increase the correlation even though no overlapping between neighbouring soil moisture data was allowed. (3) Among rainfall model parameters, the arrival rate was found to be most important for the soil moisture evolution. When increasing the arrival rate of rainfall, the histogram of soil moisture shifts its peak to a certain value as well as becomes more concentrated around the peak. However, by decreasing the arrival rate of rainfall, a much smaller (almost to zero) mean value of soil moisture was estimated, even though the total volume of rainfall remained constant. This indicates that desertification may take place without decreasing the total volume of rainfall. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1944 Characteristics of surface runoff and throughflow in a purple soil of Southwestern China under various rainfall events Liu G., Tian G., Shu D. et al. Hydrological Processes 2005 19/9 (1883-1891) In order to harvest runoff to palliate water disaster as well as effectively manage irrigation and fertilizer application in the studied region, it is necessary to better understand the runoff processes. A newly designed runoff collection system for a plot scale was used to partition runoff under contrasting rainfall events into surface flow and subsurface flow to obtain characteristics of surface runoff and throughflow in a purple soil (Regosols in FAO taxonomy, Entisol in USDA taxonomy) of Sichuan, China. Under small rainfall (shower and drizzle), only surface runoff was observed. It is noted that, under shower, particularly with antecedent dry soil conditions, the highest peak surface runoff significantly lagged behind that of rainfall, because air-locked soil pores of the top layer appeared temporally. Under rainstorm and downpour, surface runoff and throughflow both commenced and showed hysteresis. The hydrograph of surface runoff better resembled that of rainfall than throughflow did. The durations of throughflow discharge of post-rainfall-end were near the same (within 24 h) under various rainfalls and rather dependent upon the soil properties than the rainfall characteristics. Throughflow is about 60-90% of total runoff, and especially significant in a ploughed layer under downpour. The chloride concentration of throughflow was over twice that of surface runoff and rainfall, implying that throughflow contains more nutrients than surface runoff. Presumably, surface runoff was primarily governed by an infiltration-excess or saturated excess-infiltration mechanism under unsaturated or saturated soil conditions. Therefore, the management of water and fertilizer, and the harvesting of water flow in the ploughed soil layer, should be emphasized in this region. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1945 Temporal variation of river flow renewability in the middle Yellow River and the influencing factors Xu J. Hydrological Processes 2005 19/9 (1871-1882) 372 HYDROLOGY In the past 30 years, the measured annual river flow of the Yellow River has declined significantly. After adding the diverted water back to get the ‘natural’ annual river flow, the tendency of decrease can still be seen. This indicates that the river flow renewability of the Yellow River has changed. The river flow renewability is indexed as the ratio of annual ‘natural’ river flow to annual precipitation over a river drainage basin, where the ‘natural’ river flow is the measured annual river flow plus the annual ‘net’ water diversion from the river. By using this index, based on the data from the drainage area between Hekouzhen and Longmen stations on the middle Yellow River, a study has been made of the river flow renewability of the Yellow River in the changing environment of the past 50 years. The river flow renewability index (Irr ) in the drainage area between Hekouzhen and Longmen in the middle Yellow River basin has been found to decline significantly with time. In the meantime, annual precipitation decreased, annual air temperature increased, but the area of water and soil conservation measures has been increased. It has been found that Irr is positively correlated with the areal averaged annual precipitation, but negatively correlated with annual air temperature. There is close, negative correlation between Irr and the area of water and soil conservation measures including land terracing, tree and grass planting and checkdam building, implying that water and soil conservation measures have reduced the river flow renewability. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1946 A modified Xinanjiang model and its application in northern China Hu C., Guo S., Xiong L. and Peng D. Nordic Hydrology 2005 36/2 (175-192) The Xinanjiang model has been widely used in the humid regions in southern China as a basic tool for rainfall - runoff simulation, flood forecasting and water resources planning and management. However, its performance in the arid and semi-arid regions of northern China is usually not so good as in the humid regions. A modified Xinanjiang model, in which runoff generation in the watershed is based on both infiltration excess and saturation excess runoff mechanisms, is presented and discussed. Three different watersheds are selected for assessing and comparing the performance of the Xinanjiang model, the modified Xinanjiang model, the VIC model and the TOPMODEL in rainfall runoff simulation. It is found that the modified Xinanjiang model performs better than the Xinanjiang model, and the models considering the Horton and Dunne runoff generation mechanisms are slightly better than those models considering the single runoff generation mechanism in semi-arid areas. It is suggested that the infiltration excess runoff mechanism should be included in rainfall - runoff models in and and semi-arid regions. © IWA Publishing 2005. 1947 Regional flow duration curve for a Himalayan river Chenab Arora M., Goel N.K., Singh P. and Singh R.D. Nordic Hydrology 2005 36/2 (193-206) This study is carried out with the objective of examining the effect of altitude on water availability estimates for the various sub-basins of the Chenab river basin (mean elevation of the basin is 3600 m), which is a snow-fed Himalayan river basin located in the western Himalayas. This basin covers all three Himalayan ranges, i.e. outer, middle and greater Himalayas. For this study, the daily flow data of 11 gauging sites varying from 14 years to 23 years in the Chenab river basin are utilised. The other important information related to the physiography, hydrology and meteorology, etc, for the region are derived from the available literature and maps. The daily flow data of nine gauging sites are utilised for developing the regional relationships for water availability computations. These relationships are tested over the remaining two gauging sites. The regional relationships are developed using three different approaches. These approaches include: (i) parameter regionalisation for individual gauged sites of selected probability distribution, (ii) regionalisation of dependable flows and (iii) parameter regionalisation for the region as a whole of the selected probability distribution. The different methods are compared and discussed in detail. It is observed that the flow for a given dependability increases with catchment area and decreases with altitude. The flows of the catchments at higher altitudes exhibit larger variability in comparison to the catchments at lower altitudes. The regional relationships are recommended for the use of field engineers. © IWA Publishing 2005. 1948 Hidrological effects of the electrical and agricultural uses in the basin of the Laja river (center-south of Chile) (Spanish) (Efectos hidrol´ogicos de los usos el´ectrico y agrcola en la cuenca del ro Laja (Chile centro-sur)) Mardones M. and Vargas J. Revista de Geografia Norte Grande 2005 -/33 (89-102) Surface hydrological responses to hydroelectric and agricultural use, are evaluated of the Laja river basin (Chile) and the associated lake Laja. A drop of 27 m is observed in the lake water level with respect to normal hydrologic regime, for the 1972 to 1999 period; it correlates directly with hydroelectric power production (r2 = 0,78). In addition, the drainage network of the upper river basin has been modified completely. The impact of this use on the hydrologic balance of the Andean sector is weak (-3,7% of total precipitations), due to lack of consumption. In the lower basin, water consumption for irrigation corresponds to an annual average of 22,8% of the Laja river volume, resulting in a negative hydrological balance equivalent to 36,8%, of the total annual rainfall. 1949 Linking riparian dynamics and groundwater: An ecohydrologic approach to modeling groundwater and riparian vegetation Baird K.J., Stromberg J.C. and Maddock III T. Environmental Management 2005 36/4 (551-564) The growing use of global freshwater supplies is increasing the need for improved modeling of the linkage between groundwater and riparian vegetation. Traditional groundwater models such as MODFLOW have been used to predict changes in regional groundwater levels, and thus riparian vegetation potential attributable to anthropogenic water use. This article describes an approach that improves on these modeling techniques through several innovations. First, evapotranspiration from riparian/wetland systems is modeled in a manner that more realistically reflects plant ecophysiology and vegetation complexity. In the authors’ model programs (RIP-ET and PRE-RIP-ET), the single, monotonically increasing evapotranspiration flux curve in traditional groundwater models is replaced with a set of ecophysiologically based curves, one for each plant functional group present. For each group, the curve simulates transpiration declines that occur both as water levels decline below rooting depths and as waters rise to levels that produce anoxic soil conditions. Accuracy is further improved by more effective spatial handling of vegetation distribution, which allows modeling of surface elevation and depth to water for multiple vegetation types within each large model cell. The use of RIP-ET in groundwater models can improve the accuracy of basin scale estimates of riparian evapotranspiration rates, riparian vegetation water requirements, and water budgets. Two case studies are used to demonstrate that RIP-ET produces significantly different evapotranspiration estimates than the traditional method. When combined with vegetation mapping and a supporting program (RIP-GIS), RIPET also enables predictions of riparian vegetation response to water use and development scenarios. The RIP-GIS program links the head distribution from MODFLOW with surface digital elevation models, producing moderate- to high-resolution depth-to-groundwater maps. Together with information on plant rooting depths, these can be used to predict vegetation response to water allocation decisions. The different evapotranspiration outcomes produced by traditional and RIP-ET approaches affect resulting interpretations of hydro-vegetation dynamics, including the effects of groundwater pumping stress on existing habitats, and thus affect subsequent policy decisions. © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 1950 Regional hydrological modelling in Benin (West Africa): Uncertainty issues versus scenarios of expected future environmental change Bormann H. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (472-484) The conceptual, hydrological UHP model was used to calculate regional and seasonal to long-term water fluxes of several meso- HYDROLOGY scale catchments within the upper Ou´em´e basin in central Benin. To analyse the quality of the simulations in addition to standard model validation techniques (e.g., split sampling test, multi-site and multi-scale validation), different methods were applied to assess the orders of magnitude of input data uncertainty and model uncertainty (e.g., Monte-Carlo-analysis, rainfall data analysis). To evaluate the suitability of the model to be used for environmental change studies, finally the detected uncertainties were set into relation to the effects of environmental change scenarios for different regional scale catchments in central Benin. Main result was the fact that all "signal-to-noise ratios" of model-scenariouncertainty combinations were positive and most of the ratios were even high. Thus on the seasonal time scale, the environmental effects calculated by the model were significantly larger than the uncertainties caused by imperfect model parameters and input data. Nevertheless uncertainties were detected to have a potentially significant impact on the simulation results (esp. on the event scale) although the model calculates the water fluxes of the subhumid catchments well with regard to several statistical quality measures (water balance, model efficiency, coefficient of variation, etc.). Dominating uncertainties are the input data (rainfall in particular), which may cause both errors in the calculated hydrological processes at the event scale and biases in the long-term water balance. Therefore implausible data sets need to be rejected. With regard to the scenarios all environmental changes may cause significant effects on the long-term water balance: land use change, soil degradation and decreasing rainfall. Concerning the total annual stream flow the realistic scenarios of an expected rainfall decrease and an increasing soil degradation due to land use change in the next 20 years partly leads to a compensation of the individual effects (e.g., decrease caused by decreasing rainfall versus increase caused by decreasing soil storage capacity and increasing curve number), while other water related indicators (e.g., the length of the vegetation period defined by the time of exceeding a certain root zone soil moisture; annual actual evapotranspiration as an indicator for plant productivity) decrease significantly. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1951 Assessing the effects of land use change on soil physical properties and hydrological processes in the sub-humid tropical environment of West Africa Giertz S., Junge B. and Diekkr¨uger B. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (485-496) Land use is a key parameter in the hydrologic cycle. Tropical Africa is affected by intense land use change since decades, particularly deforestation and conversion to agricultural land. The aim of this study is to analyse the effects of land use change on the hydrologic processes and soil physical properties in a small catchment (Aguima catchment) in central Benin. Results from pedological, pedobiological and hydrological investigations within the Aguima catchment were taken into account. The effects of land use change on hydrologic processes were analysed by comparing two sub-catchments of the Aguima catchment with different land use (savannah/forest and agricultural land use). The study is part of the GLOWA IMPETUS project, which examines the effects of global change on the water cycle and water availability on a regional scale in Morocco and Benin. The investigations of this study revealed that due to reduced activity of the macrofauna the infiltration capacity is significantly lower in cultivated soils than in savannah and forest. This causes higher surface runoff and soil loss rates, which was also determined on erosion plots. The increased soil loss on fields has effects on soil physical properties like increase of gravel content and reduction of field capacity. The impact of reduced vegetation cover on the soil water dynamics was examined with soil moisture measurements on different land use. Due to higher evapotranspiration and water withdrawal the soil water content on forest and savannah plots was lower than on agricultural fields. The difference in the water yield of the forested and cultivated catchments was over 120 mm in the dry year 2001 and about 70 mm in the wetter year 2002. © 2005 Pubilshed by Elsevier Ltd. 373 1952 The application of simple methods using remote sensing data for the regional validation of a semidistributed hydrological catchment model Wegehenkel M., Jochheim H. and Kersebaum K.C. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (575-587) Simulation runs of a semidistributed hydrological conceptual catchment model were performed using a spatial data set from a mesoscale catchment located at the moraine landscape of NorthEast Germany. The simulation quality of the model was estimated by comparing measured daily actual evapotranspiration rates, soil water contents and discharge rates with the corresponding simulated model outputs. Additionally, six LandsatTM5-subsets covering the catchment were used to calculate the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). These NDVIdistributions were compared with the corresponding simulated regional distributions of actual evapotranspiration (ETr) rates. A visual analysis of the spatial distribution patterns of the NDVI and of the simulated ETr-rates shows some correspondences. However, the spatial variability of the NDVI-patterns was distinctly higher in comparison with the variability of the ETr-rates calculated by the model. We analyzed the coefficients of correlation R between the patterns of the NDVI and the simulated ETr-rates separately for the land cover classes arable land, meadows, coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests. For arable land R ranged within 0.77 and 0.10, for meadows within 0.79 and 0.10, for coniferous forests between 0.73 and 0.10, for deciduous forests between 0.88 and 0.10 as well as for mixed forests between 0.67 and 0.10. The spatial distributions of simulated high and low ETr-rates were mainly correlated with the spatial distributions of forest areas, arable land, water bodies and settlements. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1953 Runoff modelling using radar data and flow measurements in a stochastic state space approach Kr¨amer S., Grum M., Verworn H.- R. and Redder A. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (1-8) In urban drainage the estimation of runoff with the help of models is a complex task. This is in part due to the fact that rainfall, the most important input to urban drainage modelling, is highly uncertain. Added to the uncertainty of rainfall is the complexity of performing accurate flow measurements. In terms of deterministic modelling techniques these are needed for calibration and evaluation of the applied model. Therefore, the uncertainties of rainfall and flow measurements have a severe impact on the model parameters and results. To overcome these problems a new methodology has been developed which is based on simple rain plane and runoff models that are incorporated into a stochastic state space model approach. The state estimation is done by using the extended Kalman filter in combination with a maximum likelihood criterion and an off-line optimization routine. This paper presents the results of this new methodology with respect to the combined consideration of uncertainties in distributed rainfall derived from radar data and uncertainties in measured flows in an urban catchment within the Emscher river basin, Germany. © IWA Publishing 2005. 1954 Surface models for coupled modelling of runoff and sewer flow in urban areas Ettrich N., Steiner K., Thomas M. and Rothe R. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (25-33) Traditional methods fail for the purpose of simulating the complete flow process in urban areas as a consequence of heavy rainfall and as required by the European Standard EN-752 since the bi-directional coupling between sewer and surface is not properly handled. The new methodology, developed in the EUREKAproject RisUrSim, solves this problem by carrying out the runoff on the basis of shallow water equations solved on high-resolution surface grids. Exchange nodes between the sewer and the surface, like inlets and manholes, are located in the computational grid and water leaving the sewer in case of surcharge is further distributed on the surface. Dense topographical information is needed to build a model suitable for hydrodynamic runoff calculations; in urban areas, in addition, many line-shaped elements like houses, curbs, etc. guide the runoff of water and require polygonal input. Airborne data collection methods offer a great chance to economically gather densely sampled input data. © IWA Publishing 2005. 374 HYDROLOGY 1955 Development and implementation of a real time control strategy for the sewer system of the city of Vienna Fuchs L. and Beeneken T. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (187-194) The paper describes the realization of a real-time control for the Vienna sewer system. The project is scheduled for completion for 2004. The 3.5 year project comprises all planning stages starting with the recording of data up to the planning of measuring and controlling units. The concrete steps of the planning stages are explained. A measuring system including 25 rainfall measurements, 40 flow measurements and 20 water level measurements is implemented as an online system. This measuring system is designed to achieve two objectives, on the one hand the real-time control and on the other hand the callibration of the model that is used for the hydrodynamic sewer system simulation. The approx. 53,000 pipes have served to generate a coarse network of no more than approx. 2,600 pipes. The area data were derived with high accuracy from available aerial photograph interpretations. With simulation runs of a rule-based control software the system operation was examined. A self-learning system will improve the rule basis. A forecasting model that uses weather observation radar will additionally influence the controlling decisions. The findings from the investigations are immediately considered in the planning of measuring and control units. The simulated results for the first phase of implementation, which demonstrate the benefit of RTC for the Vienna sewer system, are explained. © IWA Publishing 2005. 1956 Flooding in the future - Predicting climate change, risks and responses in urban areas Ashley R.M., Balmfort D.J., Saul A.J. and Blanskby J.D. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (265-273) Engineering infrastructure is provided at high cost and is expected to have a useful operational life of decades. However, it is clear that the future is uncertain. Traditional approaches to designing and operating urban storm drainage assets have relied on past performance of natural systems and the ability to extrapolate this performance, together with that of the assets across the usable lifetime. Whether or not climate change is going to significantly after future weather patterns in Europe, it is clear that it is now incumbent on designers and operators of storm drainage systems to prepare for greater uncertainty in the effectiveness of storm drainage systems. A recent UK Government study considered the potential effects of climate and socio-economic change in the UK in terms of four future scenarios and what the implications are for the performance of existing storm drainage facilities. In this paper the modelling that was undertaken to try to quantify the changes in risk, together with the effectiveness of responses in managing that risk, are described. It shows that flood risks may increase by a factor of almost 30 times and that traditional engineering measures alone are unlikely to be able to provide protection. © IWA Publishing 2005. 1957 SIPSON - Simulation of interaction between pipe flow and surface overland flow in networks ˇ et al. Water SciDjordjevi´c S., Prodanovi´c D., Maksimovi´c C. ence and Technology 2005 52/5 (275-283) The new simulation model, named SIPSON, based on the Preissmann finite difference method and the conjugate gradient method, is presented in the paper. This model simulates conditions when the hydraulic capacity of a sewer systems exceeded, pipe flow is pressurized, the water flows out from the piped system to the streets, and the inlets cannot capture all the runoff. In the mathematical model, buried structures and pipelines, together with surface channels, make a horizontally and vertically looped network involving a complex interaction of flows. In this paper, special internal boundary conditions related to equivalent inlets are discussed. Procedures are described for the simulation of manhole cover loss, basement flooding, the representation of street geometry, and the distribution of runoff hydrographs between surface and underground networks. All these procedures are built into the simulation model. Relevant issues are illustrated on a set of examples, focusing on specific parameters and comparison with field measurements of flooding of the Motilal ki Chal catchment (Indore, India). Satisfactory agreement of observed and simulated hydrographs and maximum surface flooding levels is obtained. It is concluded that the presented approach is an improvement compared to the standard "virtual reservoir" approach commonly applied in most of the models. © IWA Publishing 2005. 1958 Remarks about definition and classification of floods (Polish) (W sprawie definicji powodzi) Byczkowski A. Przeglad Geofizyczny 2005 50/1-2 (73-76) As generally assumed a flood occurs when the river overtops and inundates the floodplain. The paper suggests extension of the definition and classification of floods. The flood should be defined as the phenomenon of inundation of the certain territory with the waters of various genesis affecting: threat of human life as well as the economical and moral losses. In proposed classification the floods are differentiated on: the river ones, local accumulation of the rain or snowmelt water and coastal floods. 1959 The Orinoco River basin: Hydrographic view and its hydrological balance (Spanish) (La cuenca del ro Orinoco: Visi´on hidrogr´afica y balance hdrico) Silva Le´on G. Revista Geografica Venezolana 2005 46/1 (75-108) The international Orinoco River basin is described, referring to location, limits, dimensions, extension, regions, cities, fluvial integration, climate, runoff regime and main tributaries. Then, the hydrological balance of the basin is approached, simplifying the general equation to the case of the annual average, in which the contribution by rainfall is equal to the exit by runoff and evapotranspiration. First, a balance adjusted to the historical average of 14.850 m3/s that has the Orinoco River in Puerto Ayacucho is accomplished, to whose basin of 342.000 Km2 an average of 2.660 mm/year of rainfall and 1.260 mm/year of evapotranspiration is calculated, resulting in good hydrological yield indicatives: productivity of 43 l/s/Km2 and runoff coefficient of 51%. This balance is extrapolated to other points of the Orinoco River, up streams and down streams, including its affluents. Finally, preliminary balances are obtained from hydrographic regions and from countries. 1960 Flow regime alterations under changing climate in two river basins: Implications for freshwater ecosystems Gibson C.A., Meyer J.L., Poff N.L. et al. River Research and Applications 2005 21/8 (849-864) We examined impacts of future climate scenarios on flow regimes and how predicted changes might affect river ecosystems. We examined two case studies: Cle Elum River, Washington, and Chattahoochee-Apalachicola River Basin, Georgia and Florida. These rivers had available downscaled global circulation model (GCM) data and allowed us to analyse the effects of future climate scenarios on rivers with (1) different hydrographs, (2) high future water demands, and (3) a river-floodplain system. We compared observed flow regimes to those predicted under future climate scenarios to describe the extent and type of changes predicted to occur. Daily stream flow under future climate scenarios was created by either statistically downscaling GCMs (Cle Elum) or creating a regression model between climatological parameters predicted from GCMs and stream flow (ChattahoocheeApalachicola). Flow regimes were examined for changes from current conditions with respect to ecologically relevant features including the magnitude and timing of minimum and maximum flows. The Cle Elum’s hydrograph under future climate scenarios showed a dramatic shift in the timing of peak flows and lower low flow of a longer duration. These changes could mean higher summer water temperatures, lower summer dissolved oxygen, and reduced survival of larval fishes. The Chattahoochee-Apalachicola basin is heavily impacted by dams and water withdrawals for human consumption; therefore, we made comparisons between pre-large dam conditions, current conditions, current conditions with future demand, and future climate scenarios with future demand to separate climate change effects and other anthropogenic impacts. Dam construction, future climate, and future demand decreased the flow variability of the river. In addition, minimum flows were lower under future climate scenarios. These changes could decrease the connectivity of the channel and the floodplain, decrease habitat availability, and potentially lower the ability of the river to assimilate wastewater treatment plant effluent. Our study illustrates the types of changes that river ecosystems might HYDROLOGY experience under future climates. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1961 Effects of stream flow intermittency on riparian vegetation of a semiarid region river (San Pedro River, Arizona) Stromberg J.C., Bagstad K.J., Leenhouts J.M. et al. River Research and Applications 2005 21/8 (925-938) The San Pedro River in the southwestern United States retains a natural flood regime and has several reaches with perennial stream flow and shallow ground water. However, much of the river flows intermittently. Urbanization-linked declines in regional ground-water levels have raised concerns over the future status of the riverine ecosystem in some parts of the river, while restoration-linked decreases in agricultural ground-water pumping are expected to increase stream flows in other parts. This study describes the response of the streamside herbaceous vegetation to changes in stream flow permanence. During the early summer dry season, streamside herbaceous cover and species richness declined continuously across spatial gradients of flow permanence, and composition shifted from hydric to mesic species at sites with more intermittent flow. Hydrologic threshold values were evident for one plant functional group: Schoenoplectus acutus, Juncus torreyi, and other hydric riparian plants declined sharply in cover with loss of perennial stream flow. In contrast, cover of mesic riparian perennials (including Cynodon dactylon, an introduced species) increased at sites with intermittent flow. Patterns of hydric and mesic riparian annuals varied by season: in the early summer dry season their cover declined continuously as flow became more intermittent, while in the late summer wet season their cover increased as the flow became more intermittent. Periodic drought at the intermittent sites may increase opportunities for establishment of these annuals during the monsoonal flood season. During the late summer flood season, stream flow was present at most sites, and fewer vegetation traits were correlated with flow permanence; cover and richness were correlated with other environmental factors including site elevation and substrate nitrate level and particle size. Although perennial-flow and intermittent-flow sites support different streamside plant communities, all of the plant functional groups are abundant at perennial-flow sites when viewing the ecosystem at broader spatial and temporal scales: mesic riparian perennials are common in the floodplain zone adjacent to the river channel and late-summer hydric and mesic annuals are periodically abundant after large floods. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1962 Integration of weather radar data into a raster GIS framework for improved flood estimation Yu B., Seed A., Pu L. and Malone T. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (66-70) Weather radar data were used to estimate rainfall fields at 2-km resolution for a large flood event in 1999 in south-east Queensland, Australia, and subsequently integrated with a raster-based hydrologic model (RAMS) for runoff generation and flow routing. Gauge-based and radar-based temporal storm patterns are quite similar for the storm event. Agreement between gaugebased and radar-based event rainfall totals is not as good as that for spatially averaged intensities. Correlation between gaugebased and radar-based rainfall measurements is not sensitive to the exponent value in the Z-R relationship for the event tested. The hydrologic model with 4 parameters for the entire 13 600km2 catchment works very well when calibrated against the measured hydrograph. An overall model efficiency of 0.61 is achieved with respect to predicted peak discharge for 17 validation sites in the catchment. RAMS compares favourably with URBS, a rainfall-runoff model using gauge-based measurements currently in use for flood forecasting purposes. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 1963 Retrospective comparison of Watershed Analysis Risk Management Framework and Hydrologic Simulation Program Fortran applications to Mica Creek Watershed Chen C.W., Herr J.W., Goldstein R.A. et al. Journal of Environmental Engineering 2005 131/9 (1277-1284) As part of an ongoing watershed model comparison program for forested watersheds, Watershed Analysis Risk Management Framework (WARMF V5.18) and Hydrologic Simulation Pro- 375 gram Fortran (HSPF V10) were independently applied to the Mica Creek Watershed in Idaho. A comprehensive model comparison was made in terms of watershed delineation, hydrologic formulations, model parameterization, meteorological data, hydrologic calibration, and hydrologic verification. Comparison was not made for water quality, which was not simulated in the HSPF application. It was concluded that WARMF is a mechanistic model structured to simulate the hydrologic processes, whereas HSPF is an empirical water budget model. The WARMF is suitable for application to forested watersheds. It successfully predicted stream flows comparable to measured values. The HSPF results were also good, if one ignores an unrealistic amount of water loss to inactive groundwater and an empirical treatment of rain-on-snow events. Journal of Environmental Engineering © ASCE. 1964 Runoff and soil moisture relationships in a small forested basin in the Sistema Central Ranges (Spain) Martnez- Fern´andez J., Ceballos A., Casado S. et al. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (31-36) In the present work we analyse runoff yield in a small Mediterranean basin with respect to soil moisture dynamics. The aim was to observe the behaviour of the basin in terms of the generation of runoff in periods in which maximum water deficit occurs in the soil. Despite the abundant precipitation in the mountainous regions of the Mediterranean area, the joint action of the climatic conditions prevailing in the growing season and water interception and consumption by the forest may seriously affect the generation of runoff over a considerable part of the year. 1965 The effects over time of an arterial drainage scheme on the flood magnitude-return period relations Bhattarai K.P. and O’Connor H.M. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (67-74) Arterial Drainage Schemes (ADSs) were implemented on Irish rivers for the purposes of improving the land drainage and reducing the frequency and extent of overland flooding. Such ADSs mainly involved the deepening and widening of the river channels in order to increase their discharge-carrying capacity, thereby, affecting not only the basins’ response to rainfall but also their peak discharge (QT )-return period (T) relation. Earlier Irish studies involving the effects of ADS on a catchment’s QT -T relation found that the post-drainage QT of an ADS-catchment was always larger, for the same T, in comparison to its pre-drainage counterpart. The current study focuses on investigating whether such effects have persisted in the ADS-catchments, or died out with the passage of time. Results of analysis on 16 ADS and 6non-ADS catchments show that the ADS (post-1945)-catchments have experienced major changes in the QT -T relation over time, whereas such changes are less pronounced in other catchments. 1966 The change in flood regime along the Lower Jordan River: Its influence on flood plain land use Klein M. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (205-216) Cooperation among riparian parties along the Lower Jordan River (LJR) may promote development of the region’s natural resources. Cooperation requires understanding of the river’s present flow regime, water quality and current land use in the flood plain. The average annual flow in the LJR has decreased from 1166 Mm3 year-1 (1926-1945) to 167 Mm3 year-1 (19782000), of which about 70% (120 Mm3 ), are of good water quality. Due to the extremely dry years, the allocation of water to the state of Jordan of 50 Mm3 year-1 after the 1994 Peace Agreement and the barrage built on the Yarmouk (YR) at Adasia, the average yearly flow of the last decade was less than 120 Mm3 . At present the river’s cross section area is in a re-adjustment phase and is becoming much smaller. The LJR flood plain is not inhabited and the population lives outside the area, yet the flood plain is used for agricultural purposes. 1967 Hybrid model for derivation of synthetic unit hydrograph Bhunya P.K., Ghosh N.C., Mishra S.K. et al. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2005 10/6 (458-467) 376 HYDROLOGY Splitting the Nash single linear reservoir into two serially connected reservoirs of unequal storage coefficients (one hybrid unit) for a physically realistic response, a hybrid model is introduced for derivation of a synthetic unit hydrograph. Empirical relations are given for estimation of the two storage coefficients from known peak flow (qp ) and time to peak (tp ). The hybrid model with two serially connected units is found to work significantly better than the most widely used methods such as those of Snyder, the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), and the two-parameter gamma distribution when tested on synthetically generated data and the data from four catchments from India and one from Turkey. The workability of the proposed approach was also tested for partial and no data availability situations. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering © ASCE. 1968 Analyses of flow mechanism based on master recession curves Mizumura K. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2005 10/6 (468476) A theoretical analysis derives that master recession curves on log paper indicate the physical occurrence of stream flows. The master recession curves in this study are generated by one-dimensional overland flow without and with lateral flow and groundwater flow. One-dimensional overland flow is also classified by assumption of the energy slope and kinematic or diffusion wave models. These theoretical results are coincident with the slopes of the observed master recession curves of the hydrographs. The slopes of the master recession curve of water depth and the discharge hydrographs on the log paper designate the predominancy of river discharge. These results predict the governing causes of river discharge occurrence during the master recession period. When the lateral flow is predominant, the master recession curve is not definitely determined. The observation data indicate that the slopes of the master recession curves are found to be independent of the initial conditions of channel flows, spatially varied rainfalls, moving rainstorms, etc. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering © ASCE. 1969 Comparison of several flood forecasting models in Yangtze River Chau K.W., Wu C.L. and Li Y.S. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2005 10/6 (485-491) In a flood-prone region, quick and accurate flood forecasting is imperative. It can extend the lead time for issuing disaster warnings and allow sufficient time for habitants in hazardous areas to take appropriate action, such as evacuation. In this paper, two hybrid models based on recent artificial intelligence technology, namely, the genetic algorithm-based artificial neural network (ANN-GA) and the adaptive-network-based fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), are employed for flood forecasting in a channel reach of the Yangtze River in China. An empirical linear regression model is used as the benchmark for comparison of their performances. Water levels at a downstream station, HanKou, are forecasted by using known water levels at the upstream station, Luo-Shan. When cautious treatment is made to avoid overfitting, both hybrid algorithms produce better accuracy in performance than the linear regression model. The ANFIS model is found to be optimal, but it entails a large number of parameters. The performance of the ANN-GA model is also good, yet it requires longer computation time and additional modeling parameters. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering © ASCE. 1970 Optimal location of infiltration-based best management practices for storm water management Perez- Pedini C., Limbrunner J.F. and Vogel R.M. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 2005 131/6 (441448) A distributed hydrologic model of an urban watershed in the northeast United States was developed and combined with a genetic algorithm to determine the optimal location of infiltration-based best management practices (BMPs) for storm water management. The distributed, event-based hydrologic model integrates the curve number method with a distributed hydrologic network model of the catchment using a system of 4,533 hydrologic response units (HRUs). The infiltration-based BMP was conceptualized as an element that alters the infiltration/runoff partitioning of the HRUs in which it was applied. The results indicate that the optimal location and number of BMPs is a complex function of watershed network connectivity, flow travel time, land use, distance to channel, and contributing area, requiring an optimization approach of the type introduced here. A Pareto frontier describing the trade-off between the number of BMPs, representing project cost, and watershed flooding was developed. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management © ASCE. 1971 Probabilistic nonlinear prediction of river flows Tamea S., Laio F. and Ridolfi L. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-9) [1] In the recent past the nonlinear prediction (NLP) method, initially developed in the context of nonlinear time series analysis, has been successfully applied to river flow deterministic forecasting. In this work a probabilistic approach to the NLP method is proposed, which allows one to estimate the probability distribution of the predicted discharge values and to quantify the total uncertainty related to the forecast. An ensemble technique is also proposed in order to optimize the choice of the parameter values and to provide robustness to the model calibration. The probabilistic NLP method is applied to a river flow time series, giving results that confirm the effectiveness and reliability of the proposed approach. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1972 A Markov switching model for annual hydrologic time series Akintuˇg B. and Rasmussen P.F. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-10) [1] This paper investigates the properties of Markov switching (MS) models (also known as hidden Markov models) for generating annual time series. This type of model has been used in a number of recent studies in the water resources literature. The model considered here assumes that climate is switching between M states and that the state sequence can be described by a Markov chain. Observations are assumed to be drawn from a normal distribution whose parameters depend on the state variable. We present the stochastic properties of this class of models along with procedures for model identification and parameter estimation. Although, at a first glance, MS models appear to be quite different from ARMA models, we show that it is possible to find an ARMA model that has the same autocorrelation function and the same marginal distribution as any given MS model. Hence, despite the difference in model structure, there are strong similarities between MS and ARMA models. MS and ARMA models are applied to the time series of mean annual discharge of the Niagara River. Although it is difficult to draw any general conclusion from a single case study, it appears that MS models (and ARMA models derived from MS models) generally have stronger autocorrelation at higher lags than ARMA models estimated by conventional maximum likelihood. This may be an important property if the purpose of the study is the analysis of multiyear droughts. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1973 Simulation of flood flow in a river system using artificial neural networks Shrestha R.R., Theobald S. and Nestmann F. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (313-321) Artificial neural networks (ANNs) provide a quick and flexible means of developing flood flow simulation models. An important criterion for the wider applicability of the ANNs is the ability to generalise the events outside the range of training data sets. With respect to flood flow simulation, the ability to extrapolate beyond the range of calibrated data sets is of crucial importance. This study explores methods for improving generalisation of the ANNs using three different flood events data sets from the Neckar River in Germany. An ANN-based model is formulated to simulate flows at certain locations in the river reach, based on the flows at upstream locations. Network training data sets consist of time series of flows from observation stations. Simulated flows from a one-dimensional hydrodynamic numerical model are integrated for network training and validation, at a river section where no measurements are available. Network structures with different activation functions are considered for improving generalisation. The training algorithm involved back- HYDROLOGY propagation with the Levenberg-Marquardt approximation. The ability of the trained networks to extrapolate is assessed using flow data beyond the range of the training data sets. The results of this study indicate that the ANN in a suitable configuration can extend forecasting capability to a certain extent beyond the range of calibrated data sets. © EGU. 1974 Precipitation forecasts and their uncertainty as input into hydrological models Kobold M. and Suˇselj K. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (322-332) Torrential streams and fast runoff are characteristic of most Slovenian rivers and extensive damage is caused almost every year by rainstorms affecting different regions of Slovenia. Rainfallrunoff models which are tools for runoff calculation can be used for flood forecasting. In Slovenia, the lag time between rainfall and runoff is only a few hours and on-line data are used only for now-casting. Predicted precipitation is necessary in flood forecasting some days ahead. The ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts) model gives general forecasts several days ahead while more detailed precipitation data with the ALADIN/SI model are available for two days ahead. Combining the weather forecasts with the information on catchment conditions and a hydrological forecasting model can give advance warning of potential flooding notwithstanding a certain degree of uncertainty in using precipitation forecasts based on meteorological models. Analysis of the sensitivity of the hydrological model to the rainfall error has shown that the deviation in runoff is much larger than the rainfall deviation. Therefore, verification of predicted precipitation for large precipitation events was performed with the ECMWF model. Measured precipitation data were interpolated on a regular grid and compared with the results from the ECMWF model. The deviation in predicted precipitation from interpolated measurements is shown with the model bias resulting from the inability of the model to predict the precipitation correctly and a bias for horizontal resolution of the model and natural variability of precipitation. © EGU. 1975 Coupling meteorological and hydrological models for flood forecasting Bartholmes J. and Todini E. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (333-346) This paper deals with the problem of analysing the coupling of meteorological meso-scale quantitative precipitation forecasts with distributed rainfall-runoff models to extend the forecasting horizon. Traditionally, semi-distributed rainfall-runoff models have been used for real time flood forecasting. More recently, increased computer capabilities allow the utilisation of distributed hydrological models with mesh sizes from tenths of metres to a few kilometres. On the other hand, meteorological models, providing the quantitative precipitation forecast, tend to produce average values on meshes ranging from slightly less than 10 to 200 kilometres. Therefore, to improve the quality of flood forecasts, the effects of coupling the meteorological and the hydrological models at different scales were analysed. A distributed hydrological model (TOPKAPI) was developed and calibrated using a 1  1 km mesh for the case of the river Po closed at Ponte Spessa (catchment area c. 37 000 km2 ). The model was then coupled with several other European meteorological models ranging from the Limited Area Models (provided by DMI and DWD) with resolutions from 0.0625°0.0625°, to the ECMWF ensemble predictions with a resolution of 1.85°1.85°. Interesting results, describing the coupled model behaviour, are available for a meteorological extreme event in Northern Italy (Nov. 1994). The results demonstrate the poor reliability of the quantitative precipitation forecasts produced by meteorological models presently available; this is not resolved using the Ensemble Forecasting technique, when compared with results obtainable with measured rainfall. © EGU. 1976 Flood forecasting using a fully distributed model: Application of the TOPKAPI model to the Upper Xixian Catchment Liu Z., Martina M.L.V. and Todini E. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (347-364) TOPKAPI is a physically-based, fully distributed hydrological model with a simple and parsimonious parameterisation. The 377 original TOPKAPI is structured around five modules that represent evapotranspiration, snowmelt, soil water, surface water and channel water, respectively. Percolation to deep soil layers was ignored in the old version of the TOPKAPI model since it was not important in the basins to which the model was originally applied. Based on published literature, this study developed a new version of the TOPKAPI model, in which the new modules of interception, infiltration, percolation, groundwater flow and lake/ reservoir routing are included. This paper presents an application study that makes a first attempt to derive information from public domains through the internet on the topography, soil and land use types for a case study Chinese catchment - the Upper Xixian catchment in Huaihe River with an area of about 10 000 km2 , and apply a new version of TOPKAPI to the catchment for flood simulation. A model parameter value adjustment was performed using six months of the 1998 dataset. Calibration did not use a curve fitting process, but was chiefly based upon moderate variations of parameter values from those estimated on physical grounds, as is common in traditional calibration. The hydrometeorological dataset of 2002 was then used to validate the model, both against the outlet discharge as well as at an internal gauging station. Finally, to complete the model performance analysis, parameter uncertainty and its effects on predictive uncertainty were also assessed by estimating a posterior parameter probability density via Bayesian inference. © EGU. 1977 Flood forecasting using medium-range probabilistic weather prediction Gouweleeuw B.T., Thielen J., Franchello G. et al. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (365-380) Following the developments in short- and medium-range weather forecasting over the last decade, operational flood forecasting also appears to show a shift from a so-called single solution or ‘best guess’ deterministic approach towards a probabilistic approach based on ensemble techniques. While this probabilistic approach is now more or less common practice and well established in the meteorological community, operational flood forecasters have only started to look for ways to interpret and mitigate for end-users the prediction products obtained by combining socalled Ensemble Prediction Systems (EPS) of Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models with rainfall-runoff models. This paper presents initial results obtained by combining deterministic and EPS hindcasts of the global NWP model of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) with the large-scale hydrological model LISFLOOD for two historic flood events: the river Meuse flood in January 1995 and the river Odra flood in July 1997. In addition, a possible way to interpret the obtained ensemble based stream flow prediction is proposed. © EGU. 1978 Cascading model uncertainty from medium range weather forecasts (10 days) through a rainfall-runoff model to flood inundation predictions within the European Flood Forecasting System (EFFS) Pappenberger F., Beven K.J., Hunter N.M. et al. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (381-393) The political pressure on the scientific community to provide medium to long term flood forecasts has increased in the light of recent flooding events in Europe. Such demands can be met by a system consisting of three different model components (weather forecast, rainfall-runoff forecast and flood inundation forecast) which are all liable to considerable uncertainty in the input, output and model parameters. Thus, an understanding of cascaded uncertainties is a necessary requirement to provide robust predictions. In this paper, 10-day ahead rainfall forecasts, consisting of one deterministic, one control and 50 ensemble forecasts, are fed into a rainfall-runoff model (LisFlood) for which parameter uncertainty is represented by six different parameter sets identified through a Generalised Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation (GLUE) analysis and functional hydrograph classification. The runoff of these 52  6 realisations form the input to a flood inundation model (LisFlood-FP) which acknowledges uncertainty by utilising ten different sets of roughness coefficients identified using the same GLUE methodology. Likelihood measures for each parameter set computed on historical data are used to give uncertain predictions of flow hydrographs as well as spatial 378 HYDROLOGY inundation extent. This analysis demonstrates that a full uncertainty analysis of such an integrated system is limited mainly by computer power as well as by how well the rainfall predictions represent potential future conditions. However, these restrictions may be overcome or lessened in the future and this paper establishes a computationally feasible methodological approach to the uncertainty cascade problem. © EGU. 1979 Assessing the performance of eight real-time updating models and procedures for the Brosna River Goswami M., O’Connor K.M., Bhattarai K.P. and Shamseldin A.Y. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (394-411) The flow forecasting performance of eight updating models, incorporated in the Galway River Flow Modelling and Forecasting System (GFMFS), was assessed using daily data (rainfall, evaporation and discharge) of the Irish Brosna catchment (1207 km2 ), considering their one to six days lead-time discharge forecasts. The Perfect Forecast of Input over the Forecast Lead-time scenario was adopted, where required, in place of actual rainfall forecasts. The eight updating models were: (i) the standard linear Auto-Regressive (AR) model, applied to the forecast errors (residuals) of a simulation (non-updating) rainfall-runoff model; (ii) the Neural Network Updating (NNU) model, also using such residuals as input; (iii) the Linear Transfer Function (LTF) model, applied to the simulated and the recently observed discharges; (iv) the Non-linear Auto-Regressive eXogenous-Input Model (NARXM), also a neural network-type structure, but having wide options of using recently observed values of one or more of the three data series, together with non-updated simulated outflows, as inputs; (v) the Parametric Simple Linear Model (PSLM), of LTF-type, using recent rainfall and observed discharge data; (vi) the Parametric Linear perturbation Model (PLPM), also of LTF-type, using recent rainfall and observed discharge data, (vii) n-AR, an AR model applied to the observed discharge series only, as a naive updating model; and (viii) nNARXM, a na¨ıve form of the NARXM, using only the observed discharge data, excluding exogenous inputs. The five GFMFS simulation (non-updating) models used were the non-parametric and parametric forms of the Simple Linear Model and of the Linear Perturbation Model, the Linearly-Varying Gain Factor Model, the Artificial Neural Network Model, and the conceptual Soil Moisture Accounting and Routing (SMAR) model. As the SMAR model performance was found to be the best among these models, in terms of the Nash-Sutcliffe R2 value, both in calibration and in verification, the simulated outflows of this model only were selected for the subsequent exercise of producing updated discharge forecasts. All the eight forms of updating models for producing lead-time discharge forecasts were found to be capable of producing relatively good lead-1 (1-day ahead) forecasts, with R2 values almost 90% or above. However, for higher lead time forecasts, only three updating models, viz., NARXM, LTF, and NNU, were found to be suitable, with lead-6 values of R2 about 90% or higher. Graphical comparisons were made of the leadtime forecasts for the two largest floods, one in the calibration period and the other in the verification period. © EGU. 1980 Utility of different data types for calibrating flood inundation models within a GLUE framework Hunter N.M., Bates P.D., Horritt M.S. et al. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (412-430) To translate a point hydrograph forecast into products for use by environmental agencies and civil protection authorities, a hydraulic model is necessary. Typical one- and two-dimensional hydraulic models are able to predict dynamically varying inundation extent, water depth and velocity for river and floodplain reaches up to 100 km in length. However, because of uncertainties over appropriate surface friction parameters, calibration of hydraulic models against observed data is a necessity. The value of different types of data is explored in constraining the predictions of a simple two-dimensional hydraulic model, LISFLOOD-FP. For the January 1995 flooding on the River Meuse, The Netherlands, a flow observation data set has been assembled for the 35-km reach between Borgharen and Maaseik, consisting of Synthetic Aperture Radar and air photo images of inundation extent, downstream stage and discharge hydrographs, two stage hydrographs internal to the model domain and 84 point observations of maximum free surface elevation. The data set thus contains examples of all the types of data that potentially can be used to calibrate flood inundation models. 500 realisations of the model have been conducted with different friction parameterisations and the performance of each realisation has been evaluated against each observed data set. Implementation of the Generalised Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation (GLUE) methodology is then used to determine the value of each data set in constraining the model predictions as well as the reduction in parameter uncertainty resulting from the updating of generalised likelihoods based on multiple data sources. © EGU. 1981 An empirical method for estimating future flood risks for flood warnings Hlavcova K., Kohnova S., Kubes R. et al. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (431-448) Since medium and long-term precipitation forecasts are still not reliable enough, rough estimates of the degree of the extremity of forthcoming flood events that might occur in the course of dangerous meteorological situations approaching a basin could be useful to decision-makers as additional information for flood warnings. One approach to answering such a problem is to use real-time data on the soil moisture conditions in a catchment in conjunction with estimates of the extremity of the future rainfall and experience with the basin’s behaviour during historical floods. A scenario-based method is proposed for such a future flood risk estimation, based on an a priori evaluation of the extremity of hypothetical floods generated by combinations of synthetic extreme precipitation and previously observed antecedent pre-flood basin saturations. The Hron river basin, located in central Slovakia, was chosen as the pilot basin in the case study. A time series of the basin’s average daily precipitation was derived using spatial interpolation techniques. A lumped HBV-type daily conceptual rainfall-runoff model was adopted for modelling runoff. Analysis of the relationship of the modelled historical pre-flood soil moisture and flood causing-precipitation revealed the independence of both quantities for rainfall durations lasting 1 to 5 days. The basin’s average annual maximum 1 to 5 day precipitation depths were analysed statistically and synthetic extreme precipitation scenarios associated with rainfall depths with return periods of 5, 20, 50 and 100 years, durations of 1 to 5 days and temporal distribution of extreme rainfall observed in the past were set up for runoff simulation. Using event-based flood simulations, synthetic flood waves were generated for random combinations of the rainfall scenarios and historical pre-flood soil moisture conditions. The effect of any antecedent basin saturation on the extremity of floods was quantified empirically and critical values of the basin saturation leading to floods with a higher return period than the return period of precipitation were identified. A method for implementing such critical values into flood risk warnings in a hydrological forecasting and warning system in the basin was suggested. © EGU. 1982 Operational hydro-meteorological warning and realtime flood forecasting: The Piemonte Region case study Rabuffetti D. and Barbero S. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (457-466) The development and implementation of a real-time flood forecasting system in the context of the Piemonte Region’s hydrometeorological operational alert procedure is described. The area of interest is the Upper Po River basin (north-west Italy) of approximately 37 000 km2 and its river network of about 3000 km and three big lakes. FloodWatch, a GIS-based decision support system for real-time flood forecasting, has been developed and used operationally at the Piemonte Region’s Room for the Situation of Natural Hazards in Torino, Italy, since January 2000. The system is linked directly to the telemetric gauges system, uses daily quantitative precipitation and temperature forecasts issued by the Regional Meteorological Service and automatically supplies operational forecasts of water-level and discharge at about 30 locations for up to 48 hours. Strengths and limits of the system and its link with operational flood alert and management are discussed. The case study presented is the October 2000 flood event, when the north-west of Italy experienced one of the largest floods on record. Results highlight how the uncertainty linked to the use of meteorological forecasts greatly influences the quality of the hydrological forecasts. The proposed alert HYDROLOGY procedure, based on coded risk levels, can help effectively in facing forecast uncertainties. © EGU. 1983 A comparison of regionalisation methods for catchment model parameters Parajka J., Merz R. and Bl¨oschl G. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/3 (157-171) In this study we examine the relative performance of a range of methods for transposing catchment model parameters to ungauged catchments. We calibrate 11 parameters of a semi-distributed conceptual rainfall-runoff model to daily runoff and snow cover data of 320 Austrian catchments in the period 1987-1997 and verify the model for the period 1976-1986. We evaluate the predictive accuracy of the regionalisation methods by jack-knife cross-validation against daily runoff and snow cover data. The results indicate that two methods perform best. The first is a kriging approach where the model parameters are regionalised independently from each other based on their spatial correlation. The second is a similarity approach where the complete set of model parameters is transposed from a donor catchment that is most similar in terms of its physiographic attributes (mean catchment elevation, stream network density, lake index, areal proportion of porous aquifers, land use, soils and geology). For the calibration period, the median Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency ME of daily runoff is 0.67 for both methods as compared to ME=0.72 for the at-site simulations. For the verification period, the corresponding efficiencies are 0.62 and 0.66. All regionalisation methods perform similar in terms of simulating snow cover. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1984 Soil moisture-runoff relation at the catchment scale as observed with coarse resolution microwave remote sensing Scipal K., Scheffler C. and Wagner W. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/3 (173-183) Microwave remote sensing offers emerging capabilities to monitor global hydrological processes. Instruments like the two dedicated soil moisture missions SMOS and HYDROS or the Advanced Scatterometer onboard METOP will provide a flow of coarse resolution microwave data, suited for macro-scale applications. Only recently, the scatterometer onboard of the European Remote Sensing Satellite, which is the precursor instrument of the Advanced Scatterometer, has been used successfully to derive soil moisture information at global scale with a spatial resolution of 50 km. Concepts of how to integrate macroscale soil moisture data in hydrologic models are however still vague. In fact, the coarse resolution of the data provided by microwave radiometers and scatterometers is often considered to impede hydrological applications. Nevertheless, even if most hydrologic models are run at much finer scales, radiometers and scatterometers allow monitoring of atmosphere-induced changes in regional soil moisture patterns. This may prove to be valuable information for modelling hydrological processes in large river basins (>10 000 km2 ). In this paper, ERS scatterometer derived soil moisture products are compared to measured runoff of the Zambezi River in south-eastern Africa for several years (1992-2000). This comparison serves as one of the first demonstrations that there is hydrologic relevant information in coarse resolution satellite data. The observed high correlations between basin-averaged soil moisture and runoff time series (R2 >0.85) demonstrate that the seasonal change from low runoff during the dry season to high runoff during the wet season is well captured by the ERS scatterometer. It can be expected that the high correlations are to a certain degree predetermined by the pronounced inter-annual cycle observed in the discharge behaviour of the Zambezi. To quantify this effect, time series of anomalies have been compared. This analysis showed that differences in runoff from year to year could, to some extent, be explained by soil moisture anomalies. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1985 Using a spatio-temporal dynamic state-space model with the EM algorithm to patch gaps in daily riverflow series Amisigo B.A. and van de Giesen N.C. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/3 (209-224) A spatio-temporal linear dynamic model has been developed for patching short gaps in daily river runoff series. The model 379 was cast in a state-space form in which the state variable was estimated using the Kalman smoother (RTS smoother). The EM algorithm was used to concurrently estimate both parameter and missing runoff values. Application of the model to daily runoff series in the Volta Basin of West Africa showed that the model was capable of providing good estimates of missing runoff values at a gauging station from the remaining time series at the station and at spatially correlated stations in the same sub-basin. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1986 PAI-OFF: A new strategy of flash-flood forecasting in quickly responding catchments (German) (PAI-OFF: Eine neue Strategie zur Hochwasservorhersage in schnell reagierenden Einzugsgebieten) Schmitz G.H., Cullmann J., G¨orner W. et al. Hydrologie und Wasserbewirtschaftung 2005 49/5 (226-234) PAI-OFF (Process Modelling and Artificial Intelligence for Online Flood Forecasting) combines the reliability of physically based, sophisticated modelling with the operational advantages of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), i.e. low computation times and robustness, which form the basic requirements for flash-flood forecasting. After presenting the theory of the new methodology, the results of a catchment related meteorological analysis for generating storm scenarios serve as the input to a coupled hydrologic/hydraulic model which is set up for a mountainous catchment in East Germany. Operating on this basis, the catchment model for all realistically possible combinations of flood formation builds a data bank consisting of corresponding input/output vectors. We complete the data bank for training the ANN by adding yet more flood relevant data for characterizing the hydrological and meteorological catchment situation prior to a storm event. After training different ANN, a competitive analysis of four different network architectures provides insight in their problem-specific performances. After this preparatory step, the selected ANN is applied for online flash-flood forecasting in the considered catchment, using an "unseen" storm event, i.e. one which did not feature in the training process. The convincing agreement between the predicted and observed flood hydrographs underlines the application potential of the new PAIOFF methodology for online flood forecasting even in smaller catchments. 1987 Long-term behaviour of low-flow parameters at gauges of the Havel and Elbe river basins (German) (Langzeitverhalten von Niedrigwasserkenngr¨oßen von Pegeln des Havelgebietes und der Elbe) Finke W. and Krause S. Hydrologie und Wasserbewirtschaftung 2005 49/5 (248-254) Long time-series of streamflow indicate influences of climate variations, land-use changes, water uses, and water-management activities. In a comparison of streamflow data, the influences are particularly intensive in the low-flow range, and they find their reflection in low-flow parameters rather than in data measured during flood-flow. For selected gauges on the River Elbe and in the Havel river basin, long time-series of low-flow parameters were examined for their long-term behaviour. This paper presents the results of this comparative regional study. 1988 Statistical calculation of rainfall for various return periods using the L-moment method (Spanish) (C´alculo estadstico de lluvias para diversos perodos de retorno por el m´etodo de los momentos-L) Comas F.M. Tecnologia del Agua 2005 25/264 (68-72) Statistical estimates of rainfall traditionally employed Gumbel’s law. However, over the course of time it was realised that the records of many weather stations did not comply with this law. New calculation methods were put forward and regionally based methods eventually established themselves. This paper presents a new regional method for defining maximum rainfall for a given return period, based on so-called L-moments, which is more accurate. This method has also developed processes for assessing the heterogeneity of a given region and goodness of fit, and software has been produced for performing the calculations. It was found that in the case of the river Francol, there was a matching fit with the method of weighted positioning of the centre of gravity of the sample in the L-asymmetry, L-Kurtosis plane. 380 HYDROLOGY 1989 An operational flash-flood forecasting chain applied to the test cases of the EU project HYDROPTIMET Taramasso A.C., Gabellani S. and Parodi A. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 2005 5/5 (703-710) The application of a flash-flood prediction chain, developed by CIMA, to some testcases for the Tanaro river basin in the framework of the EU project HYDROPTIMET is presented here. The components of the CIMA chain are: forecast rainfall depths, a stochastic downscaling procedure and a hydrological model. Different meteorological Limited Area Models (LAMs) provide the rainfall input to the hydrological component. The flashflood prediction chain is run both in a deterministic and in a probabilistic configuration. The sensitivity of forecasting chain performances to different LAMs providing rainfall forecasts is discussed. The results of the application show how the probabilistic forecasting system can give, especially in the case of convective events, a valuable contribution in addressing the uncertainty at different spatio-temporal scales involved in the flash flood forecasting problem in small and medium basins with complex orography. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1990 The 8 and 9 September 2002 flash flood event in Fance: A model intercomparison Anquetin S., Yates E., Ducrocq V. et al. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 2005 5/5 (741-754) Within the framework of the European Interreg IIIb Medocc program, the HYDROPTIMET project aims at the optimization of the hydrometeorological forecasting tools in the context of intense precipitation within complex topography. Therefore, some meteorological forecast models and hydrological models were tested on four Mediterranean flash-flood events. One of them occured in France where the South-eastern ridge of the French "Massif Central", the Gard region, experienced a devastating flood on 8 and 9 September 2002. 24 people were killed during this event and the economic damage was estimated at 1.2 billion euros. To built the next generation of the hydrometeorological forecast ing chain that will be able to capture such localized and fast events and the resulting discharges, the forecasted rain fields might be improved to be relevant for hydrological purposes. In such context, this paper p resents the results of the evaluation methodology proposed by Yates et al. (2005) that highlights the relevant hydrological scales of a simulated rain field. Simulated rain fields of 7 meteorological model runs concerning with the French event are therefore evaluated for different accumulation times. The dynamics of these models are either based on nonhydrostatic or hydrostatic equation systems. Moreover, these models were run under different configurations (resolution, initial conditions). The classical score analysis and the areal evaluation of the simulated rain fields are then performed in order to put forward the main simulation characteristics that improve the quantitative precipitation forecast. The conclusions draw some reco mmendations on the value of the quantitative precipitation forecasts ad way to use it for quantitative discharge forecasts within mountainous areas. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1991 The behaviour of a hydrologic system under a Mediterranean climate using correlation and spectral analysis of the water discharge and runoff. Case of three south Mediterranean basins: (Sebdou, Mouilah and Isser wadis - Tafna - Algeria) (French) (Le comportement d’un syst`eme hydrologique en climat m´editerran´een par l’analyse corr´elatoire et spectrale des d´ebits et des pluies. Cas de trois sous bassins sud-M´editerran´eens: (oued Sebdou, Moulah et Isser - Tafna NW Alg´erie)) Bouanani A., Baba Hamed K., Mania J. and Bensalah M. Revue des Sciences de l’Eau 2005 18/2 (215-224) The aim of this work was to show that correlation and spectral analyses can be used to understand the functioning of hydrological systems. Accordingly, a study was carried out on three southern Mediterranean basins: Sebdou; Mouilah and Isser; located in the north western of Algeria (figure 1). Correlation and spectral analyses of daily rainfall and discharge rates for one hydrological cycle were carried out.   Simple analysis Simple analysis of rainfall showed that the correlogram s (figure 2) decreased rapidly for the three basins, reaching a value of 0.2 within 1- 2 days. This result indicated that rainfall was a quasi-random phenomenon. The variance density spectrum (figure 3) showed that the rainfall distribution was not monotonous and presented a "Leigh" signal structure. The simple analysis of discharge rates indicated that the Sebdou system was different. The correlogram (figure 4a) decreased quicky, characterising independent events without memory and with non-significant amounts of water. However, the Mouilah and Isser correlograms (figure 4 b, c) decreased slowly. They represent important memory effects with regulation of significant amounts of water. The spectral band (figure 5) confirmed that the Sebdou system did not modify the input information. The regulation time was about 5 d for Sebdou, 21 and 43 d respectively for Mouilah and Isser.  Cross analysis The cor relograms (figure 6) show that the Mouilah and Isser rivers have a great buffering ability. The Sebdou River was characterised by a composite response of the surface flow and an important groundwater flow. The amplitude function (figure 7) indicated that the Sebdou system had good inertia. The lag time (figure 8) was 9, 2 and 5 days respectively for the Sebdou, Mouilah and Isser rivers. The amplification and attenuation of the input signal (figure 10) show that the Sebdou basin is the most karstified system. The non-linearity of the relationship between rainfall and discharge was expressed by the coherence coefficient (figure 9), which was lower than 1. 1992 Peak discharge and time to peak scaling in urban runoff modeling (French) (Effet d’´echelle sur la simulation du ruissellement en milieu urbain) Kamal A. and Bennis S. Revue des Sciences de l’Eau 2005 18/2 (225-246) It is possible to simulate the hydraulic functioning of a given network either it is with a detailed "microscopic" model at the street section scale or with a global "macroscopic" model which generates total flow rated at the outlet of a basin. The microscopic model is useful when one is concerned with the hydraulic performance of individual conduit sections and the precise locations of problematic areas within a network. Macroscopic modeling is mainly useful when one is interested exclusively by the exit flow rates of a basin. This may be the case in interceptor management where the flow rate is a parameter of the global optimization procedure, within the framework of real time management of regulators. In this case, detailed modeling of a network is unnecessary. On the other hand, detailed modeling requires that a voluminous data base be built and maintained, implying expenditures exceeding the resources of small municipalities. The present work consists in elabora ting a systematic method which allows one to substitute simplified hydraulic modeling for detailed modeling of a drainage network. The approach is based on the analysis of the drainage parameters in an urban environment. The non-dimensional groupings retained in this analysis comprise the characteristics a of the basin, of the network and of rainfall. In order to provide a greater generality to this approach, the authors applied the analysis to synthetic networks and rainfalls covering a wide range of specific cases. From a practical viewpoint, the objective was to link the peak f low rates and the time to peak of the global model to those of the detailed model of a basin. Two transfer functions have thus been proposed in order to obtain the peak flow rate and the time to peak of the detailed model as functions of the same parameters provided by the global model. The parameters retained for the transfer function are the density of the drainage network and the rate of filling of the network. In order to im plement the proposed method and perform the required hydraulic and hydrological simulations, the authors have used the SWMM program (Storm Water Management Model). 180 simulations have thus been completed, 15 for each type of network and for each type of rainfall. For every combination, one computes the peak flow rate and the time to peak as obtained by the global and detailed models of the basin. The pr oposed multi-criterion analysis revealed that the total discrepancy between simplified and detailed modeling of a drainage network is very important. Within the range of the assumed densities, the difference can be as great as 50%. This discrepancy between global and detailed modeling is explained by the storage capacity of the different types of networks. Indeed, for a same given drained area, a network provides additional storage with increasing length of the network and therefore with increasing drainage density. On the basis of the above finding, a HYDROLOGY global model cannot replace a detailed model without the use of required corrections for the computation of peak flow rates for a given specific case. In order to resolve this difficulty, it is recommended to use the empirical models proposed herein to reduce the discrepancy and thereby obtain the appropriate corrections. The proposed method has been subjected to a validation program on basin No.1 of the Verdun borough. Agreement between the flow rates measured at the entrance of the Rh´eaume pumping station and those simulated by the proposed method is very satisfactory. The transformation models derived from the analysis allow for the transition from a global model to a detailed one and provide a significant improvement in optimized real time management of drainage networks. 1993 Hydroclimatology of the Nile: Results from a regional climate model Mohamed Y.A., van den Hurk B.J.J.M., Savenije H.H.G. and Bastiaanssen W.G.M. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/3 (263-278) This paper presents the result of the regional coupled climatic and hydrologic model of the Nile Basin. For the first time the interaction between the climatic processes and the hydrological processes on the land surface have been fully coupled. The hydrological model is driven by the rainfall and the energy available for evaporation generated in the climate model, and the runoff generated in the catchment is again routed over the wetlands of the Nile to supply moisture for atmospheric feedback. The results obtained are quite satisfactory given the extremely low runoff coefficients in the catchment. The paper presents the validation results over the sub-basins: Blue Nile, White Nile, Atbara river, the Sudd swamps, and the Main Nile for the period 1995 to 2000. Observational datasets were used to evaluate the model results including radiation, precipitation, runoff and evaporation data. The evaporation data were derived from satellite images over a major part of the Upper Nile. Limitations in both the observational data and the model are discussed. It is concluded that the model provides a sound representation of the regional water cycle over the Nile. The sources of atmospheric moisture to the basin, and location of convergence/divergence fields could be accurately illustrated. The model is used to describe the regional water cycle in the Nile basin in terms of atmospheric fluxes, land surface fluxes and land surface-climate feedbacks. The monthly moisture recycling ratio (i.e. locally generated/total precipitation) over the Nile varies between 8 and 14%, with an annual mean of 11%, which implies that 89% of the Nile water resources originates from outside the basin physical boundaries. The monthly precipitation efficiency varies between 12 and 53%, and the annual mean is 28%. The mean annual result of the Nile regional water cycle is compared to that of the Amazon and the Mississippi basins. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 1994 Regional streamflow estimation by standard regional dependence function approach ¨ Altunkaynak A., Ozger M. and S¸en Z. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2005 131/11 (1001-1006) The main purpose of this paper is to propose a standard regional dependence function (SRDF) based on concepts of semivariogram and especially point cumulative semivariogram for regional streamflow estimation. The SRDFs are obtained from available spatial data and show regional dependence, which decreases with distance from a given site. These functions present quantitatively the regional dependence of the streamflow phenomenon recorded at irregular sites over a drainage basin and provide a unique opportunity for the establishment of regional objective estimation method based on weighed averages. The weightings are obtained by means of the SRDF given the distance between any two sites. The implementation of the proposed methodology is presented for some streamflow records from the Lower and Upper Mississippi River watershed in the United States. For the application, the experimental SRDF forms are first obtained from the available data, and these are then employed directly in the regional estimation procedure. The study indicated that the use of all the stations in a region for the estimation at any particular station is rather na¨ıve because far away stations (more than 1,000 km away) are taken into consideration. The final conclusion is that discharge at any particular station is better described as 381 a function of discharge at several (3-5) closest stations. The reliability of the method is measured through the cross validation procedure, and it is observed that the procedure yields streamflow predictions with less than 10% relative error. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering © ASCE. 1995 Magnification of flood disasters and its relation to regional precipitation and local human activities since the 1980s in Xinjiang, northwestern China Fengqing J., Cheng Z., Guijin M. et al. Natural Hazards 2005 36/3 (307-330) Analyses of flood disasters were conducted using 1950-2001 data on the flood-damaged areas of cropland, the annual number of flood disasters and the direct economic losses in Xinjiang. There is an increasing trend in flood disasters in Xinjiang during the second half of the 20th century, especially since the mid1980s. Results of a non-parametric Mann-Kendall test on the cropland-flooded index time series revealed an abrupt change in the mid-1980s. The reasons are discussed with respect to changes in annual precipitation and regional human activities, by correlating cropland-flooded area to annual precipitation and three socio-economic parameters (population, cropland area and GDP). The correlation coefficients between the flood-damaged area and the annual precipitation during the periods 1961-1998 and 1987-1998 were substantially higher than during the period of 1961-1986. The correlation coefficients between the flooddamaged area and the three human activity parameters, however, were relatively high for the whole period of 1961-1998, but generally not significant for the 1961-1986 and 1987-1998 periods, separately. These suggest that the occurrence of flood disasters could be mainly induced by local human activities before the mid-1980s, and thereafter mainly by abnormal precipitation in Xinjiang. Meteorological and hydrological records showed that the number of heavy rainfall events and the frequency of rainstorm flood disasters increased since the 1980s. In addition, siltation of reservoirs and loss of flood control structures are partly responsible for the increase of flood-damaged area. These results suggest that the increasing trend in flood disasters in Xinjiang since the middle 1980s could be attributed, at least in part, to an increasing trend in annual precipitation. © Springer 2005. 1996 Hydrological cycle in the upper Mississippi River basin: 20th century simulations by multiple GCMs Takle E.S., Jha M. and Anderson C.J. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) We used 20th century simulations by nine global climate models (GCMs) to provide input for a streamflow model to simulate baseline hydrologic conditions in the Upper Mississippi River Basin (UMRB). Statistical tests revealed that streamflow data produced by members of the GCM multi-model ensemble were serially uncorrelated at all lags and formed unimodal distributions and that GCM multimodel results may be used to assess annual streamflow in the UMRB. Although all low-resolution GCMs produced large differences from observations of streamflow and hydrological components simulated by the streamflow model, the nine-member ensemble performed quite well. Results of statistical tests indicate that, of all models used, the high-resolution GCM - the only high-resolution model tested - gives simulated streamflows much closer to observed values, despite the fact that its low-resolution sister model has no advantage over the other seven low-resolution models. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 1997 Evaluation of the synthetic annual maximum storms Saf B. Journal of Environmental Hydrology 2005 13/- (11p) Long term historical records of hydrological information such as rainfall and runoff data form the basis of planning and design of major water resources projects. However, in most cases such historical records are unavailable, and in situations where they are available, the records are too short to have any statistically significant meaning. One approach that has been adopted to overcome this difficulty is to generate long-term data synthetically. In this study, the outcome of an attempt to generate synthetic rainfall data is presented. The Monte Carlo method is used, which is an experimental statistical method in generating samples for solving some probability problems as old as probability theory itself. In 382 HYDROLOGY this study, synthetic annual maximum storms distributed as Type1Extremal (or Gumbel) with random effective durations and specific time distribution for given population mean and variance are generated using the method. Effective durations of the synthetic annual maximum storms are related to the basin characteristics, length (L) and harmonic slope (S) of the main course, by Kirpich’s time of concentration relationship. After synthetic annual maximum storms are generated, sample statistics and frequency distributions of the generated annual maximum storms of random effective durations are investigated. Eight well-known probability distribution models, (Normal (N), LogNormal with two and three parameters (LN2 and LN3), Gumbel (GUM), LogGumbel (LGUM), Gamma with two and three parameters (G2 and G3), and LogPearson 3 (LP3), with moment and maximum likelihood parameters are used for synthetic storm series by chi-square and probability plot correlation goodness of fit tests. The results of the study reveal that the probability distribution of the rainfall input may even diverge from their parent (Type-I Extremal) distributions because of the sampling, and since the generated input series is a mixture of rainfall events of variable durations. 1998 Generation mechanism of woodland runoff and sediment on Loess Plateau under hypo-rainfall - A case study of artificial P. tabulaeformis and secondary natural P. dadidiana stands (Chinese) Pan C. and Shangguan Z. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1597-1602) Based on the long-term observation and from the viewpoints of water balance and runoff-and sediment generation, this paper studied the generation processes of runoff and sediment on two typical woodlands, artificial P. tabulaeformis and secondary natural P. dadidiana, and uncultivated slope-land in Loess Plateau under hyporainfall. The results showed that within the range of 5.0-50.0 mm rainfall, the total interception of canopy and litter was 15.45%-56.80% for P. tabulaeformis and 20.56%-47.81% for P. dadidiana, and decreased with increasing rainfall. Woodlands had a higher soil water infiltration capacity than uncultivated slope-land, especially in 0-20 cm soil layer. Both the two woodlands did not generate runoff under regular rainfall. Under the assumed rainfall of 2.5 mmmin-1 intensity and 30 min duration, P. dadidiana stand did not produce runoff, but the runoff velocity and sediment-carrying capacity of uncultivated slope-land were 23.5 times, and runoff shearing stress and energy were 8 times as much as P. tabulaeformis stand. The runoff-and sediment generation on P. tabulaeformis stand decreased by 87.6% and 99.4%, respectively, compared with those on uncultivated slopeland, which was well accorded with the average observed value in runoff plots during 1988-2000. The theoretical analysis on the generation mechanism of woodland runoff and sediment may be effective to evaluate the benefits of forest in soil and water conservation. 1999 Construction and verification of distributed rainfallrunoff model for forested watershed in alpine and gorge region (Chinese) Liu J., Pei T., Wang A. and Yang H. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1638-1644) Considering of the main hydrological characteristics in the upper Zagunao River watershed of the upper reach of Minjiang River, general hydrological models were selected to construct the distributed rainfall-runoff process model for the forested watershed in typical alpine and gorge terrains. Calibration of too many regional parameters was avoided to assure the transportability of the models in similar watersheds. Two flow series of 1 000 hours in 1999 and 2000 were simulated by using the distributed model. The runoff hydrograph, accumulative runoff volume, peak discharge, and peak time showed good fittings with observed series. The simple structure and less empirical parameters gave the distributed model the ability to simulate the rainfall-runoff processes in similar watershed across scales, which provided the basic approach to the hydrological scaling research. 2000 Application of wavelet transform to monthly runoff time serial analysis in Zagunao watershed, the upper Minjiang River (Chinese) Lin Y., Liu S., Li C. et al. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1645-1649) Runoff is an important component of regional water resources, and its dynamics is to some extent an indicator of water resources dynamics in a region. To know the runoff dynamics and water resources in a region is essential for the sustainable utilization and planning of water resources, and for the research on hydrological response of vegetation change at watershed scale. To disclose the water resources dynamics in Upper Minjiang River, one of the large reaches of Yangze River in southwest China, this paper analyzed the runoff dynamic features of Zagunao watershed, an important watershed in Minjiang River basin. Multi-Resolution Analysis (MRA) and periodicity analysis were conducted with Dmey wavelet function on the monthly runoff data from 1962 to 2002 observed by Zagunao hydrological station, which provided a data-based approximation on the evolution of monthly runoff in Zagunao watershed. It was found that the runoff dynamics in Zagunao watershed was relatively stable during 1962-1978, despite that this period was just in correspondence with the term of intensive deforestation activities in Upper Minjiang River basin. It was also clear that the runofff in Zagunao watershed was increased from 1986 to 1997, which was inconsistent with the commonly accepted viewpoint that the runoff decreased with increasing vegetation cover in forest watershed. However, the increasing trend from 1986-1997 was consistent with the research results in Yichang by Wang Wensheng and with the global warming at global and continent scale, which meant that global climate change plays a big role in runoff dynamics in Upper Minjiang River. Periodicity analysis showed that the rich-short water periodicity at the scale of 10 years (120 months) and 5 years (60 months) was 3 and 7 times, respectively, which could provide invaluable information for the eco-hydrological function research of forest landscape in Minjiang river basin and the sustainable utilization of water resources. The results from the case study highlighted that sometimes, it was very necessary to consider the role of global climatic warming in disclosing the hydrological response of land use/cover change at watershed scale, otherwise, it would be difficult to explain some hydrological phenomena. 2001 Relationships between soil and water loss and landscape pattern on Loess Plateau (Chinese) Suo A., Hong J., Lin Y. and Ge J. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1719-1723) Based on the theories of detrended canonical correspondence analysis (DCCA), 12 soil and water loss indices ("species") and 7 landscape indices ("environmental factors") were adopted to quantitatively analyze the effects of landscape pattern on the soil and water loss in Jinghe River basin on Loess Plateau. The results showed that the first four DCCA axes were significantly correlated to agricultural land ratio, landscape diversity index, forest land ratio, and landscape contagion index. The characteristics of soil and water loss changed obviously with landscape pattern gradient, e.g., Sanshuihe watershed with a forest cover larger than 65% and low landscape diversity had a big and stable runoff, but small sediment and low river sand content. The runoff generation coefficient and runoff depth as well as the sediment transport and river sand content increased with the increasing agricultural land ratio and landscape diversity and the decreasing forest land ratio. As for Honghe watershed with a very low forest cover but high agricultural land ratio (53.41%), and with a relatively high landscape diversity and complex landscape pattern, it had the highest river sand content and the biggest sediment transport, and its monthly runoff and sediment transport varied markedly. The soil and water loss in the Upper-Huan, Down-Huan and Dongchuan watersheds with smaller forest and agricultural land ratio and relatively simple landscape pattern was smaller than that of the watersheds with dominated agricultural land. 2002 Indoor imitation experimental study on driving factors of rainfall-runoff process Zhang S., Liu C., Xia J. et al. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/3 (417-428) The driving actions of rainfall-runoff process can be attributed to two aspects. The first is the influence of precipitation process, and the second is that of the ground pad. The research results of 179 indoor experiments conducted to imitate rainfall-runoff process indicate that both precipitation duration and intensity play important roles in affecting confluence lag time, which is HYDROLOGY obviously inconsistent with the traditional hypotheses. The nonlinear relationship is of great significance to the confluence curve especially when the precipitation duration is less than the total confluence time or the precipitation intensity is small. Therefore it can be concluded that the unit hydrograph (UH) can be applied to rainfall-runoff process imitation in the humid areas in the south China region. However, the UH application should be strictly modified in accordance with precipitation conditions in the arid and semiarid region of north China where the precipitation duration is short and the intensity is unstable. It will be hard to get ideal imitation results if the UH is applied blindly without considering specific conditions in the north China region. This also explains the unsatisfactory imitation results caused by using various hydrological models in the north China region. When the precipitation duration is short, and the watershed has not reached total watershed concentration, the characteristics of confluence change greatly, which reflects the actual situation in the north China region. Therefore necessary nonlinear corrections should be made when UH is applied. If the duration is longer than the total confluence time and the balance between pondage and discharge is stricken, the imitation research results will be applicable to both rainfall-runoff relation with longer duration in the south China region and the basic theoretical research on runoff generation and concentration. On conditions of adequate rainfall, peak discharge is in linear relationship with intensity, but has nothing to do with the ground pad. There is a negative linear relationship between intensity and time to peak. The amount of pondage capacity in a catchment is in linear relationship with intensity and peak discharge, with obvious influence by the ground pad status and interception, and it has nothing to do with the position of interceptions. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. Channel hydraulics and sediment transport 2003 Errors of kinematic wave and diffusion wave approximations for time-independent flows with infiltration and momentum exchange included Singh V.P., Jain S.K. and Sherif M.M. Hydrological Processes 2005 19/9 (1771-1790) Error equations for kinematic wave and diffusion wave approximations were derived for time-independent flows on infiltrating planes and channels under one upstream boundary and two downstream boundary conditions: zero flow at the upstream boundary, and critical flow depth and zero depth gradient at the downstream boundary. These equations specify error in the flow hydrograph as a function of space. The diffusion wave approximation was found to be in excellent agreement with the dynamic wave approximation, with errors below 2% for values of KF (e.g. KF  75), where K is the kinematic wave number and F is the Froude number. Even for small values of KF (e.g. KF = 25), the errors were typically less than 3%. The accuracy of the diffusive approximation was greatly influenced by the downstream boundary condition. For critical flow depth downstream boundary condition, the error of the kinematic wave approximation was found to be less than 10% for KF  75 and greater than 20% for smaller values of KF. This error increased with strong downstream boundary control. The analytical solution of the diffusion wave approximation is adequate only for small values of K. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2004 A simple method to include vertical resolution in a river model, and results from an implementation Jakobsen F., Olesen K.W. and Madsen M. Nordic Hydrology 2005 36/2 (163-174) A simple method to include vertical resolution in a one-dimensional river model is outlined. The equations on which the method is based are the width-averaged continuity, momentum and transport equations. Some details are given on how to formulate the bed friction in a river model with vertical resolution. The equations are transformed to be in sigma coordinates. The numerical techniques, which make maximum use of an already implemented numerical solution technique in an existing river 383 model, are described. The method is used to implement vertical resolution in the existing river model, MIKE 11. The implementation is tested on the following cases: logarithmic velocity profile, wind driven velocity profile, rapid accelerated flow, lock exchange and finally wind-forced entrainment. All test cases showed good agreement. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2005 Changes in hydrologic regime by dams Magilligan F.J. and Nislow K.H. Geomorphology 2005 71/1-2 (61-78) Dams have major impacts on river hydrology, primarily through changes in the timing, magnitude, and frequency of low and high flows, ultimately producing a hydrologic regime differing significantly from the pre-impoundment natural flow regime. This paper presents the analysis of pre- and post-dam hydrologic changes from dams that cover the spectrum of hydrologic and climatic regimes across the United States. Our overall goals are to document the type, magnitude, and direction of hydrologic shifts because of impoundment. Using the entire database for the National Inventory of Dams (NID) for dams possessing longstanding U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) gages downstream, we identified 21 gage stations that met length-of-record criteria encompassing an array of types of dams and spanning four orders of magnitude in contributing watershed area. To assess hydrologic changes associated with dams, we applied a hydrologic model, the Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA), supplemented with orientation statistics for certain hydrograph parameters. Dams had significant impacts on the entire range of hydrologic characteristics measured by IHA. For many characteristics, the direction and significance of effects were highly consistent across the 21 sites. The most significant changes across these sites occurred in minimum and maximum flows over different durations. For low flows, the 1-day through 90-day minimum flows increased significantly following impoundment. The 1-day through 7-day maximum flows decreased significantly across the sites. At monthly scales, mean flows in April and May tend to decline while mean flows in August and September increase. Other significant adjustments included changes in annual hydrograph conditions, primarily in the number of hydrograph reversals that has generally increased for almost all sites following impoundment. The number of high pulses has increased following impoundment but the average length declines. The mean rate of hydrograph rise and fall has declined significantly. These results indicate that the major pulse of dam construction during the previous century has modified hydrologic regimes on a nationwide scale, for large and small rivers. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2006 Uncertainty in predicting riverbed erosion caused by urban stormwater discharge Daebel H. and Gujer W. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (77-85) Ecologically based criteria require an integrated modeling approach. Due to the complexity of the system, the stochastic nature of loads, and the model abstractions, many uncertainties are involved. In this study, a simple integrated model is applied, which Swiss engineers employ to assess the impact of urban stormwater discharges on riverbed stability. In the course of a case study, an uncertainty analysis is carried out focusing on parameter uncertainties. The underlying context of the uncertainties is evaluated, and a variance-based sensitivity analysis is presented estimating the local uncertainty contribution of each parameter. The results reveal that the largest contributions stem from the model components describing the natural system. An experimental design is proposed that manages to reduce the output uncertainty significantly. Finally, we discuss the benefits of following the proposed procedure. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2007 Intergranular flow velocity through salmonid redds: Sensitivity to fines infiltration from low intensity sediment transport events Zimmermann A.E. and Lapointe M. River Research and Applications 2005 21/8 (865-881) This paper presents results from a novel technique allowing continuous monitoring through multiple storm events of interstitial flow in salmonid redds. Previous studies have shown that longterm increases in fine sediment inputs into rivers can silt up spawning beds, reduce intergravel flow and threaten egg survival. 384 HYDROLOGY Not enough is known, however, about the temporal and spatial scales of the physical processes affecting spawning habitat. The short-term sensitivity of intergravel flow through salmon nests to low-intensity sediment transport events has not been documented. Furthermore, it is unclear if the egg pocket flow vital to incubation is principally controlled by the hydraulic conductivity of the redd patch or by that, generally lower, of the ambient riffle substrate. The purpose of this study was to determine if individual runoff events could affect intergravel flow in salmon nests and to investigate the sensitivity of interstitial flow to the fines content and conductivity of the redd patch. During the summer and autumn of 2001, a new intergravel velocity sensor based on the hot wire principle made it possible to continuously monitor, over five months, interstitial velocities in artificial redds in four tributaries of the Cascapedia River, Quebec. Fifteen low and moderate intensity runoff events (up to 50% bankfull) were monitored. Data were obtained for each storm on suspended sediment transport as well as sand infiltration rates in sediment collectors emplaced in redd zones. It was found that redd interstitial velocities were reduced whenever a runoff event deposited more than 7 kg/m2 of sands in infiltration traps. In addition, redd interstitial velocities were reduced four out of the five times that the event-integrated suspended sediment dose exceeded 7 mg1-1 day (dose is defined as the area under the concentration time curve). In the study conditions, where ambient riffle sediment has relatively moderate permeability and localized groundwater upwelling is negligible, our data suggest that significant intergravel flow (0.1-0.6mm/s) can be triggered through 2m long redd patches, in response to the redd-scale water surface gradient and the relatively higher conductivity of the redd patch, after spawner activity. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2008 Streambed sediment composition and deposition in a forested stream: Spatial and temporal analysis St- Hilaire A., Caissie D., Cunjak R.A. and Bourgeois G. River Research and Applications 2005 21/8 (883-898) Assessment of fish habitat quality often includes the measurement of substrate composition and fine sediment deposition in streams. The natural spatial (localized, inter-reach) and temporal (event-specific, seasonal, annual) variability of both sediment deposition and streambed composition were investigated in Catamaran Brook (New Brunswick, Canada). A grab-type sampler (i.e. scoop) and Whitlock-Vibert boxes were used to investigate grain size distribution of streambed material and deposition of fine sediments over time. Results showed that the scoop sampler was a good method to quantify intra-site and inter-site grain-size distribution, especially as it relates to the streambed composition and changes thereof. In Catamaran Brook, scoop samples showed that gravel constituted the highest percentage of the total dry weight with a median of 38.8%, for seven sites monitored in three different study reaches. The median percentage of fines (i.e. material <2 mm) was found to be 10.8% of total weight. Intrasite variation in substrate grain size distribution was also assessed using the scoop sampler. Significant differences in the distribution of fine sediments within a study reach as well as among habitat types (riffles, runs, etc.) were found, which reiterates the importance of taking multiple samples. To observe changes in fine sediment, a subsample of the scoop sampler limited to grain sizes <32 mm was used to reduce some of the variability in weight percentages due to large substrate material, e.g. cobbles. The percentage of fines within this subsample varied between 15.2% and 20.0% (overall median of 18.6%). Statistical analyses showed that the temporal variability in grain size distribution was significant and was mainly associated with hydrological events such as midwinter thaw and summer peak flows. Fredle indices (fi ); an index for assessing survival of incubating alevins, were calculated in Catamaran Brook and varied between 2.9 and 13.1, with marked spatial and temporal variability. There was a general decrease in fi in the autumn of 1996, which may have been related to a redistribution of fines within the drainage basin. WhitlockVibert boxes appeared to be more efficient for determining storage rates than for substrate composition analyses. The median storage rate in Catamaran Brook was 40 kg/m2 /year. Fine sand median storage rate was 9.4 kg/m2 /year. Our study indicates that scoop samplers and Whitlock-Vibert boxes should both be used, in order to assess sediment deposition and variation in grain size distribution simultaneously. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2009 Testing and improving predictions of scour and fill depths in a northern California coastal stream Bigelow P.E. River Research and Applications 2005 21/8 (909923) Seasonal scour and fill from bankfull flows were measured in Freshwater Creek, a gravel-bed coastal stream of northern California, to test a previously developed approach predicting the reach-average and distribution of scour or fill depths based on Shields stress and the exponential function. Predictions of reachaverage scour and fill depths were within 4-60% of measured depths. Three of the four predicted distributions of scour and fill depths were statistically different (p < 0.05) from measured distributions. Differences between predicted and measured values were likely due to scour and fill patterns in Freshwater Creek that were influenced by sediment supply and location within the channel network, channel form roughness, and possibly multiple peak flows. Consequently, the predictive approach may be better suited for individual peak flows on straight reaches that are in equilibrium between sediment supply and transport, and with form roughness similar to the creeks where the approach was developed. Improved predictions of scour and fill are possible with adjustments for aggrading reaches and form roughness. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2010 Diffusive behavior of bedform-induced hyporheic exchange in rivers Marion A. and Zaramella M. Journal of Environmental Engineering 2005 131/9 (1260-1266) Solute transport in natural streams is a complex phenomenon that involves both in-stream dispersion and mass exchange with the porous zones surrounding the water body. Due to the complex nature of the riverine systems several models may be used to simulate and analyze the transport of solutes with different degrees of complexity. The bedform-induced hyporheic transport is a stream-subsurface exchange mechanism that can be reproduced in controlled systems, such as laboratory flumes. Application of a simple Fickian diffusion model to laboratory data obtained with passive solutes and stationary bedforms proves successful within a range of durations of the contamination process. A dimensionless form of the diffusion coefficient, scaled with dynamic, physical, and geometric properties of the system is derived by comparison with another physically based model. A prediction of the dimensionless diffusion coefficient is obtained as a function of the timescale of the exchange process and is validated with a few sets of results from laboratory tests. Journal of Environmental Engineering © ASCE. 2011 Particle size distribution in highway runoff Li Y., Lau S.- L., Kayhanian M. and Stenstrom M.K. Journal of Environmental Engineering 2005 131/9 (1267-1276) Particles in highway runoff contain various sorbed pollutants, and many best management practices (BMPs) are selected for particle removal efficiency, which makes particle size distribution a crucial BMP design parameter. Particles between 2 and 1,000 m in diameter were quantified for three rainfall events during the 2002-2003 rainy season at three highway sites in west Los Angeles. Rainfall, runoff flow rate, and a large suite of water quality parameters were also measured. An experimental protocol was developed for bottle cleaning, sample storage, and mixing that provided repeatable results. Particle aggregation occurred which required samples to be analyzed in less than 6 h; the concentration of small particles decreased with a corresponding increase in the concentration of larger particles in stored samples. The particle concentration decreased as the storm progressed and the number of large particles decreased more rapidly than the total number of particles. Particles demonstrated a strong first flush. On average, 40% of the particles were discharged in the first 20% of the runoff volume. Journal of Environmental Engineering © ASCE. 2012 Modelling hillslope connectivity and channel interactions in semiarid areas: Implications for hillslope restoration following land abandonment Kirkby M. and Bracken L. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (3-15) HYDROLOGY In semiarid areas, little locally generated overland flow and even less locally eroded sediment reaches channels during floods, due to poor connectivity in both natural and disturbed landscapes. Where anthropogenic disturbance or climate change alter runoff and erosion rates in source areas, there are short and long term adjustments to both hillslope and channel morphology. Abandonment of arable cultivation is used here as an example of such a change, explored though a one-dimensional simulation model which explicitly represents spatial differences in runoff generation and the accumulation of runoff downslope across the frequency distribution of rainstorms. Discharge and topography are used to forecast sediment transport and the consequent evolution of hillslope form. The model allows for dynamic interaction with slope-base streams, and computes the stability with respect to the formation of ephemeral gullies on the hillside. This model is run until the slope form is in balance with the processes, and a step-change is then applied to represent the short term impact of land abandonment. An initial sharp increase in sediment loss is followed by a slow recovery as the hillslope begins to evolve towards a new stable form. The effect of possible remedial measures is explored showing that the most effective treatments are those which increase infiltration, and that direct reductions in sediment transport generally lead to erosion downslope. 2013 Sediment delivery from a landslide to a stream in a drainage basin in Hong Kong Peart M.R., Ruse M.E. and Fok L. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (46-55) Landslides commonly occur on undeveloped hillslopes in Hong Kong, China. Heavy rainfall in June 2001 and May 2003 resulted in small landslides in a headwater drainage basin. Measurements of suspended sediment concentration made during the storm events, along with observations on sediment colour and C and N content, indicate that the suspended matter in streamflow was derived from the landslides, evidencing the connectivity of hillslope and channel systems. Estimates of the volume of failed material when compared to those of deposition revealed that much of the debris from the landslides remained on the slope in an ephemeral drainage line. At-a-point erosion from the landslides is much greater than that recorded by erosion pins in the same catchment. 2014 Targeting erosion control in large river systems using spatially distributed sediment budgets Wilkinson S.N., Olley J.M., Prosser I.P. and Read A.M. IAHSAISH Publication 2005 -/299 (56-64) Targeting management actions aimed at improving water quality and habitat in large rivers is difficult. Resources for such actions are often limited; consequently, catchment works to reduce sediment supply need to focus on areas that will have the largest in-river effect. We describe how a sediment budget, developed using sediment transport modelling (SedNet), sediment tracing, and water quality monitoring, can be used to identify the primary sources of suspended sediment in the 29 000 km2 upper-middle Murrumbidgee Basin, Australia. It is shown that targeted erosion control will provide more than three times the reduction in suspended sediment export that would occur if the actions were implemented randomly. The results show that 70% of the sediment exported comes from 20% of the catchment area, and that channel bank erosion is the dominant source of sediment. The method has application in all large river systems where water quality and habitat sedimentation are issues. 2015 Comparison of a neural network and a regression model to estimate suspended sediment in a semiarid basin Schnabel S. and Maneta M. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (91-100) In small semiarid basins with ephemeral flows most of the sediment conveyance takes place during runoff peaks exceeding a certain discharge. Sediment load is commonly modelled using rating curves fitting the water-sediment discharge relationship. The performance of a feed-forward back-propagation artificial neural network (ANN) and a multiple quadratic regression (MQR) model are tested using data from the Parapu˜nos Catchment, a wooded rangeland located in SW Spain. Both models were calibrated using rainfall and discharge time series and derived variables such as rainfall intensity, runoff coefficient and rate of 385 change of discharge. The final set of variables used in the analysis was done based on sensitivity analysis for the ANN model and based on an analysis of statistical significance of parameters in the MQR model. The performance of ANN and MQR were similar but better than rating curves of a single variable. In addition, ANN and MQR can reproduce the hysteretic loop of the sediment-discharge relationship. 2016 Suspended sediment transport and trapping processes in the regulated lower Durance River, southeastern France Ribes E. and Provansal M. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (101-110) Since 1994 the lower Durance River has been experiencing a notable increase of hydro-sedimentary inputs, which have diverse morphological impacts on its bankfull channel, depending on water discharges and suspended sediment concentrations. At discharges of less than 300 m3 s-1 , the suspended sediments are effectively transported within the active bed, and deposited in downstream gravel pits of the system. At discharges greater than 300 m3 s-1 , the suspended sediments are deposited predominantly on vegetated and elevated bars, while the less cohesive sediments trapped in the gravel pits are removed. Results highlight the difficulties of restoring sediment transit in a highly disturbed and vegetated river channel. 2017 Seasonal suspended sediment concentrations and their relationship with discharge in the Anoia River basin, NE Spain Farguell J. and Sala M. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (111116) The relations between suspended sediment concentration and discharge in the Anoia River basin are reported. The scatter is mainly a consequence of seasonality of events and the hysteretic loops that take place within them. The seasonal concentrationdischarge relationship improves the complete data set relationships reinforcing the seasonality of events. Concentrations are greater during autumn than during spring. For instance, at the upper site mean suspended sediment concentration in autumn is 480 mg I-1 while in spring it is 200 mg I-1 . At the downstream site, maximum concentration during autumn was 15 400 mg I-1 and during spring was 10 700 mg I -1 . The rating curve has a regression coefficient of r2 = 0.2 whereas with seasonal subdivision the coefficients are r2 = 0.6 for the autumn period and 0.5 for the spring period. Events exhibit hysteretic clockwise and anticlockwise loops increasing the degree of scatter in the concentration-discharge relationships. 2018 Patterns of suspended sediment transport in two forested Mediterranean mountainous basins (Ribera Salada, Catalan Pre-Pyrenees, NE Spain) Balasch J.C., Batalla R.J., Poch R.M. and Vericat D. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (131-138) Suspended sediment dynamics and trends are analysed in two Mediterranean mountainous basins in the southern Pyrenees. Rainfall, discharge and suspended sediment are monitored in order to establish the long-term water and sediment budgets of the basins and to determine sediment transport dynamics. A nested basins research scheme (2.6 km2 and 65 km2 ) allows determination of the conveyance and routing of sediment through headwaters, tributaries and main channel during flood response. Hysteretic loops show seasonal complex relationships between water response and sediment availability. Clockwise and anticlockwise hysteretic patterns and exhaustion effects are recognized and explained in terms of temporal runoff generation, sediment sources distribution and stream channel sinks, demonstrating the different seasonal patterns of processes involved. Mean sediment yield of the two basins was in the order of 1-3 Mg km-2 year-1 , well below the regional values. 2019 Estimating the transport of bed material at low rate in gravel armoured channels Church M. and Hassan M. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (141-153) Classical sediment transport formulae represent high flux conditions. In contrast, bed material transport in most gravel-bed channels remains at very low rates most of the time, with only partial 386 HYDROLOGY exchange of local bed sediments. Armouring and aggregated clast structures develop that are critical for the persistence of the low transport rate and for the stability of the channel. Classical formulae developed for fully mobile conditions grossly overpredict transport in this state. The transport cannot, in general, be calculated merely by an adjustment of bed material parameterization to reflect the surface armour, though that may work for specific histories of bed development. There is at present no general formulation available for bed material transport in channels with low transport and a structured bed. 2020 Geomorphologic units and sediment transport in a very low relief basin: Rio Quequ´en Grande, Argentina Teruggi L.B., Martinez G.A., Billi P. and Preciso E. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (154-160) The aim of this work was to identify the geomorphological units within the drainage network of the Rio Quequ´en Grande low relief basin, situated in the southeast section of the province of Buenos Aires, and to quantify the present sediment transport rate. For this purpose field surveys and satellite images were analysed. The former included measurement of bed material grain size and channel hydraulic geometry, in order to set up a bed and a suspended load measurement programme. Six main geomorphic units were identified: Ranges, Perirange Aeolian Hillocks, Hillocks with Lagoons, Relic Hills, a Poor Drainage Alluvial Plain and an Alluvial Plain. Bed load discharge and suspended sediment concentration measured during a bankfull flood are very low, given the relatively high stream power of 287 W m-1 . The measured bed load discharge was three to five orders of magnitude lower than six applied bed load equations, presumably due to low sediment availability. 2021 Determining the competence of mountainous Mediterranean streams using lichenometric techniques Gob F., Jacob N., Bravard J.- P. and Petit F. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (161-170) This article deals with the application of lichenometry to the study of mountainous Mediterranean boulder-bed rivers, characterized by strong floods. Lichens present on blocks are a means of dating the reworking of this material, and therefore determining the maximal competence of floods. By associating the diameters of the blocks dated using lichenometry to the specific streampower of corresponding floods, several diameter/critical specific streampower relations for elements between 0.5 and 2.7 m were proposed. In this way several different relations were determined for the rivers studied, highlighting the uneven dissipation of energy due to the roughness of bed forms in these rivers. 2022 Bed load under low sediment transport in a large regulated river: The lower Ebro, NE Spain Vericat D. and Batalla R.J. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (171-178) This study describes the bed load transport regime observed under low sediment transport conditions and constant discharge in the gravel-bedded lower Ebro River (NE Spain). The data show a tendency toward size-selective transport during bed load sampling. The maximum bed load transport rate was lower (35%) than average rates previously obtained under similar discharges. This decline is related to the development of an armour layer during winter floods, which has reduced sediment availability and, consequently, influenced the bed load transport rate and grainsize during the sampling period. Bed load transport observed at individual sampling verticals varied up to 3.7 times the mean rate computed at the same vertical. The highest transport rates and highest variance around the sampling mean occurred in midchannel, with both the variance and rate diminishing towards the channel margins. 2023 A particle-size sediment budget for a Mediterranean river (the lower Tordera, northeastern Spain) Rovira A. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (179-188) The sediment budget for the Lower Tordera has been evaluated for the dry period 1997-1999 by measuring the bed load transport in two cross-sections. The mobilization of most of the river bed fractions in both cross-sections is produced during floods of moderate magnitude and frequency. However, results show that coarser fractions (>16 mm) mobilized in the upper parts of the study channel do not reach the lower ones. This can be associated with some combination of changes in channel geometry (e.g. slope reduction) and the effects of gravel extractions. In contrast, finer particles (<4 mm) moved during low discharges and small floods in the upper cross-section are evacuated during floods in outlet basin. Overall, the sediment budget between the cross-sections exhibits a tendency to accumulate sediment along the channel during dry periods when a hydrological bimodality in the fluvial channel is observed. 2024 Accumulation of sediments within the channelized reach of the Upper Odra River, Poland Agnieszka C. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (191-196) Construction of regular arrays of groynes along the Upper Odra channel created a new environment for sediment deposition. The inter-groyne infill is a significant sink for material transported in the Upper Odra channel. Sediment accretion rates were derived using artefacts as the alluvia age indicator. In the last 40 years the average rate of sediments accretion has been 5 cm year-1 while shortly after channel stabilization the rates ranged from 1.2 to 2.8 cm year-1 . During large floods up to 30 cm per event have been deposited. 2025 A proposed index of channel sensitivity to riparian disturbance Bailey C.E., Millar R.G. and Miles M. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (223-230) Anecdotal and empirical evidence has long suggested that riparian vegetation can exert an important control on channel width and stability in alluvial rivers. Despite this evidence, the importance of riparian vegetation has yet to gain widespread acceptance. This appears due to several reasons, including the difficulty in quantifying vegetation effects and variation in the sensitivity of alluvial channels to riparian disturbance. In this study we develop a theoretical riparian disturbance sensitivity index, which is tested using 15 before-and-after case studies of gravel-bed rivers in British Columbia, Canada. The majority of the study sites have been subjected to direct riparian disturbance. Observed changes in width, expressed as a percentage of the initial, undisturbed width, correlate strongly with the proposed riparian disturbance index. The three undisturbed reaches show no systematic change in width. We conclude that the riparian disturbance sensitivity index provides a good measure of expected channel sensitivity and change in width following riparian disturbance for gravel-bed rivers in southern British Columbia. 2026 Channel morphology and sedimentology in a mountainous channel: A comparison between disturbed and undisturbed reaches Wittenberg L. and Greenbaum N. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (231-241) River adjustment to an artificial disturbance is examined in the ephemeral mountainous stream - Nahal Oren, Mt. Carmel, Israel. We compare sedimentological and morphological characteristics of two sections, 50 and 500 m downstream of an artificial pond. Our results indicate that the deprivation of bed load floodwater in the upper section generates high calculated entrainment potentials as indicated by the large differences between measured and calculated D 50 which exceed 80%. Each flow produces an effective flow (Q > 0.125 m3 s-1 ) of between 17 and 58% of the flood duration to entrain pebbles of the D50 size (50mm). In a large flow of 12 m3 s-1 (recurrence interval of 10 years), resulting bank erosion, in the upper section exceeded 4 tons per 20 m long section, whereas during the period 1999-2004 only minor degradation of <40 cm occurred at the lower section. The eroded material from the upper reach is loosely deposited, transported downstream and selectively deposited in the step-pool section. The impact of the pond on the channel at the upper section disappears 500 m downstream, where the site shows relative stability according to the lower calculated entrainment potential, the steppool morphology of the reach and the higher ratio of cluster arrangements. HYDROLOGY 2027 Sediment-induced stratification in turbulent openchannel flow Ghoshal K. and Mazumder B.S. Environmetrics 2005 16/7 (673686) A vertical gradient of suspended sediment concentration exists in a turbulent open channel flow, particularly near the bed where sediment erosion and deposition take place. This shows a remarkable effect on the flow dynamics. The density gradient of sediment-mixed fluid may become stably stratified, which results in damping of turbulence fluctuations. In this work, theoretical models for mean velocity and concentration distributions have been developed considering the effect of sediment-induced stratification and the modified mixing length due to high suspension together with viscous and turbulent shear stresses, which are the functions of concentration. The models are compared with comprehensive experimental data sets. The comparison reveals that (i) the calculated velocity and concentration profiles agree well with the observed data, (ii) the model constant due to stratification used for verification is consistent with the measurements in thermally stratified flows, and (iii) the higher the sediment suspension, the better the effect of density stratification and the less the impact of mixing length. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2028 Monitoring suspended sediment fluxes in the Na Borges basin, Mallorca, Spain Estrany J. and Garcia C. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (117-123) Suspended sediment fluxes have been monitored since October 2002 within the Na Borges basin, a carbonate lowland agricultural basin (327 km2 ) in the northeast of Mallorca. Over the study period, between October 2002 and March 2004, four flood events were selected and analysed. Mean suspended sediment concentrations ranged from 46.4 mg I-1 to 166.6 mg I -1 with a maximum suspended sediment concentration of 4000 mg I -1 . The analysis of the relationship of water discharge and suspended sediment concentration for the four events shows different behaviour in the availability and depletion of the sediment according to the magnitude and extension of each event, and according to the mixing and routing of water from different sources. This study reports for the first time suspended sediment data for the Balearic Islands. 2029 Averaged indicators of secondary flow in repeated acoustic Doppler current profiler crossings of bends Dinehart R.L. and Burau J.R. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-18) [1] Cross-stream velocity was measured in a large river bend at high spatial resolution over three separate survey episodes. A suite of methods for resolving cross-stream velocity distributions was tested on data collected using acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP) in the sand-bedded Sacramento River, California. The bend was surveyed with repeated ADCP crossings at eight cross sections during a rising limb of high discharge in February 2004 and twice on recession in March 2004. By translating and interpolating repeated ADCP crossings to planar grids, velocity ensembles at similar positions along irregular boat paths could be averaged. The averaging minimized turbulent fluctuations in streamwise velocities over 1 m/s, enabling the resolution of weaker cross-stream velocities (
15-30 cm/s). Secondary-flow influence on suspended sediment was inferred from a lateral region of acoustic backscatter intensity aligned with outward flow over the point bar. A near-bed decrease in backscatter intensity across the pool corresponded with inward cross-stream flow. These suspension indicators were used to orient averaged velocity grids for unambiguously defining the cross-stream velocity magnitudes. Additional field investigations could test whether the correlation between cross-stream velocity and backscatter intensity patterns results from helical recirculation of suspended sediment to the inside of the bend. These river measurements, consistent with classic and recent laboratory studies, show that ADCP surveys can provide refined views of secondary flow and sediment movement in large rivers. 387 2030 Flow resistance and bed form geometry in a wide alluvial channel Yang S.- Q., Tan S.- K. and Lim S.- Y. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-8) [1] This paper explores the underlying mechanism of flow resistance in a wide alluvial channel with bed forms. On the basis of published data, it is shown that the grain roughness can be taken as equal to 2 times the median diameter of the bed sediment. An empirical equation for the bed form roughness has been proposed, and it depends on the bed form height and bed form steepness. The influence of the bed form length and height on the total bed shear stress and energy slope is deliberated, and empirical expressions for the length of the separation zone behind the bed forms are also proposed. The study proposed an equation to compute the total bed shear stress as a function of the grain and bed form roughness as well as the important role of the bed form geometry in the overall flow resistance in alluvial channels. The model is tested and verified against 670 flume measurements and 1540 field observations. The computed and measured energy slopes are in good agreement with close to 71% of all data sets within the 20% error band. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2031 Effects of flood flow on flood plain soil and riparian vegetation in a gravel river Toda Y., Ikeda S., Kumagai K. and Asano T. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2005 131/11 (950-960) Field observations were performed to determine the effects of flood flow on the geometrical and chemical characteristics of flood plain soil and the distribution of riparian vegetation in a gravel river. The results of the observations show a decrease in the amounts of the particulate nutrients in the flood plain soil during fairly large flood, because the fine sands that serve as a nutrient source were removed by the flood flow. Numerical simulations for the transport of suspended sediments were performed by varying the peak discharge of the flood, and the change of the particulate nutrients in flood plain soil was estimated by using the results of the simulations. The numerical analysis predicts the reduction of the particulate nutrients in the flood plain soils well. The particulate nutrients on the flood plains decrease if the discharge exceeds the flood of approximately 2 year return period in the observation area. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering © ASCE. 2032 Effect of sand supply on transport rates in a gravel-bed channel Curran J.C. and Wilcock P.R. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2005 131/11 (961-967) In a series of flume experiments using constant discharge, flow depth, and gravel feed rate, sand feed rates were varied from 0.16 to 6.1 times that of gravel. The bed slope decreased with increasing sand supply, indicating that the gravel could be transported at the same rate, along with increasing amounts of sand, at smaller shear stresses. Prediction of river response to an increase in sediment supply requires prediction of mutual changes in bed composition and transport, and therefore a transport model defined in terms of the grain size of the bed surface. A recent model provides satisfactory prediction of the experimental observations and indicates the general response of gravel beds to increased sand supply. An increase in sand supply may increase the sand content of the river bed and the mobility of gravel fractions, which can lead to bed degradation and preferential evacuation of these sediments from the river. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering © ASCE. 2033 Formula for sediment transport in rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters Yang S.-Q. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2005 131/11 (968979) The aim of the present study is to develop a formula for the relationship between flow strength and sediment discharge. The appropriate definition of energy dissipation rate E in the theorem of Bagnold in 1966 is discussed and it is found that the sediment transport rate gt in unidirectional flows can be well predicted when E is defined as the product of bed shear stress  0 and near bed velocity u
. Then the linear relationship between u
E and the sediment transport rate is examined using measured 388 HYDROLOGY data. The good agreement between measured and predicted values indicates that the phenomena of sediment transport can be reasonably described by the near bed flow characteristics. As the hydrodynamic modelers are able to calculate the bed shear stress and near bed velocity in various cases now, thus the new relationship may provide numerical modelers a tool to calculate the sediment transport in rivers, estuaries and coastal waters. To prove this, the simplified analytical expressions of E and u
in wave-current flows and coastal waters are derived, the results are checked with the available data over a wide range of flow conditions; and good agreements are achieved, indicating that the presumption is valid in the cases investigated. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering © ASCE. 2034 Analytical approach to calculate rate of bank erosion Duan J.G. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2005 131/11 (980990) Bank erosion consists of two processes: basal erosion due to fluvial hydraulic force and bank failure under the influence of gravity. Because bank resistance force varies with the degree of saturation of bank material, the probability of bank failure is the probability of the driving force of bank failure being greater than the bank resistance force. The degree of saturation of bank material increases with river stage; therefore, the frequency of bank failure is correlated to the frequency of flooding. Consequently, the rate of bank erosion is due to both basal erosion and bank failure, and bank failure is a probabilistic phenomenon. In this paper, for cohesive bank material experiencing planar bank failure, a deterministic approach was adopted for basal erosion analysis, whereas the probability of bank failure was included in the analysis of bank failure. A method for calculating the rate of bank erosion was derived that integrates both basal erosion and bank failure processes, and accounts for the effects of hydraulic force, bank geometry, bank material properties, and probability of bank failure. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering © ASCE. 2035 Predicting longitudinal dispersion coefficient in natural streams by artificial neural network Tayfur G. and Singh V.P. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2005 131/11 (991-1000) An-artificial neural network (ANN) model was developed to predict the longitudinal dispersion coefficient in natural streams and rivers. The hydraulic variables [flow discharge (Q), flow depth (H), flow velocity (U), shear velocity (u), and relative shear velocity (U/ u)] and geometric characteristics [channel width (B), channel sinuosity ( ), and channel shape parameter ( )] constituted inputs to the ANN model, whereas the dispersion coefficient (Kx ) was the target model output. The model was trained and tested using 71 data sets of hydraulic and geometric parameters and dispersion coefficients measured on 29 streams and rivers in the United States. The training of the ANN model was accomplished with an explained variance of 90% of the dispersion coefficient. The dispersion coefficient values predicted by the ANN model satisfactorily compared with the measured values corresponding to different hydraulic and geometric characteristics. The predicted values were also compared with those predicted using several equations that have been suggested in the literature and it was found that the ANN model was superior in predicting the dispersion coefficient. The results of sensitivity analysis indicated that the Q data alone would be sufficient for predicting more frequently occurring low values of the dispersion coefficient (Kx < 100 m2 /s). For narrower channels (B/H < 50) using only U/u data would be sufficient to predict the coefficient. If  and were used along with the flow variables, the prediction capability of the ANN model would be significantly improved. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering © ASCE. 2036 Choice of percentiles and axes to determine grain resistance Green J.C. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2005 131/11 (10071010) Hydraulic and grain-size data were collected from 20 river sites to compare the ability of different percentiles to act as predictors of channel resistance. Grain sizes between the 91st and 100th percentile gave stronger correlations with roughness height than those between the 81st and 90th percentile. Contrary to previous research, it is suggested that a measure of the short axis of the grains gives significantly better estimates of resistance than the long or intermediate axes. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering © ASCE. 2037 Energy model to predict suspended load deposition induced by woody debris: Case study Stewart T.L. and Martin J.F. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2005 131/11 (1011-1016) Large woody debris (LWD) has been used repeatedly to create aquatic habitats. This study attempts to quantify and predict geomorphological changes induced by LWD. Six cylindrical bundles of LWD were anchored in a stream in central Ohio, and bed elevations were monitored for up to seven months. A model was developed to predict deposition downstream of the LWD. Sediments accumulated immediately downstream of the LWD structures. The average accumulation depth 0.25 m downstream of the LWD was 0.10 m. At 1.25 m downstream, accumulation depth averaged 0.07 m. The model to predict the sediment deposition had R2 values of 0.87-0.77, respectively, at the two downstream locations. The most important terms in the model were the Froude number and bankfull depth. An advantage of this model was the use of easily measurable variables including average bankfull velocities, depth, and cross-sectional area. This fact will facilitate the use of the model in field settings. Suggestions for future improvements to the model include calibration/ validation in different streams, inclusion of a temporal variable, and sediment characterization. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering © ASCE. Lakes and reservoirs 2038 Derivation of optimal hedging rules for a water-supply reservoir through compromise programming Shiau J.T. and Lee H.C. Water Resources Management 2005 19/2 (111-132) This study derives optimal hedging rules for simultaneously minimizing short- and long-term shortage characteristics for a water-supply reservoir. Hedging is an effective measure to reduce a high-percentage single period shortage, but at a cost of more frequent small shortages. Thus simultaneously minimizing the maximum monthly shortage and the shortage ratio (defined as the ratio of total shortages to total demands) over the analysis horizon is the operation goal of a water-supply reservoir to derive optimal hedging rules. Two types of hedging are explored in this study: the first uses water availability defined as storage plus inflow, while the second depends on the potential shortage conditions within a specific future lead-time period. The compromise programming is employed to solve this conflicting multiobjective problem. The optimal hedging rules under given reservoir inflow are derived first. Because future inflow cannot be known exactly in advance, the monthly decile inflows are suggested as a surrogate for forecast of future inflows in hedging rules for realtime reservoir operations. The results show that the suggested method can effectively achieve the reservoir operation goal. The merits of the proposed methodology are demonstrated with an application to the Shihmen reservoir in Taiwan. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 2039 Genetic algorithm for optimal operating policy of a multipurpose reservoir Ahmed J.A. and Sarma A.K. Water Resources Management 2005 19/2 (145-161) This paper presents a Genetic Algorithm (GA) model for finding the optimal operating policy of a multi-purpose reservoir, located on the river Pagladia, a major tributary of the river Brahmaputra. A synthetic monthly streamflow series of 100 years is used for deriving the operating policy. The policies derived by the GA model are compared with that of the stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) model on the basis of their performance in reservoir simulation for 20 years of historic monthly streamflow. The simulated result shows that GA-derived policies are promising and competitive and can be effectively used for reservoir operation. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. HYDROLOGY 389 2040 Simplified hydrologic correlations to forecast the natural regime of Lake Chapala De Anda J., Shear H. and Zavala J.L. Journal of Environmental Hydrology 2005 13/- (12p) Lake Chapala is the most important lake in Mexico and the main water supply for Guadalajara, the second biggest city in the country. Presently the lake contributes more than 65% of the daily water needs of the city. The main tributary to the lake is the Lerma River. After a severe drought period in the 1950’s, the water inflow to the lake from the Lerma River during the period 1960-1980 was on average 1,769 Mm3 /yr. This raised the average storage volume of the lake to 6,940 Mm3 . During the period 1980-2000 the water supply of the Lerma River was drastically reduced, to only 425 Mm 3 /yr diminishing the storage volume of the lake to 2,163 Mm 3 in 2000. The present workprovides a simplified statistical analysis of the official historical hydrologic and hydrometric data and illustrates what the water level of the lake would have been under a natural flow regime for the period of 1934-2003, and also shows the natural hydraulic residence time for the lake. This information allows calculation of water deficits, and also quantifies certain parameters of the lake hydrologic regime, allowing for better decisions to be made about the management of the Lerma-Chapala Basin. reaches the surface of the lake. The field measurements have been compared with models for thermal convection from finite isolated sources. Measurements of the flow velocity at the source of the hydrothermal plume (i.e. the rim current velocity) indicate that cold hypolimnetic water is entrained by the plume. Sedimentation rates measured from sediment traps at the zone where the turbidity current develops vary between 10 and 25 g m-2 day-1 , and result from continuous silt particle sedimentation from the turbidity current. Sedimentation rates in traps are higher for stations situated close to the source than those further away (<5 g m-2 day-1 ). Moreover, the results demonstrate that double diffusive sedimentation from the turbidity current was dominant over grain-by-grain settling, causing a mixed distribution of sediments in the region where the turbidity current spreads. The deposition of silt particles could explain the occurrence of silt layers interbedded with biocalcarenites in the littoral zones of the lake and the stratigraphy identified by seismic profiles and cores taken from the lake floor. © 2005 International Association of Sedimentologists. 2041 Influence of meteorological conditions on the development of anaerobic processes in dimictic reservoirs in summer (with Lake Glubokoe in the Ruza area of the Moscow Region taken as an example) Shaporenko S.I. and Kiose S.I. Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 2004 -/8 (57-70) Using Lake Glubokoe as an example, it is shown that characteristics of spring aeration and the development of summer anoxia in the hypolimnion of dimictic reservoirs can be described by interrelated parameters. The largest impact on the development of the bottom anaerobic layer is exerted by temperature conditions during the first week after ice break. Of some importance is the amount of precipitation that falls during 48-54 days after ice break. Wind is of secondary importance. The parameters derived can serve as a basis for a search of prognostic relations for other similar reservoirs. 2044 Application of constructed wetlands to the treatment of leachates from a municipal solid waste landfill in Ibadan, Nigeria Aluko O.O. and Sridhar M.K.C. Journal of Environmental Health 2005 67/10 (58-62) Leachates are wastewater generated principally from landfills and solid waste disposal sites. Leachates emanating from municipal wastes are a major source of surface and groundwater pollution worldwide. Globally, leachates have been implicated in low yield of farm produce, developmental anomalies, low birth weights, leukemia incidence, and other cancers in communities around the site. They have also been implicated in hazards to the environment, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of water sources. At Aba-Eku in Nigeria, leachates are being discharged into the Omi Stream without treatment. A study was conducted on a method of leachate treatment that passes the leachate through constructed wetlands using Ipomoea aquatica (Forsk), a locally available plant found close to the landfill site. The aim of the study was to evolve a sustainable and cost-effective method of treatment whose effluents can be discharged into the Omi Stream with no or minimal impact. The study was descriptive and analytical in design. Samples were collected and analyzed with standard methods for pH, suspended solids (SS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia, nitrate, and trace metals. Raw leachates were turbid and amber in color and contained suspended solids (197.5 mg/L), ammonia (610.9 mg/L), lead (1.64 mg/L), iron (198.10 mg/L), and manganese (23.20 mg/L). When the leachates were passed through the constructed wetland with eight hours’ detention time, effluents showed significant reductions in suspended solids (81.01 percent), BOD (86.03 percent), and ammonia (97.77 percent). The study shows that a constructed wetland is a feasible tool for the treatment of leachates before their disposal into the environment in Nigeria and can help safeguard environmental quality. 2042 Great landslide events in Italian artificial reservoirs Panizzo A., De Girolamo P., Di Risio M. et al. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 2005 5/5 (733-740) The empirical formulations to forecast landslide generated water waves, recently defined in the framework of a research program funded by the Italian National Dam Office RID (Registro Italiano Dighe), are here used to study three real cases of subaerial landslides which fell down italian artificial reservoirs. It is well known that impulse water waves generated by landslides constitute a very dangerous menace for human communities living in the shoreline of the artificial basin or downstream the dam. In 1963, the menace became tragedy, when a 270 millions m3 landslide fell down the Vajont reservoir (Italy), generated an impulse wave which destroyed the city of Longarone, and killed 2000 people. The paper is aimed at presenting the very satisfactorily reprod uction of the events at hand by using forecasting formulations. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2043 Behaviour and dynamics of a hydrothermal plume in Lake Banyoles, Catalonia, NE Spain Serra T., Soler M., Juli`a R. et al. Sedimentology 2005 52/4 (795-808) A hydrothermal plume forms in Lake Banyoles, NE Spain, as a result of convection above a springwater-fed suspension cloud ponded on the lake floor. The plume propagates upwards reaching a level of neutral buoyancy from where a turbidity current spreads out laterally. Two-dimensional temperature and particle concentration measurements show the fate of the hydrothermal plume and its associated turbidity current and reveal its seasonal development. Silt particles transported by the plume have been used as tracers to determine the maximum and equilibrium heights of the plume. When the lake is stratified, the vertical transport of sediment is confined to the lake hypolimnion, as the thermocline limits the vertical propagation of the plume. In contrast, when the lake water column is mixed, the plume Wetlands and estuaries 2045 Oil field-produced water discharges into wetlands: Benefits and risks to wildlife Ramirez Jr. P. Environmental Geosciences 2005 12/2 (65-72) Wyoming is one of a few states that allow the discharge of produced water from oil fields into surface waters for beneficial use by livestock and wildlife. Oil field discharges of produced water create wetlands that provide habitat for aquatic migratory birds and other wildlife. Wetlands surveyed in Wyoming from 1996 to 1999 showed that inefficient oil-water separation contributed to the discharge of oil into some wetlands receiving produced water. Over 62% of the sites surveyed had inadequate measures to exclude wildlife, particularly migratory birds, from entering skim pits used to separate oil from produced water. The risk of oil discharges into wetlands can be reduced significantly by proper maintenance of equipment used to separate oil from produced water; immediate removal of oil from production skim pits or tanks to prevent overflow into the receiving wetlands; installation of secondary or tertiary containment ponds or tanks to 390 HYDROLOGY capture any oil accidentally discharged from the primary or secondary pits or tanks; or construction of wetland-based treatment systems for removing metals, radionuclides, and hydrocarbons from the produced water prior to discharge into natural wetlands. Wildlife mortality in skim pits can be prevented using closed containment systems, eliminating pits or keeping oil off open pits or ponds, or using effective and proven wildlife exclusionary devices. Copyright © 2005. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists/Division of Environmental Geosciences. All rights reserved. 2046 Indirect photolysis promoted by natural and engineered wetland water constituents: Processes leading to alachlor degradation Miller P.L. and Chin Y.- P. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/12 (4454-4462) Wetland surface waters that received drainage from agricultural fields were probed for constituents that would promote the photodegradation of agriculture herbicides. Alachlor proved to be a good chemical probe for examining indirect photolysis due to its lack of reactivity by either direct photolysis or dark reaction pathways and its ubiquity as an agricultural herbicide. Water samples were taken from natural (Old Woman Creek) and engineered wetlands in Ohio that receive copious amounts of agricultural runoff. Possible photosensitizers including dissolved organic matter (DOM), iron, and nitrate were measured in the samples. In alkaline waters (pH >7.8), the photochemical degradation of alachlor became important only in the presence of high nitrate levels (1 mM). In pH-adjusted (
4) samples, the observed degradation rate coefficient increased 3-18 times of that measured at the natural pH. Methanol quenching experiments and kinetics modeling suggest that hydroxyl radical is the principal reactant. The promotion of the reaction at the lower pH was apparently related to the activation of the photochemical pathways associated with the DOM and possibly iron-DOM complexes. The rate coefficients measured for the photodegradation of alachlor in reconstituted DOM isolates (cation-exchanged material with very low iron levels) were similar in magnitude to those measured in natural waters containing low amounts of nitrate and high amounts of DOM. Moreover, these reactions also exhibited a pH dependency. Thus, these results suggest that DOM plays a role in promoting an indirect photolytic mechanism that is highly pH dependent. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2047 Recovery and fractionation of phosphorus retained by lightweight expanded shale and masonry sand used as media in subsurface flow treatment wetlands Forbes M.G., Dickson K.L., Saleh F. et al. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/12 (4621-4627) Most subsurface flow treatment wetlands, also known as reed bed or root zone systems, use sand or gravel substrates to reduce organics, solids, and nutrients in septic tank effluents. Phosphorus (P) retention in these systems is highly variable and few studies have identified the fate of retained P. In this study, two substrates, expanded shale and masonry sand, were used as filter media in five subsurface flow pilot-scale wetlands (2.7 m3 ). After 1 year of operation, we estimated the annual rate of P sorption by taking the difference between total P (TP) of substrate in the pilot cells and TP of substrate not exposed to wastewater (control). Means and standard deviations of TP retained by expanded shale were 349 171 mg kg-1 , respectively. For a substrate depth of 0.9 m, aerial P retention by shale was 201 98.6 g of P m-2 year-1 , respectively. Masonry sand retained an insignificant quantity of wastewater P (11.9 21.8 mg kg-1 ) and on occasion exported P. Substrate samples were also sequentially fractionated into labile P, microbial P, (Fe + Al) P, humic P, (Ca + Mg) P, and residual P. In expanded shale samples, the greatest increase in P was in the relatively permanent form of (Fe + Al) P (108 mg kg-1 ), followed by labile P (46.7 mg kg-1 ) and humic P (39.8 mg kg -1 ). In masonry sand, there was an increase in labile P (9.71 mg kg-1 ). Results suggest that sand is a poor candidate for long-term P storage, but its efficiency is similar to that reported for many sand, gravel, and rock systems. By contrast, expanded shale and similar products with high hydraulic conductivity and P sorption capacity could greatly improve performance of P retention in constructed wetlands. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2048 The use of design elements in wetlands Persson J. Nordic Hydrology 2005 36/2 (113-120) In literature on wetland design it is often recommended to use design elements to improve the hydraulic performance, which is linked to the pollutant removal efficiency. To investigate the effect these elements have on the hydraulic performance, a case study was carried out on two wetlands located in southern Sweden. The two main questions of the study were how the performance differs between the two wetlands and how it is affected by the use of deep zones and islands. Field measurements and computer simulations were carried out to obtain residence time distributions (RTD) and flow patterns. As analytical parameters, normalized peak time and effective volume ratio were used to interpret the results. The conclusion is that islands and deep zones as design elements can improve the hydraulic performance, but also that it is important to use them wisely. In one of the wetlands, the bad location of several islands led to severe short-circuiting and large areas of dead zones. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2049 Risk assessment of the phosphorus export from a rewetted peatland Tiemeyer B., Lennartz B., Schlichting A. and Vegelin K. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (550-560) The peatland ‘Mittleres Trebeltal’ in Mecklenburg-West Pomerania (northeast Germany), a former valley mire, was re-wetted in 1995 in the course of an EU-funded conservation project. As there are recent concerns regarding water quality deterioration caused by phosphorus originating from re-wetted peatlands, the aim of this study was to develop a simple method based on existing data to conduct a risk analysis estimating minimum and maximum phosphorus export rates from the study area (993 ha) towards the river Trebel. Especially in the temporarily unsaturated zone of the peatland, high phosphorus concentrations were measured, while the water quality of the river was ‘moderately polluted’ according to the German water quality classification. Two approaches were applied: First, the geostatistics software Surfer® was utilised to derive an areal estimate of half-yearly groundwater contours, fluxes and transport rates on the basis of groundwater level data of 33 dipwells. Second, daily groundwater levels from a hydrological model applying the Boussinesq equation to geological cross-sections were used to calculate specific discharges and transport rates along transects following the general flow direction. With the software Surfer, the general hydrological conditions of the study area and the calculated phosphorus fluxes were plausibly illustrated. Daily transport rates calculated on the basis of the Boussinesq model were dynamic on a very low level, while flow directions frequently pointed towards the peatland. Even when assuming worst case conditions, very low phosphorus export rates (<0.001-0.003 kg SRP ha-1 a-1 ) from the study area via groundwater were estimated with both approaches. According to these results, there is no acute danger of water quality deterioration caused by remobilised phosphorus from this re-wetted peatland. Even though there is no phosphorus export or eventually accumulation within the peatland under favourable conditions, monitoring should continue. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2050 Terminology concerning the definition of boggy areas - A proposition (Polish) (Terminologia dotyczaca definiowania obszar´ow zabagnionych - Propozycja jej uporzadkowania) Bajkiewicz-Grabowska E. Przeglad Geofizyczny 2005 50/1-2 (91-102) Boggy areas are the most productive biological ecosystems and appear at all latitudes, ranging from the tundra, temperate and tropic latitudes to the equator. Boggy areas as hydrosphere elements are not only the object of study of such Earth sciences as hydrology, geography, soil geography, pedology or land melioration, but also of biological sciences. This is the reason why the terminology of such objects tends to vary and is often used in a wrong way. Our suggestion is to accept that the synonym of a boggy area is a bog. In case when a bog is strongly wetted, typical boggy peat-forming processes occur and the peat deposits are deep enough, such a bog should be called a peatbog. When wetting of the bog is unsteady and palustrine, gley or warp processes are the most important in soil formation, then such a bog should be called a marsh. When a bog is situated in the shore lake HYDROLOGY zone and a sludge blanket spreads from the shore to the centre of the lake or when it is an overgrown water reservoir where water or semi-liquid lake deposits are under a plant blanket, then such bog should be called a quaking bog. The term "bog" is synonymous with "wetland", although a bog is a kind of wetland. 2051 The role of wetland in our country Jur´akov´a M. and Klementov´a E. Ekologia Bratislava 2004 23/SUPPL. 1 (86-93) Wetlands provide many services and commodities to humanity. Wetlands, the home of fish, animals, waterfowl and timber, provide important and valuable harvests and plenty of recreational fishing and hunting for local populations and tourists. At the ecosystem level, wetlands moderate the effects of floods, improve water quality and are aesthetically pleasing. They also contribute to the stability of the global levels of available nitrogen, atmospheric sulfur, carbon dioxide and methane. The hydrologic condition of wetlands is extremely important for their structure and functioning and affect many abiotic factors, including soil anaerobiosis and nutrient availability. In the following paper an evaluation of the hydrologic condition and quantification of the particular components entering into the water budget in the case of the Zelienka peat bog are presented. 2052 A screening of the capacity of Louisiana freshwater wetlands to process nitrate in diverted Mississippi River water DeLaune R.D., Jugsujinda A., West J.L. et al. Ecological Engineering 2005 25/4 (315-321) Mississippi River water is currently being diverted into Louisiana coastal wetlands for slowing or reversing marsh deterioration attributed to the rapid subsidence and accompanying saltwater intrusion. In this study, nitrate processing and removal was quantified in a 3700 ha ponded freshwater wetland through which the diverted Mississippi River water enters Louisiana Barataria Basin estuary. Nitrate removal rates using a mass balance approach (measuring changes in nitrate content between the inlet and the outlets) showed that the fresh water wetland removed practically all the nitrate in the diverted river water (35 m3 s-1 ) during a discharge event in April 2003. Denitrification was a major process in removing nitrate in diverted river water. The capacity of the ponded wetland to remove all nitrate in diverted river water was strongly influenced by discharge rate. The ponded wetland did not remove all the NO3 in river water at high discharge rate (>100 m3 s-1 ) in December 2003. Results demonstrate that freshwater diversion through Louisiana coastal wetland can effectively process nitrogen in diverted Mississippi River water. However, discharge or pulsing rate should be regulated where possible to maximize nitrogen removal for limiting amount of nitrogen reaching lower reaches of Louisiana’s Barataria Basin estuary. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2053 Hydrogeomorphic controls on reduction-oxidation conditions across boreal upland-peatland interfaces Mitchell C.P.J. and Branfireun B.A. Ecosystems 2005 8/7 (731747) The reduction-oxidation (redox) state of peatland pore waters plays an important role in many peatland biogeochemical processes. Recent research has also shown that the interface between ecosystems, or the ecotone, may be responsible for a disproportionate amount of biogeochemical activity when material and/or energy is hydrologically transported between ecosystems. The purpose of this research was to examine the spatiotemporal dynamics of redox conditions across two geomorphically distinct Boreal Precambrian Shield upland-peatland ecotones to determine the spatial and temporal scales at which these ecotones may be important. Pore water chemistry of iron and sulphur species was monitored across two upland-peatland ecotones in northwestern Ontario in conjunction with hydrological measurements under both stormflow and nonstormflow conditions. In addition, one upland-peatland ecotone was instrumented to make continuous measurements of in situ redox potential (Eh) over a 12-day period to determine whether measurements at a high temporal scale could provide additional insights into the transfer of nutrients across the upland-peatland interface. Results indicated that hydrology-specifically, groundwater flowpath and the strength of the hydrological connection between upland and peatland- 391 determined the spatial extent of the ecotone as a biogeochemical hotspot. In situ Eh measurements showed that these ecotones may be most important over a scale of only several hours and are largely affected by lateral hydrological flows from the upland. The role of both hot spots and hot moments in biogeochemistry must be considered to accurately estimate the ability of a single ecosystem to process chemical inputs. © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2054 An evaluation of two tracers in surface-flow wetlands: Rhodamine-WT and lithium Dierberg F.E. and DeBusk T.A. Wetlands 2005 25/1 (8-25) Rhodamine-WT and LiCl were compared for their suitability as hydraulic tracers in wetlands. Using outdoor mesocosms, we found lithium to be more conservative than rhodamine-WT when initial concentrations were 4.9 to 64 g/L for rhodamine-WT and 28-516 g/L for Li+ (1:6 to 1:8 (wt/wt) ratio of rhodamineWT to Li+ ). At higher initial concentrations (i.e., 100 g/L for rhodamine-WT and 1000 g/L for Li + ), both tracers returned more than 95% of the injected amount in submerged aquatic vegetation-dominated mesocosms; rhodamine-WT was returned at only 74-75% in cattail-dominated mesocosms. Batch studies using different sediment substrates exposed to direct sunlight and shade indicated that Li + was less affected by adsorption and microbial processes than was rhodamine-WT at low initial tracer concentrations of each (4.9 and 19.4 g/L for rhodamine-WT and 28 and 106 g/L for Li+ ). Both rhodamine-WT and Li+ desorb back to the water column in small amounts. The extent of adsorption losses by rhodamine-WT depended on the organic matter content of the sediment and the extent of photolysis. Even though rhodamine-WT was not as stable as LiCl at initial concentrations less than 60 g/L, the reduction in the recoveries did not affect the accuracy of key hydraulic parameters (hydraulic retention time, dispersion, tanks-in-series, and wetland dispersion numbers) derived from the method of moments analysis as long as a discernible concentration-time response still existed. This is because the tracer losses were approximately zero-order and ir-reversible. © 2005, The Society of Wetland Scientists. Surface water quality 2055 Critical evaluation of measures to mitigate phosphorus losses from agricultural land to surface waters in Sweden Ul´en B. and Jakobsson C. Science of the Total Environment 2005 344/1-3 SPEC. ISS. (37-50) The aim of this paper is to collate information on potential measures to reduce phosphorus (P) losses, with particular reference to Sweden. In Sweden, three dominant types of soils or soil profiles are at risk of suffering from high P losses through different pathways: clay soils with a naturally poor structure, usually situated on the large central plains, are prone to lose P through drain tiles; silty soils, usually situated on hilly terrain, are prone to erosion; and sandy soils with a low P sorption capacity in both topsoil and subsoil and that have had heavy applications of fertilisers, are prone to high leaching losses. Fields with such soils and landscape position with connectivity to surface waters may lose more than 0.5 kg P ha year-1 and often more than 1 kg P ha year-1 . Losses of soluble reactive P (SRP) are commonly 30-50% of the total P losses. Improved soil tillage together with other measures aimed at improving soil structure are suggested to have the best potential to reduce losses, with short-term and longterm effects, for the clayey and silty soil profiles. For the silty soils, keeping the surface densely vegetated in winter and liming backfill of the drainage systems are suggested to be important ways to reduce the losses of particulate P (PartP). For sandy soils prone to P leaching, appropriate application of fertiliser and improved contact between fertiliser and the soil may be one of the few effective ways to reduce SRP losses. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 392 HYDROLOGY 2056 Dissolved and particulate nutrient export from rural catchments: A case study from Luxembourg Salvia- Castellv M., Iffly J.F., Vander Borght P. and Hoffmann L. Science of the Total Environment 2005 344/1-3 SPEC. ISS. (51-65) Nutrient enrichment of freshwaters continues to be one of the most serious problems facing the management of surface waters. Effective remediation/ conservation measures require accurate qualitative and quantitative knowledge of nutrient sources, transport mechanisms, transformations and annual dynamics of different nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) forms. In this paper, nitrate (NO 3 -N), soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations and loads are presented for two adjacent rural basins of 306 km2 and 424 km2 , and for five subbasins differing in size (between 1 km2 and 33 km2 ), land use (extent of forest cover between 20% and 93%) and household pressure (from 0 to 40 people/km 2 ) with the aim of studying the influence of land use and catchment size on nutrient exports. The studied catchments are all situated on Devonian schistous substrates in the Ardennes region (Belgium-Luxembourg), and therefore have similar hydrological regimes. As the study period could not be the same for all basins, annual export coefficients were corrected with the 25 years normalized discharge of the Sˆure River: two regression analyses (for dry and humid periods) relating monthly nutrient loads to monthly runoff were used to determine correction factors to be applied to each parameter and each basin. This procedure allows for the comparing annual export coefficients from basins sampled in different years. Results show a marked seasonal response and a large variability of NO3 N export loads between forested (4 kg N ha -1 year-1 ), agricultural (27-33 kg N ha-1 year-1 ) and mixed catchments (17-22 kg N ha-1 year -1 ). For SRP and TP, no significant agricultural impact was found. Land and bank erosion control the total P massflow in the studied catchments (0.4-1.3 kg P ha-1 year-1 ), which is mostly in a particulate form, detached and transported during storm events. Soluble reactive P fluxes ranged between 10% and 30% of the TP mass, depending on the importance of point sources in the basins studied. No relation was found between the size of the basins and the export of nitrate, SRP or TP. Nutrient export, specially for NO3 -N and TP, shows significant inter-annual variations, closely linked to inter-annual discharge variations. Flow and load frequency data analysis confirm this association for all the basins on an annual basis. Seasonal or storm specific fluxes strongly deviate from their annual values. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2057 A review of the occurrence, analyses, toxicity, and biodegradation of naphthenic acids Clemente J.S. and Fedorak P.M. Chemosphere 2005 60/5 (585600) Naphthenic acids occur naturally in crude oils and in oil sands bitumens. They are toxic components in refinery wastewaters and in oil sands extraction waters. In addition, there are many industrial uses for naphthenic acids, so there is a potential for their release to the environment from a variety of activities. Studies have shown that naphthenic acids are susceptible to biodegradation, which decreases their concentration and reduces toxicity. This is a complex group of carboxylic acids with the general formula C n H2n+Z O2 , where n indicates the carbon number and Z specifies the hydrogen deficiency resulting from ring formation. Measuring the concentrations of naphthenic acids in environmental samples and determining the chemical composition of a naphthenic acids mixture are huge analytical challenges. However, new analytical methods are being applied to these problems and progress is being made to better understand this mixture of chemically similar compounds. This paper reviews a variety of analytical methods and their application to assessing biodegradation of naphthenic acids. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2058 A hybrid genetic - Instance based learning algorithm for CE-QUAL-W2 calibration Ostfeld A. and Salomons S. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (122-142) This paper presents a calibration model for CE-QUAL-W2. CEQUAL-W2 is a two-dimensional (2D) longitudinal/vertical hydrodynamic and water quality model for surface water bodies, modeling eutrophication processes such as temperature-nutrientalgae-dissolved oxygen-organic matter and sediment relationships. The proposed methodology is a combination of a ‘hurdlerace’ and a hybrid Genetic-k-Nearest Neighbor algorithm (GAkNN). The ‘hurdle race’ is formulated for accepting-rejecting a proposed set of parameters during a CE-QUAL-W2 simulation; the k-Nearest Neighbor algorithm (kNN) - for approximating the objective function response surface; and the Genetic Algorithm (GA) - for linking both. The proposed methodology overcomes the high, non-applicable, computational efforts required if a conventional calibration search technique was used, while retaining the quality of the final calibration results. Base runs and sensitivity analysis are demonstrated on two example applications: a synthetic hypothetical example calibrated for temperature, serving for tuning the GA-kNN parameters; and the Lower Columbia Slough case study in Oregon US calibrated for temperature and dissolved oxygen. The GA-kNN algorithm was found to be robust and reliable, producing similar results to those of a pure GA, while reducing running times and computational efforts significantly, and adding additional insights and flexibilities to the calibration process. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2059 Ecological risk assessment of riverine contamination in the Caspian Sea basin: A conceptual model for persistent organochlorinated compounds Galiulin R.V., Bashkin V.N. and Galiulina R.A. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 163/1-4 (33-51) A conceptual model of the ecological risk assessment for persistent organochlorinated compounds (POCs), like DDT, HCH, and PCBs, which contaminate reservoirs and river waters entering into the Caspian Sea is presented. The model can be used to evaluate the toxicity of POCs in these environments. Examples of this model application using POCs monitoring data for water and bottom sediments of different reservoirs and rivers of the Caspian Sea basin are presented. © Springer 2005. 2060 A simple in vivo fluorescence method for the selective detection and quantification of freshwater cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae Gregor J. and Marˇsa´ lek B. Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologica 2005 33/2 (142-148) A method for the rapid detection of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and their differentiation from eukaryotic algae in natural phytoplankton assemblages is presented. Fluorescence emission of photosynthetic pigments at 670 nm was measured using a microplate fluorescence reader when excited at two different wavelengths - 485 nm and 590 nm. The ratio of fluorescence excited at these wavelengths (590 nm/485 nm) was proportional to the ratio of cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae, which was determined by the in situ spectrofluorometer for the phytoplankton quantification. The fluorescence intensity was equal to the total chlorophyll-a content. These two fluorescence values can provide the first warning on a development of potentially toxic cyanobacteria in water. © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. 2061 Product policy as an instrument for water quality management Van Ast J.A., Le Blansch K., Boons F. and Slingerland S. Water Resources Management 2005 19/2 (187-198) A main reason for the persistence of current water pollution lies in the diffuse character of many of its sources. For a large part such diffuse pollution is related to the production, use and waste of various kinds of products. For the reduction of this pollution, a product-oriented policy strategy, based on interaction with stakeholders could be more successful than the traditional measures of direct regulation that were devised for point source reduction. In this article we identify different types of product policy, and explore the potential benefits and costs for water quality management. The methods that can be used in a product policy approach are illustrated with some examples. Although the specific advantages for water quality management have not been quantified yet, governments increasingly recognise the potential positive effects. In this context, the European Water Framework Directive, in stimulating product policy by enhancing public and stakeholders’ participation, can be considered to be part of a HYDROLOGY general development towards interactive water management. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 2062 Bisphenol A degradation in seawater is different from that in river water Kang J.- H. and Kondo F. Chemosphere 2005 60/9 (1288-1292) The purpose of this study was to identify a relationship between changes of bacterial counts and bisphenol A (BPA) degradation in seawater under aerobic or anaerobic conditions, and at temperatures of 4, 25, and 35°C. Water samples (seawater and river water) spiked with 1000 ng/ml of BPA was placed for 60 d. The BPA from water samples was extracted by OASIS HLB cartridges and was detected by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. BPA in river water was degraded under aerobic conditions and was below a detection limit (0.5 ng/ml) on the seventh day at both 25 and 35°C. The more the level of bacterial counts increased, the more BPA degradation decreased. In the case of seawater samples, there was no relationship between BPA degradation and the change of bacterial counts. Bacterial counts at 25 and 35°C increased rapidly at 5 and 3 d, respectively, but decreased since then. The concentration of BPA was not changed for 30 d at both 25 and 35°C, but decreased from 40 to 60 d in spite of low levels of bacteria. These results show that the different degradation way for BPA in seawater may exist. Moreover, our study suggest that BPA in seawater than in river water can continue for longer time with no degradation and the possibility of BPA contamination on a marine organism can be higher than that on freshwater organism. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2063 Competitive sorption between 17-ethinyl estradiol and naphthalene/phenanthrene by sediments Yu Z. and Huang W. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/13 (4878-4885) Steroid hormones such as 17-ethinyl estradiol (EE2) have been frequently detected at various levels in surface waters downstream of many municipal wastewater treatment facilities. Their fate, transport, and environmental risk are currently not well characterized. This study examined the competitive sorption between EE2 and two aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, phenanthrene and naphthalene, by three sediments. The sorption isotherms of phenanthrene and naphthalene were measured at 22 0.5 °C using a batch technique with initial aqueous concentrations (Co ) of EE2 at 0, 100, 500, and 2000 g/l. Competitive sorption varied between EE2 and phenanthrene or naphthalene on the sediments. The linearity of the naphthalene sorption isotherm was found to increase as a function of the cosorbate EE2 concentration from 0 to 2000 g/L. The single-point naphthalene KD value at equilibrium aqueous-phase naphthalene concentration (Ce ) of 25 g/L was reduced by 19-26% and 27-48% at Co (EE2) = 100 and 500 g/L, respectively. The sorption of phenanthrene at its low Ce range was similarly affected by EE2, but to a much less extent, possibly because phenanthrene is more hydrophobic than EE2. At high phenanthrene C e , no measurable change was observed even at Co (EE2) = 2000 g/L. While the effect of naphthalene on EE2 sorption was insignificant, the competitive effect on the sorption of EE2 by phenanthrene was very significant at low EE2 concentrations. The measured single-point EE2 K D values decreased as much as 35% as the phenanthrene Ce increases from below 10 g/L to slightly above 100 g/l. This study suggests that the fate and transport of emerging pollutants such as EE2 could be affected in the presence of more hydrophobic pollutants in aquatic systems. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2064 Optimization of a methodology for the determination of organochlorine pesticides in surface water by SPMEGC/MS Brondi S.H.G. and Lanc¸as F.M. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 2005 40/4 (513-523) In the present work experimental conditions were optimized for the analysis of organochlorine traces in water matrix using solidphase microextraction (SPME) followed by gas chromatography with mass selective detector. The parameters including time of exposure of the fiber in the aqueous sample, fiber type, agitation speed, pH, ionic forces, temperature of adsorption, and time of desorption were evaluated. The best conditions to analyze 393 organochlorine were obtained by using higher than room temperature, agitation of the sample, extraction time of 40 min, and polyacrylate fiber. Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc. 2065 The fate of endosulfan in water Shivaramaiah H.M., Sanchez- Bayo F., Al- Rifai J. and Kennedy I.R. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 2005 40/5 (711-720) Although the use of endosulfan to control cotton pests has declined, this insecticide still has widespread application in agriculture and can contaminate riverine systems as runoff from soil or by aerial deposition. The degradation of endosulfan in pure water at different pH values of 5, 7 and 9 and in river water from the Namoi and the Hawkesbury rivers of New South Wales (NSW), Australia, was studied in the laboratory. Endosulfan transformation into endosulfan sulfate in river water using artificial mesocosms was also investigated. The results show endosulfan is stable at pH 5, with increasing rates of disappearance at pH 7 and pH 9 by chemical hydrolysis. Incubation of endosulfan with river water at pH 8.3 resulted in the disappearance of endosulfan and the formation of endosulfan diol due to the alkaline pH as well as formation of endosulfan sulfate. Although the degradation of endosulfan by Anabaena, a blue-green alga, did not result in the transformation of endosulfan to endosulfan sulfate, we conclude that other microorganisms catalyzed the formation of the sulfate. Significant conversions of endosulfan into endosulfan sulfate were also reported from associated field studies using artificial mesocoms containing irrigation water from rivers inhabitated by micro-macro fauna. From these results, we conclude that the presence of endosulfan sulfate in river water cannot be used to distinguish contamination by runoff from soil from contamination by aerial drift or redeposition. Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc. 2066 Voltammetry of copper sulfide particles and nanoparticles: Investigation of the cluster hypothesis Cigleneˇcki I., Krznari´c D. and Helz G.R. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7492-7498) An association of Cu with sulfide in aerobic natural waters has been attributed to these components’ coexistence in clusters of sizes intermediate between mononuclear complexes and colloidal particles. This hypothesis is investigated here. Copper sulfide solid phases display size-related voltammetric behavior at Hg electrodes. Suspensions of copper sulfide powders held at accumulation potentials of 0 to -0.2 V (vs Ag/AgCl) produce voltammetric peaks near -0.15, -0.65, and -0.95 V during subsequent cathodic scans. The first two peaks arise from electrochemically generated Cu-oxyhydroxides and HgS; the -0.95 V peak arises from reduction of sorbed copper sulfide particles. Nanoparticles of radius
10-8 m produce the third peak even without stirring or accumulation. Still smaller analytes give only the first two peaks. Published evidence alleging production of subnanometer copper sulfide clusters during titrations of Cu2+ and HS- was not reproduced when sulfide oxidation was avoided. Instead, such titrations apparently generate nanoparticles. The titration stoichiometry is 1/1, consistent with previous descriptions of this process: Cu2+ + HS- ! 1/2Cu 2 SS0 (brown sol) ! CuS (green sol). Titrating Cu2+ into organic-rich (muscilaginous) Adriatic Sea water, which contains 10-7 M natural thiols and sulfide, produces solid products. In the future, voltammetry might prove useful for studying semiconductor sulfide nanoparticles in nature. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2067 Primary consumer stable nitrogen isotopes as indicators of nutrient source Vander Zanden M.J., Vadeboncoeur Y., Diebel M.W. and Jeppesen E. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7509-7515) Non-point source loading of nitrogen and phosphorus is a primary cause of eutrophication of inland waters, although the diffuse and variable nature of nutrient inputs makes it difficult to trace and identify nutrient pathways. Stable nitrogen isotope values ( 15 N) in aquatic biota are thought to reflect anthropogenic nutrient inputs, and they may be a promising tool fortracing nutrient sources in watersheds. We measured 15 N of aquatic consumers from 394 HYDROLOGY a suite of 27 Danish lakes spanning a range of trophic states (oligotrophic to eutrophic) and land uses (forest, urban, agriculture). Primary consumer 15 N values (PC 15 N) varied more than 14% among lakes. Models of PC 15 N were developed from limnological, nitrogen loading, and nitrogen source variables using an information-theoretic approach (Akaike’s Information Criteria, AIC). Models based on land use/land cover performed best, indicating that elevated 15 N is not only associated with high nitrogen loading, but is also reflective of nitrogen source. Urban and agricultural land use in the watershed, and particularly within the riparian buffer areas, was quantitatively linked to elevated biotic 15 N. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2068 Determination of commonly used herbicides in surface water using solid-phase extraction and dual-column HPLCDAD ¨ ¨ Ozhan G., Ozden S. and Alpertunga B. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 2005 40/6 (827-840) The present study describes the application of different solidphase extraction techniques for the extraction, separation, and quantitative determination of 10 commonly used herbicides with different chemical structures (chlorsulfuron, diuron, bentazone, linuron, chlorpropham, fenoxoprop-ethyl, MCPA, diclofop-methyl, fluazifop-butyl, trifluraline) in water. Octadecyl (C18 ) Empore extraction disks, octadecyl (C18 ), and stryene divinylbenzene (SDB) Bond Elut Env cartridges were compared for solid-phase extraction efficiency. Herbicides were separated and quantified by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection (HPLC-DAD) with simultaneous separation on two columns of differing polarity (C18 and CN) to confirm identification. Analytical separation was performed simultaneously on C18 and CN columns. Reanalysis of the sample extracts on a (cyano) CN column were used to confirm the identity of these compounds. Method optimization and validation parameters were presented in this work. Recoveries varied from 76.0% to 99.0% for C18 disks, from 75.1% to 100.0% for C18 cartridges, and from 54.0% to 98.0% for SDB cartridges over concentrations at 0.025-0.4 g L-1 . The limits of detection were 0.012-0.035 g L-1 . Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc. 2069 Ecotechnology: Basis of a new immission concept in water pollution control Benndorf J. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (17-24) Beyond the traditional load reduction also an ecosystem-internal mechanism can be used to minimise the effects of water pollution. The control of the internal mechanisms is achieved through the optimisation of the ecosystem structure. This ecotechnology principle is based on the idea to reduce as much as possible the gap between the current (suboptimal) structural status and the optimum structure by intentional manipulations. The spectrum of such manipulations is very broad. A few examples are demonstrated. They comprise physical (e.g. stream morphology), chemical (e.g. enhancing the redox potential at the sediment-water interface) and biological (e.g. enhancing stocks of predatory fishes) control measures. It can be supposed that a new immission concept including the ecotechnology principle could be much more adequate to the demand of modern water pollution control than the traditional emission and imission concepts. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2070 Model based hydropower gate operation for mitigation of CSO impacts by means of river base flow increase Achleitner S., De Toffol S., Engelhard C. and Rauch W. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (87-94) In river stretches being subjected to flow regulation, usually for the purpose of energy production (i.g. Hydropower) or flood protection (river barrage), a special measure can be taken against the effect of combined sewer overflows (CSOs). The basic idea is the temporal increase of the river base flow (during storm weather) as an in-stream measure for mitigation of CSO spilling. The focus is the mitigation of the negative effect of acute pollution of substances. The measure developed can be seen as an application of the classic real time control (RTC) concept onto the river system. Upstream gate operation is to be based on real time monitoring and forecasting of precipitation. The main objective is the development of a model based predictive control system for the gate operation, by modelling of the overall wastewater system (incl. the raceiving water). The main emphasis is put on the operational strategy and the appropriate short-term forecast of spilling events. The potential of the measure is tested for the application of the operational strategy and its ecological and economic feasibility. The implementation of such an in-stream measure into the hydropower’s operational scheme is unique. Advantages are (a) the additional in-stream dilution of acute pollutants entering the receiving-water and (b) the resulting minimization of the required CSO storage volume. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2071 An integrated modelling concept for immission-based management of sewer system, wastewater treatment plant and river Erbe V. and Sch¨utze M. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (95-103) Today’s planning standards deal with the individual urban drainage components (sewer system, wastewater treatment plant and receiving water) separately, i.e. they are often designed and operated as single components. As opposed to this, an integral handling considers the drainage components jointly. This novel approach allows a holistic and more sustainable planning of urban drainage systems. This paper presents an integrated modelling concept. The aim is to analyse fluxes through the total wastewater system and to integrate pollution-based control in the upstream direction, that is, e.g., managing the combined water retention tanks as a function of state variables in the WWTP or the receiving water. All models of the different subsystems are based on the Activated Sludge Model (ASM) concept of IWA, including River Water Quality Model No. 1 (RWQM). Simulations can be done in truly parallel mode using the simulation environment SIMBA. The integrated modelling concept is applied to the river Dhuenn and the urban wastewater system of the municipality of Odenthal (Germany). An optimised operation of the system using RTC proves to be a very effective measure. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2072 ArcEGMO-URBAN - Hydrological model for point sources in river basins Biegel M., Schanze J. and Krebs P. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (249-256) The new model ArcEGMO-URBAN aims it deterministic and spatiotemporal modelling of water, nitrogen and phosphorus fluxes from all urbanised areas of a river basin considering all potential sources. Pollution loads are calculated for discrete urban patches and balanced on the level of hydrological subbasins. Modelling results can be defined by the user of any level of spatial and/or temporal aggregation, e.g. matter balances for river basins or river sections and years or months, respectively. To process spatial data, a Geographic Information System is linked to the model. Information on urban land use and general characteristics of river basins is based on digital coverages, partly generated from remote-sensing data. Moreover, statistical data, e.g. on population, sewer systems, wastewater treatment plants etc. are included. Stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces is calculated as one input to the sewer network. Wastewater is considered with its main sewer system, pumping stations and treatment plants. Finally, the discharge is balanced for discrete river sections. Modelling results attest ArcEGMO-URBAN its ability to realistically quantify matter fluxes and major pollution sources as well as their seasonal variation. This makes the model an applicable tool for the analysis of scenarios with e.g. varying population distribution or climatic and technological conditions. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2073 A two-layer model to simulate variations in surface water chemistry draining a northern forest watershed Chen L. and Driscoll C.T. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-8) [1] Seasonal patterns are evident in surface water chemistry draining forested headwaters in the northeastern United States. This variation in surface water chemistry is largely driven by seasonal fluctuations in hydrologic flow paths and biological activity. Especially during spring snowmelt, high-flow conditions are characterized by high concentrations of NO3 - , naturally occurring organic anions and aluminum species, and depression in surface HYDROLOGY water pH and acid neutralizing capacity (ANC). Under extreme conditions, decreases in pH and ANC and increases in aluminum can have adverse effects on aquatic biota. As a result, there is a critical need to be able to simulate seasonal variations in surface water acid-base chemistry. Previously, a single soil layer biogeochemical model (PnET-BGC) was found to be inadequate to simulate seasonal variations in stream chemistry draining acidsensitive forest watersheds. In order to better simulate the seasonal variations in the acid-base chemistry of surface waters, a two-layer model (PnET-BGC2) was formulated and applied to a northern forest ecosystem. End-member mixing analysis was used to better understand hydrologic flow paths contributing to temporal patterns in stream chemistry and to parameterize the model. The resulting two-layer model is generally able to reproduce the seasonal variations in surface water runoff, concentrations of base cations, SO 24 , NO3 , pH, and ANC. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2074 Analytical strategies for inorganic and organic selenium speciation in natural waters (French) (Strat´egies analytiques pour la sp´eciation du s´el´enium inorganique et organique dans les eaux naturelles) Bueno M., Darrouz`es J., Dauthieu M. et al. Journal Europeen d’Hydrologie 2005 36/2 (179-190) Selenium is today recognized as a trace element, it is thus essential to life, but in higher doses it becomes toxic for Human and animals. The concentration range between its indispensable role and its toxicity is very narrow. Selenium appears in its natural cycle in several oxidation states and as a variety of inorganic and organic compounds. In waters, selenite and selenate are the species most often searched and detected. It has been shown that inorganic selenium doesn’t always account for total concentration in water. Therefore identification and quantification of dissolved organic species, i.e selenomethionine, selenocystine, trimethylselenonium..., is essential to complete selenium speciation. Our lab is interested since 1991 in selenium environmental chemistry in aquatic systems. Attention is paid here to our recent analytical developments based on high performance liquid chromatography - inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICPMS), allowing environmental speciation at the ten ng (Se). L-1 level. We focus on two ways to lower Se detection limits. On the one hand, detector performances are improved with the help of recent ICPMS generation equipped with collision/reaction cell, operating conditions being optimized by experimental design methodology. Sample introduction by hydride generation step instead of pneumatic nebulisation, also results in improved detection power. On the other hand, we are developping preconcentration procedures to artificially lower detection limits. We select working stationary phases that allow the simultaneous preconcentration of inorganic and organic selenium species to keep the advantage of HPLC-ICPMS direct speciation. 2075 Evaluating the relative roles of ecological regions and land-cover composition for guiding establishment of nutrient criteria Wickham J.D., Riitters K.H., Wade T.G. and Jones K.B. Landscape Ecology 2005 20/7 (791-798) The continuing degradation of United States surface waters by excessive nutrient loads has motivated the establishment of nutrient criteria for streams, lakes, and estuaries as a means to protect aquatic resources. Nutrient criteria have been established based on ecoregional differences, recognizing that geographic variation in climate, topography, geology, and land use require use of different criteria values for different regions of the continental United States. Several studies have demonstrated that land-cover composition also strongly influences nutrient concentrations and yields. We examined the relative importance of ecoregions and watershed land-cover composition in explaining variability in nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations by re-analyzing the National Eutrophication Survey (NES) data reported by Omernik (1977). The variance of N concentrations among landcover composition classes within ecoregions was six times larger than the variance among ecoregions. For P concentrations, landcover composition within ecoregions accounted for three times more variance than ecoregions themselves. Variance across ecoregions was only weakly significant after accounting for variance 395 in land-cover composition within ecoregions. The results suggest that the relationship between land-cover composition and nutrient concentrations in aquatic systems should also be used to help guide establishment of nutrient criteria. © Springer 2005. Surface water quality: runoff and soil water 2076 Nutrient transfer by runoff from sewage sludge amended soil under simulated rainfall Quilb´e R., Serreau C., Wicherek S. et al. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2005 100/1-3 (177-190) Wastewater sludges are used in agriculture as soil amendment and fertilizer, with regard to their organic matter and nutrient content. However, availability of nitrogen and phosphorus from sludge-amended soils and their transfer in runoff may lead to eutrophication of downstream surface water. The aim of this study is to establish and compare the effect of two different sludges on these transfers: an anaerobically digested and thermically stabilised sludge (Seine-Aval treatment plant, sludge no. 1), and a limed sludge (Saint-Quentin treatment plant, sludge no. 2). Experiments were performed on 12 sloping micro-plots (1 m  1 m) submitted to sludge spreading and controlled rainfall simulation. Runoff water was sampled and analysed for concentrations in nitrogen species and phosphorus. Results show that spreading of sludge no. 1 increased both ammonium nitrogen (mean of 1.1 mg L-1 N-NH4 vs. 0.2 mg L-1 N-NH4 for control micro-plots) and particulate phosphorus concentrations (mean of 2 mg L-1 P vs. 1.1 mg L-1 P for control micro-plots) in runoff water. On the other hand, sludge no. 2 did not induce any significant effect on nutrient concentrations in runoff. These results are related to chemical composition and physical treatment of sludges. This study underlines the existence of a short-term risk of nutrient mobilisation by runoff after sludge spreading on soil, and the need to check precisely the impact on this practice on water quality. © Springer 2005. 2077 Understanding heavy metal and suspended solids relationships in urban stormwater using simulated rainfall Herngren L., Goonetilleke A. and Ayoko G.A. Journal of Environmental Management 2005 76/2 (149-158) Urban stormwater from simulated rainfall on three different landuses in Queensland State, Australia (residential, industrial, commercial) was analysed for heavy metals and physico-chemical parameters such as Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). Rainfall events were simulated using a specially designed rainfall simulator for paved surfaces. Event mean concentration samples were separated into five different particle sizes and analysed individually for eight metal elements (Zn, Fe, Cr, Cd, Cu, Al, Mn and Pb). Multivariate data analysis was carried out for the data thus generated. It was found that DOC and TSS influence the distribution of the metals in the different particle size classes. Zn was correlated with DOC at all three sites. Similarly, Pb, Fe and Al were correlated with TSS at all sites. The distribution of Cu was found to vary between the three sites, whilst Cd concentrations were too low to assess any relationships with other parameters. No correlation between Electrical Conductivity (EC), pH and heavy metals was found at the three sites. The identification of physico-chemical parameters influencing the distribution process kinetics of heavy metals in urban stormwater will significantly enhance the efficiency of urban stormwater management systems. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2078 Inconspicuous nutrient laden surface runoff from mature forest Sierran watersheds Miller W.W., Johnson D.W., Denton C. et al. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 163/1-4 (3-17) It is generally held that surface runoff in heavily forested ecosystems is minimal and therefore nutrient fluxes via runoff are unimportant. This is based in large measure on the absence of direct observation or remnant physical evidence. It is further held that protected forests with heavy understory and litter serve as a nutrient sink due to maximum uptake and interception. Our 396 HYDROLOGY Sierran studies have detected the presence of surface runoff at several sites in the form of both overland and litter interflow with concentrations of NH 4 -N as high as 87.2 mg L-1 , NO3 -N as high as 95.4 mg L-1 , and PO4 -P as high as 24.4 mg L-1 . Data suggest that nutrients are derived from the mature O-horizons, and that there has been little contact with the mineral soil or root zone where strong retention and/or uptake of these ions would be expected. Such contributions from overland/interflow could be particularly important in areas where ultra-oligotrophic lakes (e.g., Lake Tahoe) are now trending towards meso-oligotrophic status. We believe that fire exclusion in these systems may have exacerbated N and P inputs to Lake Tahoe and elsewhere by allowing unnatural buildups of O-horizons that are apparently a source of nutrients to surface runoff. © Springer 2005. 2079 Lessons from endocrine disruption and their application to other issues concerning trace organics in the aquatic environment Sumpter J.P. and Johnson A.C. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/12 (4321-4332) In the past 10 years, many thousands of research papers covering the many different aspects of endocrine disruption in the environment have been published. What has been learned from all this research? We have tried to reduce this very large volume of research into a relatively small number of "lessons". Hence, this paper is not a typical review, but instead it summarizes our personal opinions on what we consider are the major messages to have come from all this research. We realize that what has been a lesson to us may have been obvious from the outset to someone more knowledgeable on that particular aspect of the burgeoning field of endocrine disruption. In addition, it is inevitable that others will consider that we have "missed" some lessons that they would have expected to find included in our list. If so, we encourage them to submit them as responses to our paper. Our own lessons range widely, from the design and interpretation of data from fieldwork studies, through some key messages to come out of the very many laboratory studies that have been conducted, to issues around the sources and fates in the environment of endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and finally to the key role of sewage treatment in controlling the concentrations of these chemicals in the aquatic environment. Having (hopefully) learned our lessons, we have then applied them to the difficult issue of how best to approach future concerns about the potential impacts of other new and emerging contaminants (e.g., pharmaceuticals) on wildlife. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2080 Evaluation of seasonal scale first flush pollutant loading and implications for urban runoff management Soller J., Stephenson J., Olivieri K. et al. Journal of Environmental Management 2005 76/4 (309-318) This study investigated how the occurrence and magnitude of first flush events in stormwater may influence the effective management of urban runoff pollution. To facilitate the understanding of the first flush phenomenon on a seasonal scale, the City of San Jose, CA carried out an investigation between May 1997 and April 2000 to characterize concentrations of pollutants in local waterbodies during eight storm events. The purpose of the investigation was twofold: (1) To determine if concentrations of specific constituents in stormwater runoff are elevated during the first substantial storm of the wet season, and (2) To identify the physical and environmental conditions surrounding such events. Concentration data for total and dissolved metals, pesticides, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, anions, total suspended solids, total organic carbon, conductivity, gasoline and diesel, and volatile and semi-volatile organics were collected at over 25 sites. Monitoring data analysis focused on identifying physical and environmental conditions yielding increased levels of pollutants during the first substantial storms of the rainy season compared to other storm events. Quantitative analysis focused on metals and anions because most observations for other constituents were below detectable levels. The results suggest that first flush phenomena did not occur consistently throughout most of the stations investigated. The results further suggest that there are specific combinations of site and storm conditions that result in a first flush effect with respect to dissolved metals. Based on the results of this and related investigations, implications for urban runoff management are discussed. For example, if dissolved metals are of principal concern, it may be worthwhile to optimize existing control strategies to minimize pollutant loading from storms that are preceded by an extended dry period. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2081 Kinetics of peat soil dissolved organic carbon release to surface water. Part 2. A chemodynamic process model Thibodeaux L.J. and Aguilar L. Chemosphere 2005 60/9 (11901196) Temporary water reservoirs built upon peat soil may exhibit water quality impairment from elevated dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Microbiological decay of the organic carbon in the bed with subsequent release produces "tea" colored water which may require treatment prior to use. This paper contains a processbased mathematical model that quantifies the DOC release from the bed and its build-up in the water column. The model elements are based on microbial DOC production rates and bed sediment transport kinetics describing its’ release from the organic soil systems. It relies on laboratory data obtained from an experimental study, Part 1, designed to simulate the DOC chemodynamics of aquatic reservoirs built upon peat soils. A two-step DOC release process was structured based on the experimental findings. The model mechanism assumes a quick release fraction that characterizes the upper soil surface layers as a "tea bag" type release process. This is followed by a fraction that is continuously produced and then released at a constant rate overtime by on-going microbial processes within the upper soil layers. The depth of the active layer, selected as h = 0.3 cm, is the single adjustable parameter in the model. Concentration predictions of the are consistent with the laboratory simulations and field observations. Measured vs. model-calculated DOC concentrations for both in the microcosm bed and water column are used to test critical features of the proposed model. As conceived and structured it appears to be a realistic first step in quantifying the DOC release consequences for the water column of a reservoir sited upon a peat-soil bed. The development ends with an application to a hypothetical reservoir in order to illustrate model strengths and uncertainties. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2082 Influence of rainfall characteristics on elimination of aerosols of cesium, strontium, barium and tellurium deposited on grassland Madoz- Escande C., Garcia- Sanchez L., Bonhomme T. and Morello M. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2005 84/1 (1-20) This work is aimed at quantifying foliar transfer of cesium, strontium, barium and tellurium under the influence of rainfall characteristics (intensity, frequency and time elapsed between contamination and first rainfall). Grassland boxes were contaminated by dry deposition of multi-element aerosols of 137 Cs, 85 Sr, 133 Ba and 123m Te. They were grown in a greenhouse under controlled conditions. The treatments consisted of mowing and applying rainfalls (8 and 30 mm h-1 ) at different times after the contamination. At a leaf area index of 5.9 1.9, interception of the aerosols was similar for the 4 radionuclides (83.8 5.9%). Dew produced significant radionuclide accumulation in the base of the vegetation and transfer to the soil. For moderate intensity, an early (2 days after contamination) first rainfall was as efficient, in terms of leaf wash-off, as a longer rainfall occurring later (6 days after contamination). For early rainfalls, eliminated activities were comparable because the influence of rain intensity was compensated by rain duration. However, for late rainfalls, wash-off efficiency increased with rainfall intensity. Total transfer factors (TTF) were determined on whole grass immediately after 4 rainfalls and at harvest. After 4 medium intensity rainfalls, rain frequency did not influence total transfer factors (TTF) of strontium, barium and tellurium (about 0.2, 0.3 -2 and 0.35 Bq kg-1 freshweight by Bq m , respectively). Cesium TTF value was lower in the case of a weekly rain (0.1 against 0.2 Bq -2 kg-1 freshweight by Bq m ). TTF values were similar for twice-a-week rainfalls, whatever their intensity. They were higher for weekly rains of high intensity (between 0.3 and 0.75 Bq kg -1 freshweight by -2 Bq m-2 against 0.1-0.35 Bq kg-1 freshweight by Bq m , depending on the radionuclides). TTF values attested that wash-off was more efficient when rainfalls lasted longer. Field loss on the HYDROLOGY top of the leaves was well described by an offset exponential model. The half-lives varied with rainfall characteristics from 4 days for cesium, strontium and barium to 20 days for tellurium. The offset value varied between 0% for tellurium (high intensity rainfalls) and 14% for cesium (medium intensity rainfalls). © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2083 Quantitative determination of sterols and other alcohols in overland flow from grazing land and possible source materials Nash D., Leeming R., Clemow L. et al. Water Research 2005 39/13 (2964-2978) Organic marker compounds (biomarkers) can be used to identify the sources of waterborne pollutants. This paper examines sterols and other alcohols in overland flow from pasture-based grazing systems, possible agricultural source materials and water extracts of these source materials as a preliminary step to developing chemical profiles that can be used for tracing pollutants. The biomarkers were quantified using gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques. Analyses of plant material show that some pasture species contain unique compounds, enabling their identification. For example, Arctotheca calendula (capeweed) contains an as yet unidentified compound (Arctotheca m/z 163). Other pasture species that do not contain unique compounds do contain unique ratios of phytol, hexacosanol, octacosanol and 24-ethylcholesterol, enabling their identification. Analyses of faecal samples show that the ratios of sterols to stanols enable faeces to be distinguished from the pasture species, e.g. the ratio of 24-ethylcholesterol to 24-ethylcoprostanol was <1, generally <0.25 for faeces, while for most pasture species this ratio was >4. Using this ratio, qualitative apportioning of the sources of pollutants in overland flow to vegetation or faeces could be performed, but only in extreme cases (i.e. when the ratio <1 or >4). Decaying organic matter and surface soil appear to contain a composite of plant and faecal sterols. Sterols, being sparingly soluble in water and surface active, were not expected to be present in overland flow samples. Surprisingly, cholesterol and 24-ethylcoprostanol were found in both the particulate and filtrate fractions of most overland flow and water extracts of most source materials. Using the ratios of sterols to stanols, particulate organic material in water could be traced back to its broader source, i.e. vegetation or faeces. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 397 from the residential area was conducted twice in different seasons (autumn and winter). The collected road dust was separated into three or four size-fractions and further fractionated into light (<1.7 g/cm 3 ) and heavy (gt;1.7 g/cm3 ) fractions by using cesium chloride solution. Light particles constituted only 4.0 1.4%, 0.69 0.03% and 3.4 1.0% of the road dust by weight for Shakujii (November), Shakujii (February) and Hongo Street, respectively but contained 28 10%, 33 3% and 44 8% of the total PAHs, respectively. The PAH contents in the light fractions were 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than those in the heavy fractions. In the light fractions, the 12PAH contents in February were significantly higher than the 12PAH contents in November (P < 0.01), whereas in the heavy fractions, no significant difference was found (P > 0.05). Cluster analysis revealed that there was a significant difference in the PAH profiles between locations rather than between size-fractions, density-fractions and sampling times. Multiple regression analysis indicated that asphalt/pavement was the major source of Shakujii road dust, and that tyre and diesel vehicle exhaust were the major sources of finer and coarser fractions collected from Hongo Street road dust, respectively. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2086 Modelling non-structural best management practices - Focus on reductions in stormwater pollution Ahlman S., Malm A., Kant H. et al. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (9-16) This paper describes a modelling approach for evaluating the efficiency of different non-structural best management practices for stormwater management. A scenario with a set of source reduction practices was simulated using the substance flow model SEWSYS for an urban catchment in the city of G¨oteborg, Sweden. The scenario is based on a hypothetical control program that includes prevention, education and regulations. The simulation shows relatively high reductions of copper and PAH, 77% and 50%, respectively. The reduction in copper is mainly due to less copper roof corrosion and brake wear, while reduced road wear had the greatest effect for PAH. An important result from this study is that the non-structural BMPs applied did not give a sufficient reduction in pollution to meet the desirable environmental quality criteria. To meet these criteria, additional BMPs must be implemented, preferably a combination of both non-structural and structural measures. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2084 Herbicide losses in runoff events from a field with a low slope: Role of a vegetative filter strip Vianello M., Vischetti C., Scarponi L. and Zanin G. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (717-725) Herbicide runoff and the effects of a narrow vegetative filter strip (VFS) were studied on an arable field in the low-lying plains of the Veneto Region (north-east Italy). Cultivated plots were compared with and without a 6 m wide VFS composed of trees, shrubs and grass. Natural and simulated runoff were monitored during 2000 and 2001. Herbicides applied on the field were: metolachlor (2184-2254 g ha-1 ), terbuthylazine (1000-1127 g ha -1 ) and isoproturon (1000 g ha-1 ). The VFS reduced both runoff depth (10.2-91.2%) and herbicide losses (85.7-97.9%) in the monitored rainfall events. Total herbicide loss with runoff was low (0.69-3.98 g ha -1 without VFS, less than 0.27 g ha-1 with VFS), but concentrations were sometimes very high, especially of terbuthylazine and isoproturon during the first events after treatment. In these events there was a high probability of exceeding the ecotoxicological endpoint for algae, but the VFS helped to reduce the potential risk. Two VFS effectiveness mechanisms were identified: (i) dilution, and (ii) a "sponge-like" effect, which temporarily trapped chemicals inside the VFS before releasing them. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2087 Model description of storage and infiltration functions of infiltration facilities for urban runoff analysis by a distributed model Furumai H., Jinadasa H.K.P.K., Murakami M. et al. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (53-60) Although there have been simulation researches focusing on reduction of stormwater peak flow by introduced infiltration facilities, model simulation of dynamic runoff behavior is still limited for frequently occurring rainfall events with weak intensity. Therefore, dynamic simulation was carried out in two urban drainages with infiltration facilities incorporated with a distributed model using two methods for describing functions of infiltration facilities. A method adjusting effective rainfall model gave poor simulation of runoff behavior in light rainfalls. Another method considering dynamic change of storage capacity as well as infiltration rate gave satisfactory estimation of the runoff in both drainages. In addition, assumption of facility clogging improved the agreement between measured and simulated hydrographs in small and medium-sized rainfall. Therefore, the proposed method might be useful for quantifying the secondary effects of the infiltration facilities on groundwater recharge and urban non-point pollutant trapping as well as runoff reduction. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2085 Size- and density-distributions and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban road dust Murakami M., Nakajima F. and Furumai H. Chemosphere 2005 61/6 (783-791) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) present in size- and density-fractionated road dust were measured to identify the important fractions in urban runoff and to analyse their sources. Road dust was collected from a residential area (Shakujii) and a heavy traffic area (Hongo Street). The sampling of road dust 2088 Improved formulations for rapid erosion of diverse solids in combined sewers Mcllhatton T.D., Ashley R.M. and Tait S.J. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (143-150) For more than a decade, research carried out in Scotland has investigated the movement of sediment in sewers and the associated pollutant release. Pollution by discharges from combined sewer overflows can adversely affect watercourses, particularly those in urban areas. Solids and dissolved contaminants, many derived 398 HYDROLOGY from in-sewer deposits during a storm event, can be especially significant. This phenomenon can occur during events known as ‘foul flushes’. In combined sewers these typically occur in the initial period of storm flows, when the concentration of suspended sediments and other pollutants is significantly higher than at other times. It has become apparent that much of the suspended load originates from solids eroded from the bed. The ‘near bed solids’ which are re-entrained into the flow, together with solids eroded from the bulk bed, account for large changes in the suspended sediment concentration under time varying flow conditions. This paper describes some of the methods employed to investigate the solids eroding in combined sewers during peak flow events. The work examined the potential for sediment re-suspension under high flow conditions both in the laboratory and in the field. © 2005 IWA. 2089 A long-term suspended solids runoff simulation in a highway drainage system Aryal R.K., Jinadasa H.K.P.K., Furumai H. and Nakajima F. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (159-167) A long-term monitoring investigation was carried out in a highway drainage system in Winterthur, Switzerland. Several runoff quality and quantity simulations were carried out using the distributed model "InfoWorks-CS". Serial rainfall monitoring data was used for investigation of SS runoff behavior from the highway. Under continuous rainfall conditions, the quantity simulation showed a good agreement with the measured hydrograph. However, in some cases where rainfall was not continuous, overestimation of the peak height was found at the later stage after the end of the rainfall. It was believed that the initial/depression loss on the road surface was recovered during the halting period of rainfall. The consideration of regenerated depression loss significantly improved runoff simulation results in the onand-off type rainfall events. A single event quality simulation underestimated the SS load in light rainfall events. One of the reasons was possibly inadequate consideration of pipe sediment conditions. A long term simulation was carried out to establish the initial condition of surface and pipe sediment for the target event. The newly simulated pollutograph gave a good agreement with the measured one. It revealed that it was essential to consider appropriateness of the initial condition of pipe sediment as well as surface sediment. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2090 Development of a distributed hydrological model based on urban databanks - Production processes of URBS Rodriguez F., Morena F. and Andrieu H. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (241-248) The objective of this study is to present a distributed hydrological model especially dedicated to urban catchments, and able to represent hydrological processes usually neglected in urban modelling, such as evapotranspiration, infiltration in roads, or direct infiltration of soil water in sewers. This model, called URBS (as Urban Runoff Branching Structure) is distributed considering the spatial variability of land use which is well known thanks to urban databanks managed by GIS. The production function is detailed at each cadastral parcel scale, and the runoff produced is routed by a simple transfer function. The estimation of the input parameters of the model is mostly based on physical considerations, and the model is applied on a suburban catchment in Nantes (France) in order to evaluate the interest of the distribution of the hydrological variables. © 2005 IWA. 2091 Stormwater quality models: Sensitivity to calibration data Mourad M., Bertrand- Krajewski J.- L. and Chebbo G. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (61-68) Stormwater quality modelling is a useful tool in sewer systems management. Available models range from simple to detailed complex ones. The models need local data to be calibrated. In practice, calibration data are rather lacking. Only few measured events are commonly used. In this paper, the effect of the number and the variability of calibration data on models of various levels of complexity are investigated. The study is carried out on "Le Marais" catchment for suspended solids where 40 reliable measured events and good knowledge of the sewer system are available. The method used is based on resampling subsets of measured events-among the 40 available ones. Three types of models were calibrated using subsets of events of different sizes and characteristics resampled among the 40 available ones. For each calibration, the model was validated against the remaining events to stand upon the quality of the model. It was found that the models are quite sensitive to calibration data, a problem neglected in practical studies. The use of more complex models does not necessarily improve modelling results since more problems and error sources are to be expected. The findings are specific to "Le Marais" catchment and the models used. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2092 Phosphorus concentrations of brook runoff in a Swiss agricultural catchment: Longitudinal variability and subsurface drainage impact Weisshaidinger R., Hebel B., Ogermann P. et al. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (81-88) Hydrological characteristics and water quality of anthropogenic subsurface drainage and brook runoff were observed in a small agricultural catchment near Basel (NW Switzerland). A two year monitoring programme provided concentration data for soluble Molybdate Reactive Phosphorus (MRP = Dissolved Reactive Phosphorus) for both base flow and storm events. Recurrence frequency and correlation analyses were conducted to evaluate the samples with regard to time-space variability as well as observance of eutrophication limits. Results suggest substantial MRP input into the brook system via subsurface drains, partly originating from private wastewater treatment facilities. Runoff, particularly in upstream brook sections, clearly exceeds eutrophication limits already at MRP concentrations (CMRP ) of low recurrence frequency. During non-event periods a decrease in CMRP is obvious from upstream brook sections towards the catchment outlet as a result of dilution as well as hydrobiological and chemical processes. 2093 Glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium runoff from a corn-growing area in Italy Screpanti C., Accinelli C., Vicari A. and Catizone P. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 2005 25/3 (407-412) The main objective of this experiment was to estimate field-scale runoff losses of glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium under natural rainfall conditions. Investigations were carried out at the Runoff Monitoring Station of the University of Bologna (Italy). Glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium were applied as pre-emergence herbicides on 350-m2 field plots characterized by a uniform slope of 15%. Field plots were cultivated with corn. The persistence and sorption isotherms of the two herbicides were also determined. During the 3-year experimental period low runoff volumes were observed. More specifically, annual runoff volumes did not exceed 4.7 mm. Glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium concentrations in collected runoff samples rapidly declined with time. The highest glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium concentrations were 16 and 24 g L-1 , respectively. These peaks were observed in a runoff event occurring 1 day after herbicide treatment. The total maximum amount of glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium losses were 0.031 and 0.064‰ of the applied active ingredients, respectively. On the basis of the obtained results, both glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium showed low potential to contaminate surface water resources. These results were supported by their estimated short persistence and strong sorption in soil. The half-lives of glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium were 17.5 and 6.4 days, respectively, and their distribution coefficients (Kd ) were 746.6 and 23.4 mL g-1 , respectively. © INRA, EDP Sciences, 2005. 2094 Sorption, degradation and leaching of the fungicide iprodione in a golf green under Scandinavian conditions: Measurements, modelling and risk assessment Str¨omqvist J. and Jarvis N. Pest Management Science 2005 61/12 (1168-1178) In cold climates, fungicides are used on golf greens to prevent snow mould causing serious damage to the turf. However, fungicide residues have been detected in runoff from golf courses, which may lead to restrictions on use. There is therefore an urgent need to improve understanding of the processes affecting leaching of fungicides from turfgrass systems to allow identification of green construction and management practices that HYDROLOGY minimize environmental impacts. In this study we monitored the leaching of the fungicide iprodione in a putting green. Sorption and degradation of iprodione was measured in batch and incubation experiments, and the simulation model MACRO was used as a risk assessment tool. Degradation of iprodione was bi-phasic, with a rapid initial phase (half-life 17 h) caused by enhanced biodegradation. Degradation rates slowed considerably after 5 days, with half-lives of up to 38 days. Sorption of iprodione was linear, with a Koc value of ca 400 cm3 g-1 . MACRO reasonably accurately matched measured drainflows and concentrations of iprodione in soil and drainflow. However, peak concentrations in drainage were underestimated, which was attributed to preferential finger flow due to water repellency. The results also showed the importance of the organic matter content in the green root zone in reducing leaching. It was concluded that, with ‘reasonable worst-case’ use, losses of iprodione from greens can occur at concentrations exceeding water quality limits for aquatic ecosystems. Snow mould problems should be tackled by adopting green root zone mixes that minimize leaching and ‘best management practices’ that would avoid the need for intensive prophylactic use of fungicides. © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry. Surface water quality: rivers and streams 2095 Effect of salinity and inorganic nitrogen concentrations on nitrification and denitrification rates in intertidal sediments and rocky biofilms of the Douro River estuary, Portugal Magalh˜aes C.M., Joye S.B., Moreira R.M. et al. Water Research 2005 39/9 (1783-1794) The regulatory effects of salinity and inorganic nitrogen compounds on nitrification and denitrification were studied in intertidal sandy sediments and rocky biofilms in the Douro River estuary, Portugal, over a 12-month period. Nitrification and denitrification rates were measured in slurries of field samples and enrichment experiments using the difluoromethane and the acetylene inhibition techniques, respectively. Salinity did not regulate denitrification in either environment, suggesting that halotolerant bacteria dominated the denitrifier communities. However, nitrification rates were stimulated when salinity increased from 0 to 15 practical salinity units. NO3 - addition experiments revealed that NO-3 availability stimulates denitrification rates in sandy sediments, but not in rocky biofilms; however, in rocky biofilms a positive and linear relationship was observed between denitrification rates and water column NO3 - concentrations (r=0.92) during the monthly surveys. The N 2 O:N2 ratios increased rapidly when NO3 - increased from 63 to 363 M; however, results from monthly surveys showed that environmental parameters other than NO3 - availability may be important in controlling the variation in N2 O production via denitrification. Ammonium additions to sandy sediments stimulated nitrification rates by 35% for the 20 M NH +4 addition, but NH+4 appeared to inhibit nitrification at high concentration addition (200 M NH + ). In contrast, rocky biofilm nitrification was stimulated by 65% 4 when 200 M NH+4 was added. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2096 Combined use of rapid bioassessment protocols and sediment quality triad to assess stream quality Winger P.V., Lasier P.J. and Bogenrieder K.J. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2005 100/1-3 (267-295) Physical, chemical and biological conditions at five stations on a small southeastern stream were evaluated using the Rapid Bioassessment Protocols (RBP) and the Sediment Quality Triad (SQT) to assess potential biological impacts of a municipal wastewater treatment facility (WWTF) on downstream resources. Physical habitat, benthic macroinvertebrates and fish assemblages were impaired at Stations 1 and 2 (upstream of the WWTF), suggesting that the degraded physical habitat was adversely impacting the fish and benthic populations. The SQT also demonstrated that Stations 1 and 2 were degraded, but the factors responsible for the impaired conditions were attributed 399 to the elevated concentrations of polycylclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and metals (Mn, Pb) in the sediments. The source of contaminants to the upper reaches of the stream appears to be storm-water runoff from the city center. Increased discharge and stabilized base flow contributed by the WWTF appeared to benefit the physically-altered stream system. Although the two assessment procedures demonstrated biological impairment at the upstream stations, the environmental factors identified as being responsible for the impairment were different: the RBP provided insight into contributions associated with the physical habitat and the SQT contributed information on contaminants and sediment quality. Both procedures are important in the identification of physical and chemical factors responsible for environmental impairment and together they provide information critical to the development of appropriate management options for mitigation. © Springer 2005. 2097 Assessment of chemical water types and their spatial variation using multi-stage cluster analysis, Queensland, Australia McNeil V.H., Cox M.E. and Preda M. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (181-200) A multivariate assessment has been adapted to the classification of a large, irregular dataset of approximately 34,000 surface water samples accumulated over more than 30 years. A two-stage K-means clustering method was designed to analyse chemical data in the form of percentages of major ions (Na, Mg, Ca, Cl, HCO3 and SO4 ); the first stage of clustering produced 347 groups, which were then re-clustered to generate the final nine water types. The analysis enabled the definition of provinces of water composition and highlighted natural processes influencing the surface water chemistry. On a statewide basis, sodium is the dominant cation and around 50% at all stream flows, while proportions of calcium and magnesium are about equal. Chloride and bicarbonate constitute the bulk of anions present, while sulfate occurs occasionally and tends to be localised. On a global basis, Queensland surface waters are relatively high in sodium, chloride and magnesium, and low in calcium and sulfate. It was also found that the geographical location has a greater impact on major ion ratios than does the stage of stream flow. The regional chemical trends are consistent with geology and climate. Streams in northeast Queensland, with short, steep catchments and high rainfall, yield low salinity, sodium-dominated water; this is also the case for sandy southern coastal catchments. Both also reflect an oceanic influence. The proportions of sodium and chloride decrease westward; streams draining the western side of the Great Dividing Range or flowing into the Gulf of Carpentaria have low salinity but relatively hard water. Streams in western Queensland are higher in calcium and bicarbonate. In the large catchments flowing from Queensland into central Australia, the water composition is highly variable, commonly with elevated sulfate. Also in Queensland, there are several other clearly definable water provinces such as the high magnesium waters of basaltic areas. The findings of this study confirm that the application of such analytical methods can provide a useful assessment of controls over water composition and support management at regional level; the approach used is shown and are applicable to large, disparate datasets. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2098 Occurrence of acidic pharmaceuticals in raw and treated sewages and in receiving waters Lindqvist N., Tuhkanen T. and Kronberg L. Water Research 2005 39/11 (2219-2228) The occurrence of five acidic pharmaceuticals, ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, diclofenac and bezafibrate, in seven different sewage treatment plants (STP) and three receiving waters were determined. The analytical procedure included solid phase extraction, liquid chromatographic separation and detection by a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer. The studied pharmaceuticals were found in all the STPs. The pattern of the occurrence of individual compounds was the same in every STP and matched the consumption figures reported in the literature. Ibuprofen is the most used pharmaceutical in Finland and was accordingly found to be the most abundant compound in the raw sewage. In the treatment processes, the highest removal rate was observed for ibuprofen and the lowest for diclofenac, 92% 8% and 400 HYDROLOGY 26% 17%, respectively. Due to the incomplete removal in the STPs, the pharmaceuticals were found in rivers at the discharge points of the STP effluents. Downstream from the discharge points, the concentrations decreased significantly mainly due to dilution in the river water. The risk to the aquatic environment was estimated by a ratio of measured environmental concentration (MEC) and predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC). At the concentrations the compounds were found in the surface waters, they should not pose risk for the aquatic environment. However, at dry seasons and/or during malfunctions of STPs, ibuprofen could be associated with a risk in small river systems. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2099 Fluorescence tracing of diffuse landfill leachate contamination in rivers Baker A. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 163/1-4 (229-244) Landfill leachates are composed of a complex mixture of degradation products which include a wide range of potentially fluorescent organic molecules and compounds. Here we investigate the use of fluorescence excitation-emission matrix (EEM) analysis in detecting diffuse landfill leachate contamination in rivers. Landfill leachates from three unlined landfill sites adjacent to our study river are characterised by intense fluorescence at excitation wavelength 220-230 nm, and emission wavelength 340-370 nm, which derives from fluorescent components of the xenobiotic organic matter fraction. Seven surface water sample sites on an adjacent polluted river system were analysed for fluorescence and water quality properties. The 220-230 nm excitation wavelength, 340-370 nm emission wavelength fluorescent centre was also detected in this river system at the sample locations downstream of the landfills, but not at upstream control sites, demonstrating its use as a tracer of landfill leachate contamination. Negative correlations are observed between this fluorescence centre and dissolved oxygen in the river water samples, demonstrating the water quality implications of leachate contamination at this study site. The fluorescence intensity at the 220-230 nm excitation wavelength, 340-370 nm emission wavelength fluorescent centre in landfill leachates is such that it remains detectable at dilutions of 102 -103 , and the fluorescence EEM technique is rapid and costeffective for use by river managers and water quality regulators. © Springer 2005. 2100 Spatial and temporal patterns of inorganic nutrient concentrations in the Androscoggin and Kennebec Rivers, Maine Hunt C.W., Loder III T. and V¨or¨osmarty C. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 163/1-4 (303-323) A catchment-wide study was conducted to investigate the geography of nutrient dynamics in the Androscoggin and Kennebec Rivers, Maine. While nutrient concentrations resembled relatively pristine waters, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) exhibited dramatic spatial and temporal patterns. Though these rivers are underdeveloped, impacts of human activities upon nutrients are clear. Population was a good predictor for DIN and P concentrations for the Kennebec River, but a poor predictor in the Androscoggin River. Comparison of point-source discharges into each river indicated that the Androscoggin River is influenced by discharges from pulp and paper mills, a finding confirmed by reduced nutrient transport after the closure of two Androscoggin River mills. Nutrient ratio analysis demonstrated a dramatic shift towards Redfield ratios, with DIN:P ratios decreasing from about 200:1 in headwater reaches to below 16:1 near the river outlets. These results may aid in understanding blooms of toxic dynoflagellates in the Gulf of Maine. Ratios were also altered during a prolonged drought period. Results describe a simple relationship between increased nutrient input and human population within single watersheds, with implications for coastal zone ecosystems. © Springer 2005. 2101 Chemical pollution monitoring of the River Pinios (Thessalia - Greece) Bellos D. and Sawidis T. Journal of Environmental Management 2005 76/4 (282-292) The impact of human activities and environmental factors on the fluctuation of chemical and physicochemical parameters along the Pinios River and its tributaries was studied. Their seasonal variations throughout the years 1996-1998 are also presented. Most of the parameters (physical or chemical) measured in this survey exhibited high spatial and temporal variability. High temperatures during the warm period, attributed both to meteorological conditions and to the geographical relief of Thessalia plain, cause a restriction of the water flow, an accumulation of organic matter and the depletion of the dissolved oxygen in the water. Conductivity and hardness are high during the warm and wet period for different reasons. At the seaward part of the river high conductivity and hardness values indicate extended admixture of seawater. COD values fluctuated seasonally. Among the studied stations along the Pinios River the most polluted was the area where the river has passed the city of Larissa. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2102 Biodiversity and ecology of species of aquatic oomycetes in the Aue Lake and the River Fulda in Kassel (Hessen) ¨ (German) (Biodiversit¨at und Okologie aquatischer OomycetesArten im Auesee und in der Fulda in Kassel (Hessen)) Riethm¨uller A. and Langer E. Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologica 2005 33/2 (157-164) In this study, we record diversity and ecology of aquatic Oomycetes in the Aue Lake and the river Fulda in Kassel (Hesse, Germany). We monthly collected water samples of both water bodies from July 2003 to June 2004. The baiting method was used to gain an insight into the occurrence of aquatic Oomycetes. A total of 14 species of aquatic Oomycetes belonging to the orders Saprolegniales, Leptomitales and Olpidiopsidales could be isolated of both water bodies. Numerous saprophytic isolates of Rhizophydium Schenk (Chytridiomycetes), Rhizophydium carpophilum (Zopf) Fischer, parasitic on Oomycetes, and additionally one species of Plasmodiophoromycetes, Woronina polycystis Cornu could be isolated. Many isolates of Saprolegniales attributable to the genera Achlya Nees, Dictyuchus Leitgeb, Saprolegnia Nees and Pythium Pringsheim (Pythiales), which could only be identified on generic level, could be isolated as well. The species were examined and discussed with respect to their occurrence in the stagnant water Aue Lake and/or in the running water of the river Fulda. Half of the isolated species only occurred in one of the water bodies. In this study the occurrence of Achlya proliferoides Coker could be documented for Germany for the first time. The trophic status of the Aue Lake and of the classification of water quality of the river Fulda were determined by limnological-chemical parameters obtained by simultaneous investigations of both water bodies. © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. 2103 Continuous multi-probe measurements in fast-flowing waters using a hydrographic slot Karrasch B. and Herzog M. Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologica 2005 33/2 (165-169) Taking continuous spatiotemporal in situ measurements with multi-probes in fast-flowing waters/rivers can be problematic because the sensors may be damaged by high shear forces and flotsam. To protect the multi-probe and to enable easy access for the maintenance and calibration of the sensors, a special multiprobe holder fixed in a hydrographic slot was developed. The validation of the probe system revealed a "memory effect" at short time scales (< 10 s) within sharp gradients caused by the overflow container of the multi-probe rack keeping the sensors submerged in the sample water. Continuously recorded data (conductivity, temperature, pH, oxygen concentration and saturation, as well as in vivo fluorescence of chlorophyll-a) from a research cruise on board the RV ALBIS along the river Elbe (river km 309) and entering the river Saale are presented. This river stretch upstream of the city of Magdeburg to the mouth of the Saale tributary was found to have a complex physicochemical character, which is attributable to the long mixing process of water from the river Saale and the river Elbe. © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. 2104 Landscape influences on aluminium and dissolved organic carbon in streams draining the Hubbard Brook valley, New Hampshire, USA Palmer S.M., Wellington B.I., Johnson C.E. and Driscoll C.T. Hydrological Processes 2005 19/9 (1751-1769) HYDROLOGY Concentrations of both aluminium (Al) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in stream waters are likely to be regulated by factors that influence water flowpaths and residence times, and by the nature of the soil horizons through which waters flow. In order to investigate landscape-scale spatial patterns in streamwater Al and DOC, we sampled seven streams draining the Hubbard Brook valley in central New Hampshire. We observed considerable variation in stream chemistry both within and between headwater watersheds. Across the valley, concentrations of total monomeric aluminium (Alm ) ranged from below detection limits (<07 mol 1-1 ) to 223 mol 1-1 . In general, concentrations of Alm decreased as pH increased downslope. There was a strong relationship between organic monomeric aluminium (Alo ) and DOC concentrations (R2 = 092). We observed the highest Alm concentratio ns in: (i) a watershed characterized by a steep narrow drainage basin and shallow soils and (ii) a watershed characterized by exceptionally deep forest floor soils and high concentrations of DOC. Forest floor depth and drainage area together explained much of the variation in ln Alm (R2 = 079; N = 45) and In DOC (R2 = 087; N = 45). Linear regression models were moderately successful in predicting ln Alm and ln DOC in streams that were not included in model building. However, when back-transformed, predicted DOC concentrations were as much as 72% adrift from observed DOC concentrations and Alm concentrations were up to 51% off. This geographic approach to modelling Al and DOC is useful for general prediction, but for more detailed predictions, process-level biogeochemical models are required. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2105 Reconstructing long-term records of dissolved CO2 Worrall F. and Burt T. Hydrological Processes 2005 19/9 (17911806) The dissolved CO2 concentration of stream waters is an important component of the terrestrial carbon cycle. This study reconstructs long-term records of dissolved CO2 concentration for the outlets of two large catchments (818 and 586 km2 ) in northern England. The study shows that: 1. The flux of dissolved CO2 from the catchments (as carbon per catchment area), when adjusted for that which would be carried by the river water at equilibrium with the atmosphere, is between 0 and 039 t km-2 year-1 for the River Tees and between 0 and 0.65 t km-2 year-1 for the River Coquet. 2. The flux of dissolved CO2 is closely correlated with dissolved organic carbon (DOC) export and is unrelated to dissolved CO2 export from the headwaters of the study catchments. 3. The evasion rate of CO2 from the rivers (as carbon per stream area) is between 00 and 149 kg m-2 year-1 , and calculated in-stream productions of CO2 are estimated as between 05 and 25% of the stream evasion rate. 4. By mass balance, it is estimated that 8% of the annual flux of DOC is lost within the streams of the catchment. The study shows that the loss of CO2 from the streams of the Tees catchment is between 31 and 75 kt year-1 (as carbon) for the River Tees, which is the same order as annual CH4 flux from peats within the catchment and approximately 50% of the net CO2 exchange to the peats of the catchment. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2106 Indigenous heavy metal multiresistant microbiota of Las Catonas stream Vullo D.L., Ceretti H.M., Hughes E.A. et al. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2005 105/1-3 (81-97) Las Catonas stream (Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area) receives a complex mixture of pollutants from point and diffuse sources because of the agricultural, industrial and urban land uses of its basin. Widespread detection of heavy metals exceeding aquatic life protection levels has occurred in monitoring reconnaissance studies in surface and pore water. As a result of the screening of Cu, Cd, Zn and Pb resistant/tolerant and culturable microbiota, B101N and 200H strains (Pseudomonas fluorescens or putida) were isolated and selected for further studies. They showed 65% Cd and 35% Zn extraction efficiency from aqueous phase. The potential use of these strains in wastewater treatment is currently investigated in order to contribute to decrease heavy metal pollution, a problem affecting every stream of Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 401 2107 Metal pollution assessment of sediment and water in the River Hindon, India Jain C.K., Singhal D.C. and Sharma M.K. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2005 105/1-3 (193-207) The metal pollution in water and sediment of the River Hindon in western Uttar Pradesh (India) was assessed for Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn. The metal concentrations in water showed wide temporal variation compared with bed sediment because of variability in water discharge and variations in suspended solid loadings. Metal concentrations in bed sediments provided a better evaluation of the degree and the extent of contamination in the aquatic environment, Santagarh and Atali being the most polluted sites of the river. The ratio of heavy metals to conservative elements (Fe, Al, etc.) may reveal the geochemical imbalances due to the elevated metal concentrations normally attributed to anthropogenic sources. Metal/Al ratios for the bed sediments of the river Hindon were used to determine the relative mobility and general trend of relative mobility occurred Fe > Mn > Zn > Cr > Ni > Pb > Cu > Cd. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 2108 Non-point-source impacts on stream nutrient concentrations along a forest to urban gradient Brett M.T., Arhonditsis G.B., Mueller S.E. et al. Environmental Management 2005 35/3 (330-342) We conducted statistical analyses of a 10-year record of stream nutrient and sediment concentrations for 17 streams in the greater Seattle region to determine the impact of urban non-point-source pollutants on stream water quality. These catchments are dominated by either urban (22-87%) or forest (6-73%) land cover, with no major nutrient point sources. Stream water phosphorus concentrations were moderately strongly (r 2 2= 20.58) correlated with catchment land-cover type, whereas nitrogen concentrations were weakly (r 2 2=20.19) and nonsignificantly (at  < 0.05) correlated with land cover. The most urban streams had, on average, 95% higher total phosphorus (TP) and 122% higher soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) and 71% higher turbidity than the most forested streams. Nitrate (NO3 ), ammonium (NH4 ), and total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations did not vary significantly with land cover. These results suggest that urbanization markedly increased stream phosphorus concentrations and modestly increased nitrogen concentrations. However, nutrient concentrations in Seattle region urban streams are significantly less than those previously reported for agricultural area streams. © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2109 Impact assessment of different management scenarios on water quality of Porsuk River and Dam System - Turkey Muhammetoglu A., Muhammetoglu H., Oktas S. et al. Water Resources Management 2005 19/2 (199-210) Porsuk Dam Reservoir (PDR), which is located on Porsuk River, is the main drinking water resource of Eskisehir City-Turkey. Both the river and the reservoir are under the threat of several domestic and industrial point sources and land-based diffuse pollution. The river water quality is very poor with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds at the entrance to Porsuk Reservoir. The reservoir shows symptoms of a hypertrophic lake. The expected responses of the whole river and reservoir system under different pollution control scenarios were estimated to develop plausible water quality management strategies. The adopted scenarios assumed different levels of treatment for the major domestic point sources that include conventional treatment and tertiary treatment. The contemporary Turkish Allowable Discharge Limits (ADLs) and the best available technology choices were the investigated treatment options for the major industries. The expected improvements of water quality characteristics under the management scenario options have been estimated by means of mathematical models. The model choices were the QUAL2E for the river and BATHTUB for the reservoir. Recommendations for different levels of treatment were derived in order to improve the water quality both within the river and in the reservoir. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 402 HYDROLOGY 2110 Determination of steroidal hormone profiles along the Jalle d’Eysines River (near Bordeaux, France) Labadie P. and Budzinski H. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/14 (5113-5120) Steroidal estrogens have been shown to be the main contributors to the estrogenic activity observed in aquatic systems contaminated with sewage treatment work effluents. Although the occurrence of steroid hormones in the environment has received a great deal of attention, little is known about their fate in aquatic systems. In the present work, concentrations of conjugated and unconjugated hormonal steroids (estrone, 17 -estradiol, estriol, 17-ethynylestradiol, mestranol, progesterone, norethindrone, and D-norgestrel) were determined in the effluent of the Eysines sewage treatment plant (near Bordeaux, France), and along the receiving river, the Jalle d’Eysines River. Sampling was undertaken in summer and in winter conditions, to study both the temporal and the spatial distributions of steroids in this river. Only unconjugated natural estrogens were detected in the effluent. Estrone was the dominant compound (detected in all effluent samples, 17.1-71.0 ngL-1 ), while estradiol and its metabolite estriol were detected only once; at much lower levels (4.4 and 2.9 ngL-1 , respectively). Levels of estrogens were clearly raised above the detection limits downstream of the Eysines STP effluent discharge. Seasonal variations of estrone degradation rates were observed. In summer, the apparent decay rates of estrogen levels exceeded that of dilution, indicating high removal rates from the water column: 50% of the initial amount of this steroid was degraded within 1.7 km downstream of the effluent discharge. In winter, however, estrone levels did not significantly decrease over a 10 km reach downstream of the effluent discharge (1.91.8 ngL-1 ). Steroids were determined in the particulate material of the river, but levels were below the detection limits (0.4-1.9 ngg-1 ), indicating that sorption was not a major sink of estrogens. Therefore, it is likely that biodegradation plays a major role in the removal of steroids from the river and the different decay rates are probably related to differences in bacterial activity within the river. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2111 Screening analysis of river seston downstream of an effluent discharge point using near-infrared reflectance spectrometry and wavelet-based spectral region selection De Medeiros V.M., Ugulino Ara´ujo M.C., Harrop Galv˜ao R.K. et al. Water Research 2005 39/13 (3089-3097) A methodology for screening analysis of river seston downstream of an industry effluent by using near-infrared reflectance spectrometry was developed. A wavelet transform (WT)-based strategy is used to select a spectral region in which the effect of the effluent on the optical properties of the seston is more evident. The methodology was applied to samples from the River Mumbaba in northeast Brazil. Four sites were monitored: two upstream (1 and 2), one at the discharge point of the effluent (3), and another downstream (4). Soft Independent Modelling of Class Analogies (SIMCA) models were built for site 1 and were then applied to the classification of samples from sites 2 and 4. The results reveal that the WT-based spectral region selection is essential to ensure good sensitivity and specificity with respect to the detection of events associated to the effluent discharges at site 3. In fact, the changes in site 4 caused by the effluent are masked by other environmental factors when the full spectrum is employed. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2112 Antioxidant and biotransformation enzymes in Myriophyllum quitense as biomarkers of heavy metal exposure and eutrophication in Suqua River basin (C´ordoba, Argentina) Nimptsch J., Wunderlin D.A., Dollan A. and Pflugmacher S. Chemosphere 2005 61/2 (147-157) We report the evaluation of changes in water quality, increasing pollution level, of a section of Suqua River basin (C´ordoba, Argentina) by using Myriophyllum quitense as bioindicator in addition to the measurement of chemical parameters, combined with chemometrics (ANOVA, Cluster and Discriminant Analysis). Myriophyllum quitense was collected upstream from C´ordoba city at an unpolluted site of Suqua River basin. After collection plants were transplanted to different sites with different pollution levels. Subsequent to transplantation plants were weekly collected from the original site as well as from transplantation stations. Water quality was evaluated throughout the transplantation experiment, while the use of this macrophyte as bioindicator was verified through the activation of its antioxidant defenses and biotransformation system. Myriophyllum quitense reacts to the pollution stress increasing the activity of glutathioneS-transferases (CDNB and Fluorodifen), glutathione reductase (GR) and peroxidase (POD). Elevated enzyme activities agreed to different pollution levels, especially inorganic nitrogen loads combined with elevated lead and aluminum concentrations, all of them originated by anthropogenic activities, thus presenting Myriophyllum quitense as a good biomonitor for assessment of water quality in this polluted aquatic ecosystem. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2113 Comparison of a novel passive sampler to standard water-column sampling for organic contaminants associated with wastewater effluents entering a New Jersey stream Alvarez D.A., Stackelberg P.E., Petty J.D. et al. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (610-622) Four water samples collected using standard depth and width water-column sampling methodology were compared to an innovative passive, in situ, sampler (the polar organic chemical integrative sampler or POCIS) for the detection of 96 organic wastewater-related contaminants (OWCs) in a stream that receives agricultural, municipal, and industrial wastewaters. Thirty-two OWCs were identified in POCIS extracts whereas 9-24 were identified in individual water-column samples demonstrating the utility of POCIS for identifying contaminants whose occurrence are transient or whose concentrations are below routine analytical detection limits. Overall, 10 OWCs were identified exclusively in the POCIS extracts and only six solely identified in the water-column samples, however, repetitive water samples taken using the standard method during the POCIS deployment period required multiple trips to the sampling site and an increased number of samples to store, process, and analyze. Due to the greater number of OWCs detected in the POCIS extracts as compared to individual water-column samples, the ease of performing a single deployment as compared to collecting and processing multiple water samples, the greater mass of chemical residues sequestered, and the ability to detect chemicals which dissipate quickly, the passive sampling technique offers an efficient and effective alternative for detecting OWCs in our waterways for wastewater contaminants. 2114 Characterization of humic substances isolated from Han river water and change in the structural and chemical characteristics by ozonation Yu M.J., Kim Y.H., Han I. and Kim H.C. Environmental Technology 2005 26/9 (1033-1041) This study investigated the characteristics of extracted humic substances, which are ubiquitous in river waters and affect the treatment of water. Humic substances were extracted from the Han River water and analyzed using the samples obtained before/after ozonation with various analytical items. Ozonation was conducted in a batch-type reactor, and ozone was dosed from 0 to 2.0 mg O3 mg-1 humic substances. The humic fraction was 56.0% of total organic carbon in the Han River and the ratio of fulvic to humic acids was approximately 3.46, including aromatic ring structures and/or various functional groups. Humic substances could not completely be oxidized to CO2 , H2 O, etc., but partly oxidized to low molecular weight matter, thus low removal efficiencies in terms of dissolved organic carbon (31% at 1.0 mg O3 mg-1 humic substances) were observed. For UV absorbance at the wavelength 254 run, ozone dose at 1.0 mg O3 mg-1 humic substances showed more than 80% removal efficiencies. The molar ratios of H/C and O/C of the humic substances structure relatively increased by ozonation, indicating the degradation of aromatic groups in the humic substances molecule. The Fourier transform infrared spectra and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of humic substances showed the increase in carboxylic acids and the decrease in aromatic protons through ozonation, respectively. As specific reaction sites in the humic substances including aromatic ring structures were reduced through ozone oxidation, contents of carboxylic acids, ketones and quinones in the humic substances molecule increased. © Selper Ltd., 2005. HYDROLOGY 2115 River habitat quality from river velocities measured using Acoustic Doppler current profiler Shields Jr. F.D. and Rigby J.R. Environmental Management 2005 36/4 (565-575) Prior research has demonstrated the utility of metrics based on spatial velocity gradients to characterize and describe stream habitat, with higher gradients generally indicative of higher levels of physical heterogeneity and thus habitat quality. However, detailed velocity data needed to compute these metrics are difficult to obtain. Acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP) may be used to rapidly collect detailed representations of river velocity fields. Herein we demonstrate use of ADCP to obtain ecologically relevant data and compute associated metrics. Data were collected from four reaches of the Little Tallahatchie River in northern Mississippi. Sampled reaches were selected to observe velocity regimes associated with three distinctly different conditions: downstream from a major flow obstruction (a low weir), downstream from the apices of each of two bends, and within an extremely long, straight reach created by channelization. Three-dimensional velocity data sets from each site were used to compute metrics of habitat quality proposed by others. A habitat metric based on the presence of rotational flow in the vertical plane proved to be the best discriminator among conditions within the sampled reaches. Two of four habitat quality metrics computed from these measured velocities were greatest for the sharpest meander bend. ADCP hold great potential for study of riverine physical aquatic habitats, particularly at the reach scale. Additional work is needed to develop generally applicable field protocols and data reduction tools. Specifically, guidelines for ADCP settings and configuration appropriate for a range of riverine site conditions must be developed. Advances in instrumentation are needed to allow collection of information in closer proximity to the free surface and solid boundaries. © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2116 A GIS-supported multivariate statistical analysis of relationships among stream water chemistry, geology and ¨ land use in Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany Xie X., Norra S., Berner Z. and St¨uben D. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (39-57) The present study was carried out to analyse and identify relationships among stream water chemistry, land use, and geology in Baden-W¨urttemberg, a federal state in the south-west of Germany. The investigation is based on data from 88 monitoring stations, which cover almost the whole area of Baden-W¨urttemberg. The database on water chemistry includes 21 parameters such as major cations, anions, heavy metals, dissolved organic carbon, pH, acid neutralization capacity, and conductivity. The study area is classified into 16 different land use categories and 12 types of geological formations. Using multivariate statistical methods (factor analysis), the relationships among different parameters were revealed by identifying ten uncorrelated factors. The data analysis indicates a complex interaction among stream water chemistry, lithologic composition of the geological formations, and land use type, with an intricate fingerprintings of the different parameters. The most important factors in terms of the represented variance are the main mineralization of the stream water (due to interaction with the geological underground) and anthropogenic nutrients introduced by different agricultural activities. Based on the results of factor analysis (factor score), the stream water chemistry is regionalized using a Geographic Information System (ArcView). © Springer 2005. 2117 Can we use zebra and quagga mussels for biomonitoring contaminants in the Niagara River? Richman L. and Somers K. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (155-178) We compared contaminants in zebra and quagga mussels (Dreissena polymorpha and Dreissena bugensis) of two different size classes from sites within the Niagara River to determine if the two species and two size classes can be used to monitor contaminants. Composite samples (i.e., at least 50 individuals) were analysed for 7 trace metals, total PCBs, selected organochlorine pesticides, chlorinated benzenes, and dioxins and furans. ANOVAs and MANOVAs showed that metal tissue concentrations varied significantly among sites, species, and size classes (P < 0.05). At sites where metal concentrations differed between 403 species, zebra mussels had higher concentrations than quagga mussels. Similarly, larger mussels (i.e., 16-25 mm) generally had higher tissue concentrations than smaller mussels (<15 mm length). However, differences in tissue concentrations between size classes were present only for Cd, Cu and Mn and were infrequent, making these results inconclusive. For organic contaminants ANCOVAs and MANCOVAs using lipid concentration as a covariate revealed significant differences in tissue concentrations between the three sites, whereas differences between size classes were modest (P = 0.035). The ANOVA using individual parameters did not show a significant difference in tissue concentrations between the two size classes. In general, mussel tissue concentrations among stations (up to 7 stations throughout the river), were similar for Pb, Zn, Hg and Ni using data separated by species and size class. Concentrations of Cu, Mn and Cd were variable throughout the upper and lower Niagara. Tissue concentrations of -BHC, 1,2,3 and 1,2,4 trichlorobenzene were similar in quagga mussels collected from 8 stations from the Canadian and American side of the river, whereas concentrations of total PCBs, octachlorostyrene, 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene, pentachlorobenzene and hexachlorobenzene were higher in quagga mussels from the American side of the upper river. © Springer 2005. 2118 Water column and sediment phosphorus in a calcareous lowland river and their differential response to point source control measures Demars B.O.L. and Harper D.M. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (273-293) Phosphorus control measures at two major (>10000 people equivalent, p.e.) sewage treatment works (STWs) were installed in the lowland calcareous basin of the River Wensum (England). In-stream phosphorus concentrations were monitored seasonally from subcatchments with different levels of phosphorus impacts, as well as before and after phosphorus control, above and below the two major STWs. Point source effluents raised in-stream soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentrations from 9-15 g L-1 (agricultural sub-catchments) to 580-3270 g L-1 . This was accompanied by an increase of the SRP relative to total phosphorus from 27% to 80-90%. The phosphorus content of the suspended sediment was high (0.2 to 7.7%). Molybdate unreactive phosphorus (1-29 g L-1 ) was surprisingly not affected by point source effluents. The river bed sediment bioavailable phosphorus concentrations were higher (4-18 g g-1 wet weight) downstream from the main effluents, compared to upstream (2-6 g g-1 wet weight). Phosphorus control at the STWs in 1999 has allowed to reduce in-stream soluble reactive concentrations to 140-280 g L-1 but has had no significant impact on bioavailable phosphorus in the sediment by 2001, suggesting that either net sediment desorption did not occur or that it is a much slower, longer term response. The relative contribution of the diffuse sources increased from 10% to 27% of the total phosphorus loads at Fakenham. The management of these rivers is therefore problematic. © Springer 2005. 2119 Assessment of insecticide contamination in runoff and stream water of small agricultural streams in the main soybean area of Argentina Jergentz S., Mugni H., Bonetto C. and Schulz R. Chemosphere 2005 61/6 (817-826) The first- and second-order streams, Brown and Horqueta, respectively, which are located in the main area of soybean production in Argentina were examined for insecticide contamination caused by runoff from nearby soybean fields. The insecticides most widely used in Argentina (chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin and endosulfan) were detected in sediments, suspended particles and water. Highest concentrations in suspended particles were 318 g/kg for endosulfan in the stream Horqueta, while 226 g/kg chlorpyrifos and 13.2 g/kg cypermethrin were measured in the stream Brown. In the Horqueta stream 150 and 53 g/kg chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin were detected in runoff sediments, respectively. Whereas cypermethrin concentrations in the suspended particles were relatively low, levels in the floodwater of Brown reached 0.7 g/l. The highest chlorpyrifos concentration in floodwater was 0.45 g/l in Brown. However, endosulfan was not detected in the water phase. In runoff water the highest con- 404 HYDROLOGY centrations measured were 0.3 g/l for chlorpyrifos in Horqueta and 0.49 g/l for cypermethrin in the Brown stream. On five sampling dates during the pesticide application period in Brown stream (2002/2003) the concentration of chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin in runoff and/or floodwater exceeded the water quality criteria for freshwater mentioned in this study. In three cases this insecticide concentration was measured in stream water, indicating an acute risk to aquatic life. The acute toxicity-exposure-ratio (TER) for chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin also shows an acute risk for aquatic invertebrates in the Brown stream. In the Horqueta chlorpyrifos concentrations in the runoff exceeded the safety levels three times during the application period (2001/2002), potentially endangering the aquatic fauna. Effects on aquatic macroinvertebrates after insecticide contamination were reported in earlier studies in Horqueta stream. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2120 Modelling nitrogen pressure in river basins: A comparison between a statistical approach and the physicallybased SWAT model Grizzetti B., Bouraoui F. and De Marsily G. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (508-517) The characterisation of pollution sources impact on water quality and the implementation of river basin management plans require an analysis of the basin status including the dynamic of nutrient transfer and the relative significance of the different sources of pollution. Models can contribute in understanding the sources and the processes responsible for pollution, and identifying the areas of concern. A variety of methods have been used to model the nitrogen pressure in river basins. In this study we describe a comparison between two methodologies: a statistical model and the physically-based SWAT model. The two models were calibrated on the Wash catchment (UK), 8900 km2 . The nitrogen losses from land to surface waters and the source apportionment of riverine nitrogen load were estimated by the two approaches, and the results were compared. Moreover their potentiality for evaluating management strategies was analysed. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2121 Sensitivity analysis for hydrology and pesticide supply towards the river in SWAT Holvoet K., van Griensven A., Seuntjens P. and Vanrolleghem P.A. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (518-526) The dynamic behaviour of pesticides in river systems strongly depends on varying climatological conditions and agricultural management practices. To describe this behaviour at the riverbasin scale, integrated hydrological and water quality models are needed. A crucial step in understanding the various processes determining pesticide fate is to perform a sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity analysis for hydrology and pesticide supply in SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) will provide useful support for the development of a reliable hydrological model and will give insight in which parameters are most sensitive concerning pesticide supply towards rivers. The study was performed on the Nil catchment in Belgium. In this study we utilised an LHOAT sensitivity a nalysis. The LH-OAT method combines the One-factor-At-a-Time (OAT) design and Latin Hypercube (LH) sampling by taking the Latin Hypercube samples as initial points for an OAT design. By means of the LH-OAT sensitivity analysis, the dominant hydrological parameters were determined and a reduction of the number of model parameters was performed. Dominant hydrological parameters were the curve number (CN2), the surface runoff lag (surlag), the recharge to deep aquifer (rchrg dp) and the threshold depth of water in the shallow aquifer (GWQMN). Next, the selected parameters were estimated by manual calibration. Hereby, the Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient of efficiency improved from an initial value of -22.4 to +0.53. In the second part, sensitivity analyses were performed to provide insight in which parameters or model inputs contribute most to variance in pesticide output. The results of this study show that for the Nil catchment, hydrologic parameters are dominant in controlling pesticide predictions. The other parameter that affects pesticide concentrations in surface water is ‘pfp pest’, which meaning was changed into a parameter that controls direct losses to the river system (e.g., through the clean up of spray equipment, leaking tools, processing of spray waste on paved surfaces). As a consequence, it is of utmost importance that hy- drology is well calibrated while - in this case - a correct estimation of the direct losses is of importance as well. Besides, a study of only the pesticide related parameters, i.e. application rate (kg/ha), application time (day), etc., reveals that the application time has much more impact than the application rate, which has itself a higher impact than errors in the daily rainfall observations. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2122 Impact of nitrogen reduction measures on the nitrogen loads of the river Ems and Rhine (Germany) Wendland F., Bogena H., Goemann H. et al. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (527-541) The REGFLUD-project, commissioned by Germany’s Federal Research Ministry (BMBF), addresses the problem of reducing diffuse pollution from agricultural production. The objective of the project is the development and application of multi-criteria scientific methods, which are able to predict diffuse pollution in river basins subject to economic feasibility and social acceptability. The selected river basins (the entire Ems basin and sub-catchments of the Rhine) cover a variety of landscape units with different hydrological, hydrogeological and socio-economic characteristics. This paper focuses on the analysis of the effects of certain policy measures to reduce diffuse pollution by nitrogen. For this purpose, a model system consisting of an agricultural sector model, a water balance model and a residence time/denitrification model was combined and applied. First results indicate a wide range of annual nitrogen surpluses for the rural areas between less than 10 N ha-1 a-1 up 200 kg N ha-1 a-1 , or more depending on the type and intensity of farming. Compared to the level of nitrogen surpluses the level of nitrogen inputs into the surface waters is relatively moderate because of degradation processes during transport in soil and groundwater. Policy impact analyses for a nitrogen tax and a limitation of the livestock density stress the importance of regionally adjusted measures. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2123 Temporal-spatial distributions of high nitrogen concentrations in headwater areas of regions with low precipitation Nakashima S. and Yamada Y. Limnology 2005 6/1 (53-60) Temporal-spatial distributions of nitrogen in the low-precipitation headwater areas of the Sanuki Mountain Range, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan, was studied to clarify the natural loading from forests to rivers as basic knowledge for elucidating the eutrophication in dead-water regions down-stream. The survey to clarify temporal variations was carried out once every two weeks at the headwaters of five rivers in the Sanuki Mountain Range and the Shikoku Mountains on Shikoku Island, Japan, between May 6, 2002, and April 22, 2003. The survey to clarify the spatial distribution was carried out at 23 stations on the headwaters of the Sanuki Mountain Range between August 13 and 15, 2002. In the Kazuratani and Tarobei Rivers, which originate in the Sanuki Mountain Range, where precipitation is scarce, total N was consistently high - greater than 1 mgl-1 throughout the year. The maximum value of total N was 3.2 mg1-1 in the Kazuratani River. The spatial distribution of total N in the headwater areas was 0.47-3.8 mg1-1 . High concentrations over Imgl-1 were found in the central region of the Sanuki Mountain Range and the maximum value was 3.8 mgl-1 . From these results, it became clear that nitrogen concentrations in headwater areas of the Sanuki Mountain Range are high compared with those in other regions. Various factors were considered in relation to low precipitation and drying as the causes of the high nitrogen concentrations. Furthermore, It was noted that the majority of the regions with the highest NO-3 -N concentrations in our study were composed of granitic rock. © The Japanese Society of Limnology 2005. 2124 Fate and transport of organic nitrogen in minimally disturbed montane streams of Colorado, USA Kaushal S.S. and Lewis Jr. W.M. Biogeochemistry 2005 74/3 (303-321) In two montane watersheds that receive minimal deposition of atmospheric nitrogen, 15-71% of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) was bioavailable in stream water over a 2-year period. Discharge-weighted concentrations of bulk DON were between 102 and 135 g/l, and the C:N ratio differed substantially be- HYDROLOGY tween humic and non-humic fractions of DON. Approximately 70% of DON export occurred during snowmelt, and 40% of that DON was biologically available to microbes in stream sediments. Concentrations of bioavailable DON in stream water were 2-16 times greater than dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) during the growing season, and bioavailable DON was depleted within 214 days during experimental incubations. Uptake of DON was influenced by the concentration of inorganic N in stream water, the concentration of non-humic DON in stream water, and the C:N ratio of the non-humic fraction of dissolved organic matter (DOM). Uptake of DON declined logarithmically as the concentration of inorganic N in stream water increased. Experimental additions of inorganic N also caused a decline in uptake of DON and net production of DON when the C:N ratio of non-humic DOM was high. This study indicates that the relative and absolute amount of bioavailable DON can vary greatly within and across years due to interactions between the availability of inorganic nutrients and composition of DOM. DOM has the potential to be used biotically at a high rate in nitrogen-poor streams, and it may be generated by heterotrophic microbes when DIN and labile DOM with low relative nitrogen content become abundant. © Springer 2005. 2125 Modelling the hydraulic regime and the water quality of Sebou River (Morocco): First results Igouzal M., Mouchel J.M., Tamoh K. and Maslouhi A. IAHSAISH Publication 2005 -/299 (75-80) In this study, a first attempt is performed to study and to model the hydraulic regime and water quality of the Sebou River in the Gharb agricultural zone. A 90 km long reach situated upstream a reservoir dam is studied during the base flow period. During this period, water resources are scarce and much solicited by agriculture while water quality is very problematic. The dynamic water quality model WASP5 is used. Results give more information about the hydraulic regime which is influenced by a variable morphology. Water depth, flow and velocity evolution along the river and the water reserve available in the dam reservoir are simulated. In the water quality modelling, scenarios of excessive salinity propagation were first simulated. The time of arriving and the amplitude of the salinity were estimated at agricultural pumping stations. This model can play the role of an alert system against this natural phenomenon. Dissolved oxygen (DO) and biological oxygen demand (BOD) were then simulated. The impact on the oxygen depletion of sugar production plant wastewater was estimated. This information gives more suggestions for the envisaged waste load treatment programmes. 2126 Incorporating natural variability into the assessment of ecological health in Australian dryland rivers Sheldon F. Hydrobiologia 2005 552/1 (45-56) Dryland rivers occur over much of Australia’s inland and have some of the most variable patterns of flow in the world. Despite their dominance in terms of Australia’s river types, dryland rivers have not been the focus of the recent increase in research on indicators of river health, mostly owing to their spatial remoteness and relatively low levels of water resource development and human disturbance. Most rivers in arid and semi-arid regions are ephemeral, and only carry significant flows during the wetter months or following infrequent but intense rainfall events. It is not known which, if any, of the existing approaches to river health assessment can be used to accurately assess the health of these large ephemeral rivers. This paper considers why the standard methods for interpreting the currently-used indicators for river health may need to be adapted for variable systems and suggests the use of trends that recognise natural variation in indicator values for undertaking this. © Springer 2005. 2127 Effects of mercury mining regions from NW Dinarides on quality of stream sediments Franciskovic- Bilinski S., Bilinski H., Tibljaˇs D. and Rantitsch G. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 2005 14/10 (913-927) Two mercury mining regions from the NW Dinarides are compared with respect to their impact on related drainage basins (of Soˇca and Kupa Rivers). Stream sediments of the rivers Idrijca, Baˇca and Soˇca, which drain the area around world-class mercury ore deposit in Idrija (Slovenia), as well as those from the Cabranka and Kupa Rivers, that drain the area around a smaller 405 ˇ Hg-only deposit at Trˇsc´ e near Cabar (Croatia) have been studied, by detailed mineralogical, chemical and geostatistical studies. According to the results, the Idrijca River is highly contaminated with several toxic elements in the town of Idrija. Concentrations (in ppm = mg/kg) were determined in fractions <63 m and 63500 m respectively: Hg (9000 and 65000), As (16 and 19.5), Cr (40 and 91), Cu (380 and 113), Pb (55 and 2940). Contamination with Hg, As and Pb persists in downstream Idrijca, as well as in Soˇca downstream from the confluence with Idrijca. Concentrations of some other trace elements (Zn, Ba, Ni, Cr, Co and Cu) increase in seaward direction. In Soˇca River drainage basin it was found that in the fraction <63 m Hg shows significant correlation with S, Zn, As, Cu, Sn, U, Mo, W and Sb. In the fraction 63-500 m significant correlation of Hg was found with S, Fe, Zn, Ni, Pb, Cr, As, Cu, Sn, Zr, Mo, Cd, Sb, Tl and Bi. On the contrary, in the Kupa drainage basin, the closed Hg-mine in Trˇsc´ e had only a minor effect on stream sediments. The highest measured concentration of Hg (206 ppb = g/kg) ˇ was determined at the confluence of Kupa and Cabranka Rivers. Significant correlation of Hg (in the fraction <63 m) was found with Zn, Pb, Cu, Au, Li and Cd. The geochemical baseline for Hg in Kupa drainage basin was determined for the first time as 86.1 47.3 ppb = g/kg. With respect to Hg, the basin shows characteristics of a very clean system. © by PSP 2005. 2128 Evaluation of river water quality by multidimensional analysis using parameters characteristic of dissolved organic ´ matter (French) (Evaluation de l’´etat d’une eau de rivi`ere par analyse multidimensionnelle utilisant certains param`etres caract´eristiques de la mati`ere organique dissoute) Parinet B., Boukari S.O.B. and Adima A. Revue des Sciences de l’Eau 2005 18/2 (133-163) Satisfactory systems for evaluating river water quality have not yet been established. In France, as in many other European countries, water quality is evaluated using physico-chemical or biological parameter grids. This method implicitly assumes that these parameters are independent from each other and that a universal state of reference exists. In fact, when taking into account the great diversity of rivers it is clear that any evaluation of water quality requires that reference conditions be specified for each water system. Although it is one of the objectives of the new European Water Framework Directive, this problem has not yet been resolved. In addition, it is important to note that the state of water is characterised by dependent analytical parameters, and that the relationships linking these parameters evolve with the state of the water; this variable dependence must be taken into account. Lastly, it is important to note that organic matter is generally underestimated by current water quality evaluation systems. In the present study an at tempt was made to evaluate the water quality of the Vienne River situated in western France. This study provided us with the opportunity to verify the accuracy of the current system. A monthly analytical monitoring program at eight study sites was carried out during the period 1999-2001. It allowed us to demonstrate that the well-known method of the principal component analysis (PCA), together with correlation analysis, was an appropriate tool for this purpose. More specifically, we showed that when using parameters characteristic of organic matter, this tool is well adapted for monitoring spatial and temporal changes in water quality. As this method is graphical, it made the choice of a reference point possible. This study showed that tradit ional parameters currently used, which are primarily inorganic, were not sufficient to identify anthropogenic contributions. For this reason we used unconventional organic variables, formerly used to study the structure of the dissolved organic matter (DOM) in surface waters, such as: -the distribution of the various orga nic fractions, such as humic (or hydrophobic) substances and non humic (or hydrophilic) substances, after filtration through macroporous XAD8 and XAD4 resins, under well-defined conditions; -the distribution of the apparent molecular weights, by ult rafiltration through membranes with molecular weight cut-offs of 30, 10 and 3 kDalons; -fluorescence spectrometry; -the ratio UV-absorbance at 254 nm/dissolv ed organic carbon (SUVA). It was noted in this study that these organic variables, coupled with those classically analysed (Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD; Biological Oxygen Demand, BOD5 ), were often mainly responsible for the variations in the water quality. Principal Component 406 HYDROLOGY Analysis was used to extract the main factors associated with water quality variability. The graphical representation obtained underlined that the greatest variability of the points characteristic of the stations could be observed on the first principal component. This component was linked to the organic variables. The second principal component was linked to inorganic variables indicative of the geological substrate. In addition, it was shown that the temporal dispersion of stations in the PCA graphical representation can be used to evaluate (either from the variance of the PCA factors, or from the box plots of these same factors) the disturbances related to the contributions of anthropogenic origin. The proportion of variability in water quality due to hydrological conditions could be also highlighted by PCA. 2129 River water quality in weathered limestone: A case study in upper Mahanadi basin, India Panigrahy B.K. and Raymahashay B.C. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth and Planetary Sciences 2005 114/5 (533-543) Stromatolitic limestone and calcareous shale belonging to Chattisgarh Supergroup of Proterozoic age dominate the upper part of the Mahanadi river basin. X-ray diffractogram (XRD),of limestone rocks show presence of a significant amount of calcite, dolomite and ankerite. Shales of various colours contain calcite and dolomite. It is observed that congruent dissolution of carbonate minerals in the Charmuria pure limestone has given rise to a typical karst topography. On the other hand, limestones are also seen to support red and black soil profiles. This indicates that the limestone bedrock undergoes a parallel incongruent weathering, which leaves a residue of decomposed rock. The XRD analyses reveal that the limestone soils thus formed contain an assemblage of quartz, clays and Fe-oxides. It is likely that the silicate component trapped during deposition of the stromatolitic limestone weathers incongruently resulting in diverse soil profiles. Carbonate and silicate mineral weathering schemes have been worked out to explain the soil formation, fixation of Al in clay minerals, and Fe in goethite. The water quality parameters such as Ca, Mg and HCO3 in the river water suggest under saturation with respect to calcite and dolomite. The mineral stability diagrams indicate that kaolinite and Ca-smectite are stable in the river water environment, hence they occur in suspended sediments and soils. The dominant influence of carbonate weathering on the water quality is observed even in the downstream part of the river outside the limestone terrain. © Printed in India. 2130 Exposure to selected heavy metals through water ingestion in an area under the influence of tanneries Rodrigues M.L.K. and Formoso M.L.L. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (397-408) This study evaluated the potential toxicological risk posed to human health due to the exposure to heavy metals by water ingestion in an area affected by tanneries - The Cadeia-Feitoria hydrographic basin (Brazil). River water was collected at 10 sites, every 3 months, from July 1999 to April 2000. After acid digestion, total metal concentration was determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Zn), flame atomic absorption (Al, Fe, Pb, Mn), or cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry (Hg). Cr(VI) was complexed with diphenyl-carbazide and detected by UV-vis spectrometry. In order to quantify the risk of exposure, the risk assessment methodology employed by the Environmental Protection Agency of the United States was applied at a screening level. The assumed scenarios included extreme exposure patterns (ingestion of untreated water, conversion of Cr(III) to Cr(VI), temporal peaks of pollution). Fe, Al, Cd, Hg, and Pb were not included in the risk analysis, since they showed a low toxicity potential or were undetected in the samples. The selected metals presented Hazard Quotients < 1, in the following order of increasing risk: Cu < Cr(III) < Zn < Ni < Mn < Cr(VI). Hazard indexes, representing the additive effect of contaminants, were also low in the basin (< 1), but comparatively increased in the lower reach of Feitoria and Cadeia Rivers. Although noncarcinogenic risk levels did not suggest possible adverse toxicological effects to the human population, a considerable deviation from background conditions was observed downstream the area where tanneries are mainly located. © Springer 2005. 2131 Effects of point source loadings, sub-basin inputs and longitudinal variation in material retention on C, N and P delivery from the Ohio River basin Bukaveckas P.A., Guelda D.L., Jack J. et al. Ecosystems 2005 8/7 (825-840) Spatial variability in material fluxes within large river basins may arise from point source inputs, variable contributions from sub-basins and longitudinal variation in material transformation and retention. By measuring instantaneous fluxes throughout the Ohio River basin, we were able to draw inferences about the importance of these factors in determining the overall export of C, N and P from the basin. Our study spanned the lower 645 km of the Ohio River and included all tributaries that contributed at least 1% of the volume of the Ohio River at its confluence with the Mississippi. The intensively cultivated northern sub-basin (Wabash River) contributed a large fraction of N and P entering the Ohio River. In the southern sub-basins (Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers), impoundments and less intense cultivation appear to diminish and delay material delivery particularly with respect to N. The southern rivers account for a proportionately larger fraction of the water entering the Mississippi River during low discharge conditions and this fraction has increased during the past 50 years. The upper portion of the study reach was found to be a net source of CHLa and DOC and a net sink for inorganic N suggesting that this portion of the river provided a generally favorable environment for autotrophic production. Point source loadings of NH4 were significant inputs to the upper sub-reach but a relatively small component of the overall budget for dissolved inorganic N. © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2132 Investigations about the impact of urban space units to the material inventory of watercourses - The example of Halle/Saale (German) (Untersuchungen zum Einfluss urbaner R¨aume auf das Stoffinventar von Fließgew¨assern - Dargestellt am Beispiel von Halle/Saale) Koch S., Sauerwein M. and Fr¨uhauf M. Hercynia 2005 38/1 (25-38) The quality of the surface waters often is degraded in urban areas. The city of Halle was known as one of the largest ecological crisis areas in the former GDR. The river Saale, which is crossing the city, as main water vein is still heavily used. Based on continuous measurings at different inner municipal waterways as well as at various control points at the Saale the article explains about the extent for the current load within 2 hydrological years. In addition, the inner municipal substance entry is quantified about load calculations. The detailed investigations permit the identification of various entry paths. 2133 Historical backcasting of metal concentrations in the Chattahoochee River, Georgia: Population growth and environmental policy Neumann K., Lyons W.B., Graham E.Y. and Callender E. Applied Geochemistry 2005 20/12 (2315-2324) The impact of increasing urbanization on the quality of a river system has been investigated by examining the current concentration of trace metals in the Chattahoochee River south of Atlanta, GA, and comparing these to previously published historical sediment data from reservoirs along the river. The lack of historical data for dissolved metal concentrations prior to
1980 requires an approach using these historic metal data from sediment cores. Core data are combined with current suspended load and dissolved metal data to "backcast" dissolved metal concentrations in the metro-Atlanta portion of the Chattahoochee River. The data suggest that the per capita input of dissolved trace metals have actually decreased since the 1920s, but anthropogenic inputs of metal are still a substantial water quality issue. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2134 Geological and anthropogenic influences on the inorganic water chemistry of the Jukskei River, Gauteng, South Africa Huizenga J.M. and Harmse J.T. South African Journal of Geology 2005 108/3 (439-447) This study evaluates the inorganic water quality of the Jukskei River from 1979 until 2002 in order to assess the geological and HYDROLOGY anthropogenic factors that have influenced the inorganic water quality of the Jukskei River. The non-polluted Little Jukskei River has been used as a baseline reference. The Jukskei River is characterised in the early 1980s by low pH values (3 to 4), high sulphate concentrations (up to 500 mg/L) and high concentrations of sodium, chloride, fluoride, orthophosphate, and nitrate. Potential pollution sources include the Central Rand area and industry situated along the Modderfontein Spruit. The water quality has subsequently improved over time as is demonstrated, in particular, by steadily increasing pH values up to 8+ and decreasing sulphate concentrations down to <200 mg/L. Orthophosphate, nitrate, sodium, potassium and chloride concentrations in 2002 were significantly lower than in 1979 but still higher compared to the Little Jukskei River. This may be explained by communal effluent input as a result of increased urbanisation in the Jukskei Catchment area. © 2005 Geological Society of South Africa. Surface water quality: lakes and reservoirs 2135 Assessment of heavy metal concentrations in the food web of lake Beys¸ehir, Turkey Altindaˇg A. and Yiˇgit S. Chemosphere 2005 60/4 (552-556) The accumulation of heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Hg and Cr) was measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry in water, sediment, plankton and fish samples collected from Lake Beys¸ehir, which is important bird nesting and visiting areas, and irrigation and drinking water sources. In Lake Beys¸ehir, the accumulation orders of heavy metals were Cd > Pb > Cr > Hg in water, Pb > Cd > Cr > Hg in sediment, Pb > Cd > Cr > Hg in plankton, and Cd > Pb > Cr > Hg in the muscles and gills of chub, carp, tench, except for the muscle of pikeperch, in which it was Pb > Cd > Cr > Hg (P < 0.05). In addition to this, accumulation orders of heavy metals in the food web was also found to be water > plankton > sediment > fish tissues, except for Cr. According to international criterias and Turkish regulations, heavy metal concentrations especially Cd and Pb in Lake Beys¸ehir were markedly above the permissible levels for drinking water. 2136 Remote sensing algorithms for monitoring eutrophication in Ishizuchi storm water reservoir in Kochi Prefecture, Japan Ibrahim A.N., Mabuchi Y. and Murakami M. Hydrological Sciences Journal 2005 50/3 (525-542) Remote sensing technology is being conceived as a cost-effective tool to monitor the eutrophication problem in shallow inland lakes and reservoirs. The objective of this study is to develop hyperspectral remote sensing algorithms for chlorophyll and accessory pigments retrieval in the Ishizuchi Reservoir in Japan. The laboratory reflectance data of 207 field samples with manipulated pigment and suspended sediment concentrations were measured between 400 and 700 nm with a hyperspectral spectroradiometer, and integrated into 60 contiguous narrow bands. Band ratio and spectral absorption algorithms were developed by regression analysis with the observed chlorophyll measurements, and their estimation accuracies were evaluated using the RMSE of the estimates. Algorithms developed from spectral absorption ratios a(675 nm)/a(675 nm) for five different classes of total pigment concentrations were more accurate than the algorithms based on band ratios Rrs (538 nm)/Rrs (488 nm), Rrs (581 nm)/Rrs (463 nm) and Rrs (674nm)/Rrs (622 nm) as a result of removing the influence of overlapping absorption and scattering by water molecules and suspended solids from total absorption spectra. Copyright © 2005 IAHS Press. 2137 A screening procedure for identifying acid-sensitive lakes from catchment characteristics Berg N.H., Gallegos A., Dell T. et al. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2005 105/1-3 (285-307) Monitoring of Wilderness lakes for potential acidification requires information on lake sensitivity to acidification. Catchment properties can be used to estimate the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) of lakes. Conceptual and general linear models were developed to predict the ANC of lakes in high-elevation 407 (170 m) Wilderness Areas in California’s Sierra Nevada mountains. Catchment-to-lake area ratio, lake perimeter-to-area ratio, bedrock lithology, vegetation cover, and lake headwater location are significant variables explaining ANC. The general linear models were validated against independently collected water chemistry data and were used as part of a first stage screen to identify Wilderness lakes with low ANC. Expanded monitoring of atmospheric deposition is essential for improving the predictability of lake ANC. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 2138 Copper and cadmium complexation by high molecular weight materials of dominant microalgae and of water from a eutrophic reservoir Gouvˆea S.P., Vieira A.A.H. and Lombardi A.T. Chemosphere 2005 60/9 (1332-1339) High molecular weight materials (HMWM, >12 000-14 000 Da) excreted by the two cyanophyte species (Microcystis aeruginosa and Anabaena spiroides) and a diatom (Aulacoseira granulata) which are dominant phytoplankton species in a eutrophic reservoir, Barra Bonita, Brazil were investigated as copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd) complexation agents and their monosaccharide and elemental analysis of C, H, N and S determined. Also, HMWM obtained from the reservoir water as well as from a mixture of the three algae materials were studied. The HMWM of the cyanophytes and the mixture of the three algae materials complexed Cu and Cd, whereas the HMWM of the diatom and that from the reservoir water complexed only Cu. Two classes of ligands of intermediate to weak binding strength were obtained after Scatchard plot analysis of the titration data. The cyanophytes and the mixture HMWM presented higher conditional stability constants for Cu class-1 ligands (logK
1 =9.2-9.5) than the HMWM derived from the diatom and the reservoir water (logK
1 =8.6-8.8). Higher proportions of acidic monosaccharides corresponded to higher K
1 of Cu and Cd complexation, yet no relation was observed among complexation parameters and elemental analysis. This study points out Cu ligands of intermediate to weak binding strength in the excreted HMWM of dominant microalgae and in the HMWM of the reservoir water, while Cd was solely complexed by ligands isolated from the cyanophyte HMWM. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2139 The effects of phosphorus additions on the sedimentation of contaminants in a uranium mine pit-lake Dessouki T.C.E., Hudson J.J., Neal B.R. and Bogard M.J. Water Research 2005 39/13 (3055-3061) We investigated the usefulness of phytoplankton for the removal of surface water contaminants. Nine large mesocosms (92.2 m3 ) were suspended in the flooded DJX uranium pit at Cluff Lake (Saskatchewan, Canada), and filled with highly contaminated mine water. Each mesocosm was fertilized with a different amount of phosphorus throughout the 35 day experiment to stimulate phytoplankton growth, and to create a range in phosphorus load (g) to examine how contaminants may be affected by different nutrient regimes. Algal growth was rapid in fertilized mesocosms (as demonstrated by chlorophyll a profiles). As phosphorus loads increased there were significant declines (p<0.05) in the surface water concentrations of As, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Zn. This decline was near significant for uranium (p=0.065). The surface water concentrations of Ra-226, Mo, and Se showed no relationship to phosphorus load. Contaminant concentrations in sediment traps suspended at the bottom of each mesocosm generally showed the opposite trend to that observed in the surface water, with most contaminants (As, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Ra-226, U, and Zn) exhibiting a significant positive relationship (p<0.05) with phosphorus load. Selenium and Mo did not respond to nutrient treatments. Our results suggest that phytoremediation has the potential to lower many surface water contaminants through the sedimentation of phytoplankton. Based on our results, we estimate that the Saskatchewan Surface Water Quality Objectives (SSWQO) for DJX pit would be met in approximately 45 weeks for Co, 65 weeks for Ni, 15 weeks for U, and 5 weeks for Zn. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 408 HYDROLOGY 2140 Comparative sorption and desorption of benzo[a]pyrene and 3,4,3
,4
-tetrachlorobipnenyl in natural lake water containing dissolved organic matter Akkanen J., Tuikka A. and Kukkonen J.V.K. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7529-7534) The sorption and desorption of two model compounds, benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and 3,4,3
,4
-tetrachlorobiphenyl (TCBP), were studied in natural lake water with high dissolved organic matter (DOM) content using the equilibrium dialysis and Tenax extraction methods. The sorption of TCBP was lower and reached steady value more slowly than did BaP. Tenax extraction revealed at least two differently desorbing fractions for both model compounds, which also supported the conclusion that DOM-HOC associations may involve several mechanisms. The rapidly desorbing fraction may be attributed to freely dissolved and loosely sorbed compound, whereas the more strongly sorbed fraction may indicate the presence of specific binding sites. The data indicated that the association between hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOC) and DOM is notsimply absorption that is solely driven by the lipophilicity of the sorbates. Although contact time had a rather negligible effect on the sorption of BaP, the proportion of desorption resistant fraction increased with time, whereas the desorption of TCBP was less affected by contact time. Steric factors may be the cause of the lower sorption and smaller desorption resistant fraction of TCBP. The results indicate potential differences in the behavior of PAHs and PCBs in the aquatic environment. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2141 Determination of organochlorine pesticides and their derivations in water after HS-SPME using polymethylphenylvinylsiloxane-coated fiber by GC-ECD Dong C., Zeng Z. and Yang M. Water Research 2005 39/17 (4204-4210) A porous sol-gel polymethylphenylvinylsiloxane-coated fiber was applied to optimize the headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) conditions for the analysis of 11 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and their derivations in water. Their determination was carried out using gas chromatography (GC) with electron capture detector (ECD). The method developed was applied to the analysis of lake water samples. Detection limits varied from 0.835 to 13.0 ng/l and relative standard deviations (RSD11.8%) were obtained showing that the precision of the method is reliable. The method also showed good linearity for the tested concentration range with regression coefficients (R2 ) ranging between 0.980 and 0.999. Recoveries for all the analytes ranged from 71.5% to 115.5%. The results demonstrate the suitability of the HS-SPME/GC-ECD approach for the analysis of multi-residue OCPs in water. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2142 Determination of perchlorate in selected surface waters in the Great Lakes Basin by HPLC/MS/MS Backus S.M., Klawuun P., Brown S. et al. Chemosphere 2005 61/6 (834-843) Surface water samples were collected from 55 sites in the Great Lakes Basin and analyzed for the presence of perchlorate using HPLC/MS/MS with an isotopically enriched internal standard. Sites included areas impacted by heavy industry, urbanization, agriculture and atmospheric deposition. Perchlorate was detected at several of the sites at concentrations close to the method detection limit (0.2 g/l). Despite these low concentrations, its presence was confirmed by sample concentration and determination of the isotopic ratio of perchlorate. The presence of perchlorate at two of the sites was related to a fireworks display which had occurred prior to sampling. The other detections of perchlorate were in rivers/creeks draining watersheds which had high density livestock and crop farming activity. We suspect the two are related. To our knowledge, these are the first reported concentrations of perchlorate in Canadian surface waters. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2143 Using sediments to assess the resistance of a calcareous lake to diffuse nutrient loading Hobbs W., Irvine K. and Donohue I. Archiv fur Hydrobiologie 2005 164/1 (109-125) The capacity of lake sediments to retain phosphorus can provide an important buffer to eutrophication. Concentrations of total phosphorus (TP) in the surface sediment of a shallow calcareous lake (Lough Carra, Ireland) varied significantly across three basins and were correlated strongly with iron and manganese, but correlated inversely with calcium carbonate. The concentrations of phosphorus in the surficial sediments of each basin were observed to reflect the mean annual TP of overlying waters, such that the North Basin > South Basin > Mid Basin. Phosphorus sorption experiments on the most TP-enriched sediments predicted a saturation concentration of 0.15 mg P g-1 . Geochemically similar sediments from the northern basin had slightly lower measured TP concentrations (0.10 mg P g-1 ), while those sediments with higher Fe concentrations had up to 0.54 mg P g-1 . Decreasing Fe:P in the upper sections of sediment cores taken from each lake basin show clearly a reduction in the ability of the lake sediments to bind P, reducing the resistance of the lake to eutrophication. The reduced capacity of the sediments to adsorb P should be viewed as a warning signal that indicates increasing risk to water quality and current high conservation status of Lough Carra. The risk that the lake could "flip" to an alternative state, with high concentrations of phytoplankton and a loss of extensive charophyte beds, requires that measures are effected that will prevent or reduce nutrient loads to the lake. This will necessitate a reversal of the current trend of increasing catchment pressures from intensification of agriculture and increased rural housing. © 2005 E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. 2144 Nutrient overloading of a freshwater lake in Bhopal, India Dixit S., Gupta S.K. and Tiwari S. Electronic Green Journal 2005 -/21 (4p) One of the most important crises of the 21st century is the scarcity of drinking water. Most freshwater bodies the world over are becoming polluted, thus decreasing the potability of the water. Today, eutrophication of natural waters is one of the most significant causes of a decline in water quality. It is accompanied by a large quantity of plant material in the water. It is fair to state that nitrates and phosphates are probably the key nutrients in controlling aquatic plant growth. The study area selected was the Shahpura Lake of Bhopal, the state capital of Madhya Pradesh, India. The lake was found to be highly eutrophic. The phosphate content of the lake water studied was found in the range of 6.05 to 9.21 ppm. The nitrate content of the water was found to be in the range 2.02 to 15.22 ppm. Copyright © 2005 Electronic Green Journal. All Rights Reserved. 2145 The formation and degradation of cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae blooms: The importance of pH, water temperature, and day length Yamamoto Y. and Nakahara H. Limnology 2005 6/1 (1-6) Investigation of annual changes in phytoplankton community structure in a small artificial eutrophic pond was carried out from May 2002 to April 2003. A heavy bloom of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae var. klebahnii Elenk. (Cyanobacteria) persisted in most of the water column from June to the end of October. In November, the A. flos-aquae bloom suddenly crashed and green algae were predominant until the end of spring. Weekly monitoring suggested strong involvement of the changes in abiotic factors in the cyanobacterial bloom degradation. To clarify the effects of pH. water temperature, and day length on the growth of A. flos-aquae, laboratory batch experiments were conducted. The results showed that A. flos-aquae could not grow below pH 7.1 and 11°C, and the growth tended to be suppressed under a 10L:14D photoperiod. pH, water temperature, and day length are vital factors in the growth of A. flos-aquae and, additionally, grazing by cyclopoid copepods also seemed important in bloom collapse. © The Japanese Society of Limnology 2005. 2146 pH fluctuation of Sawano-ike Pond in Kyoto accompanied by water level changes Yoshikawa S., Tazaki K., Okuda S. et al. Limnology 2005 6/1 (15-26) The supply and consumption of alkalinity in Sawano-ike Pond was investigated to reveal the mechanisms of pH fluctuation in the pond. Alkalinity in the bottom layer at the deepest point of the pond increased in summer, but in-pond generation of alkalinity was estimated to be very small because of the low depth of HYDROLOGY water in the pond. According to the calculations of water budget and solute balance, subsurface water, the alkalinity of which is moderately high, accounted for 45% of the total influx during a period of relatively high water level. The predicted concentrations of major ions and alkalinity in the pond calculated from the mass balance coincided well with measured concentrations. The relatively high pH values of the pond water during a period of high water level are considered to be mainly caused by alkalinity supplied by influxes, especially subsurface water. During a period of relatively low water level, predicted alkalinity exceeded measured alkalinity by 29%, indicating the occurrence of in-pond consumption of alkalinity with a resultant decrease in pH. © The Japanese Society of Limnology 2005. 2147 Distributions of pH and chemical components in Mizorogaike, a pond with a floating-mat bog Koshikawa M.K., Fujita N., Sugiyama M. and Hori T. Limnology 2005 6/1 (27-37) Distribution patterns of pH and concentrations of chemical components were studied in Mizorogaike, a pond with a floating-mat hog, which is naturally acidified by the Sphagnum community. Considering the distribution of pH, sampling sites were selected on the floating mat (two sites), beneath the floating mat (one site), in the open water around the floating mat (two sites), and at the mouths of inflows (two sites). Monthly observations from April 1994 through March 1995 revealed that the distribution patterns of chemical components could be classified into three groups according to their pH dependence: (1) concentrations of dissolved organic carbon, organic phosphorus, aluminum, iron, and manganese increase with decrease in pH; (2) concentrations of dissolved orthophosphate and silicon increase with increase in pH: (3) concentrations of suspended particulate aluminum, iron, manganese, phosphorus, and silicon do not depend on the pH. Thus in Mizorogaike, the distribution of dissolved components depends on the pH. © The Japanese Society of Limnology 2005. 2148 Modelling the structural changes of water quality in the Elbe river basin Langhammer J. Ekologia Bratislava 2004 23/SUPPL. 1 (157169) In the course of the last decade of the 20th century, the Czech part of the Elbe river basin underwent a significant change in the quality of surface water. After a long period of intensive pollution, reaching the peak at the end of the 1980s, in the course of the next decade were recorded important changes. The reduction of direct emissions from key industrial and communal sources steming from internation programmes led to a deep decline of pollution load of the Elbe and its principal tributaries. The speed of resulting water quality changes is unprecedented in the Czech as well as in the European perspective. Decrease in the pollution level is however spatially limited to the Elbe river and its main tributaries. The models shows that the further reduction of direct emissions will not result in corresponding decline of water pollution. This is due to diverse evolution in whole of the river basin and mainly to insufficient decrease of pollution load in the headstream areas. The area of small watercourses has to be in the centre of future attention because without changes in its management it is impossible to ensure further improvement of water quality in the Elbe and its tributaries. 2149 The impact of the hyperacid Ijen Crater Lake. Part II: A total diet study Heikens A., Widianarko B., Dewi I.C. et al. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (475-483) In Asembagus (East Java, Indonesia), surface water is contaminated with effluent from the hyperacid Ijen Crater Lake. In a previous study, we reported that food crops irrigated with this water had increased concentrations of various elements. Here, we present a total diet study for adults and 6-year-old children to determine if the mean daily intake of a broad range of elements is safe and adequate. For children, the intake of B, Mg, Mn and V is high with Hazard Quotients (HQ) of 1.1 (B), 1.4 (Mn) and 1.4 (V), respectively (no TDI is available for Mg). For Mn, the daily intake is high due to the consumption of locally produced rice. Drinking water is the main source of B, Mg and V. For adults, the intake of Mg, Mn and V is also high but HQ values are  0.7. For both children and adults, the intake of Ca, Zn 409 and particularly Fe is below the RNI (Fe intake is 90% below the RNI for women). It is concluded the mean intake of elements is unbalanced and Fe deficiency is probably the most serious health problem. Toxic effects cannot be fully excluded since deficiency of essential elements such as Ca, Fe and Zn can increase the absorption and retention of various elements. © Springer 2005. Groundwater processes 2150 Relationship between transmissivity and specific capacity in the volcanic aquifers of Jeju Island, Korea Hamm S.- Y., Cheong J.- Y., Jang S. et al. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (111-121) Transmissivity is often estimated using specific capacity data when standard pumping test data are not available or the drawdown is stabilized early, as in this study. Previous researchers studied the relationship between transmissivity and specific capacity in the leaky aquifer system of volcanic rocks on Jeju Island, Korea, using the Cooper-Jacob equation. The current study utilizes the Moench leaky aquifer model. The linear relationship between transmissivity and specific capacity on a log-log scale for volcanic aquifers on Jeju Island is remarkably strong, with a correlation coefficient of 0.94. The width of the 90% prediction interval is about 0.89 log cycles, indicating a 0.44 order of magnitude uncertainty when transmissivity is estimated using specific capacity. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2151 Factors influencing groundwater seepage in a large, mesotrophic lake in New York Schneider R.L., Negley T.L. and Wafer C. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (1-16) Groundwater seepage is gaining recognition as a critical feature of lake shoreline environments, yet our understanding of this process is complicated by the considerable spatial heterogeneity observed in flow rates within and among lakes. This research investigated spatial patterns in groundwater seepage around the shoreline of Oneida Lake, a 207 km2 lake located in central New York, USA. Replicated, shielded seepage meters, with associated controls, were used to quantify rates and directions of groundwater flow along a 120 m stretch of shoreline throughout the summers of 1997-1999. These reference meters exhibited an average flow rate of 72 ml m-2 h-1 (n=840; SE=5) with individual flow rates as high as 1200 ml m-2 h -1 . Additional meters, monitored in 1998, indicated that seepage patterns were highly synchronous but increased in magnitude of flow rate with increasing distances offshore up to 100 m from shore. In 1999, private landowners assisted in weekly monitoring of seepage meters at 28 additional sites distributed around the 88 km perimeter of Oneida Lake. The highest groundwater flow rates, averaging 100 ml m-2 h-1 , consistently occurred along the northern and eastern shorelines; lowest flow rates, including areas of groundwater recharge, occurred along the western and southwestern shorelines, proximal to the lake’s outlet. Spatial patterns in groundwater flow were surprisingly unrelated to substrate texture despite wide variability observed around the lake edge, from silty-clays, to sands, gravels and boulders. Broad-scale factors of underlying bedrock geology and regional precipitation patterns appear to be driving the observed spatial patterns in Oneida Lake’s groundwater contributions. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2152 Tracer tests in fractured rocks with a new fluorescent dye - Pyrene-1,3,6,8-tetra sulphonic acid (PTS) Einsiedl F. and Maloszewski P. Hydrological Sciences Journal 2005 50/3 (543-554) Two multi-tracer tests were performed in fissured rocks accessible in underground laboratories to examine a new fluorescent dye: pyrene-1,3,6,8-tetra sulphonic acid (PTS). The first test was carried out at the Lindau Rock Laboratory (LRL), Germany, in a highly permeable ore dike, and the second, at the Grimsel Test Site (GTS), Switzerland, in a heterogeneous granite fault zone (AU 126). At the LRL new tracer was injected together with uranine in a convergent flow field (monopole test), and slightly different tracer breakthrough curves were observed according to different diffusion coefficients of both tracers. The matrix 410 HYDROLOGY porosity calculated with the aid of the one-dimensional (1-D) single-fissure dispersion model (SFDM) agrees well with that found in earlier tracer tests and with measurements performed on core samples. At the GTS, the PTS tracer was applied together with pyranine in two-well injection-withdrawal (dipole) tests. Both tracers yielded identical tracer concentration curves, which confirm their conservative behaviour. Mathematical simulations performed with the aid of a 3-D numerical model (FRAC3DVS) yielded equally good fits for different sets of parameters, independent of whether matrix porosity was included or neglected. That lack of unique solution and the difficulty in observing the influence of matrix diffusion result from a wide distribution of the transit times of particular streamlines, which is characteristic for injection-withdrawal tests. However, both tracer tests clearly indicated that the new tracer (PTS) behaves conservatively at high pH values and can be successfully used for groundwater labelling. 2153 Delineation of source protection zones using statistical methods Stauffer F., Guadagnini A., Butler A. et al. Water Resources Management 2005 19/2 (163-185) Source protection zones are increasingly important for securing the long-term viability of drinking water derived from groundwater resources. These may be either time-related capture zones or catchments related to the activity of a pumping well or spring. The establishment of such zones is an indispensable measure for the proper assessment of groundwater resource vulnerability and reduction of risk, which may be induced by human activities. The delineation of these protection zones is usually performed with the aid of models, which are in turn based on site-specific information of the aquifer’s geometry, hydraulic parameters and boundary conditions. Owing to the imperfect knowledge of such information, predicting the location of these zones is inherently uncertain. It is possible to quantify this uncertainty in a statistical manner through the development of probability maps, which shows the probability that a particular surface location belongs to the aquifer’s capture zone (or catchment area). This publication aims at the investigation of the requirements for the establishment of probabilistic source protection zones, the practical use of stochastic methods in their delineation, and the use of data-assimilation for uncertainty reduction. It also provides a methodology for the implementation of these methods by modelling practitioners. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 2154 Vertical motion of ground water in bed rock induced by earth tide and its influence on a repository for burnt nuclear fuel: A theoretical calculation Rehbinder G. Nordic Hydrology 2005 36/2 (137-162) Earth tide induced by the Moon and the Sun makes the volume of pores or the apertures of fractures of the bed rock vary, which in turn makes the ground water move. The flow equation of ground water, complete with the tide effect, and its solution, shows that the diffusive propagation of pore pressure is decisive for the response of the perturbation of gravity. Moreover the solution shows that diffusive flow dominates in the Fennoscandian Precambrian rock. The analysis shows that a constitutive coefficient relating the varying perturbation gravity and porosity of bed rock can be determined by field measurements of the level of water in boreholes. Water in a cavity in the bed rock is exposed to an oscillatory interaction with the surrounding pore water. If the cavity is a repository for nuclear waste, this interaction deserves attention. The analysis shows that the magnitude of the oscillatory motion of water between a repository for nuclear waste and its. surrounding groundwater is much less than the vertical motion of the phreatic surface. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2155 A model for contaminant mass flux in capped sediment under consolidation Alshawabkeh A.N., Rahbar N. and Sheahan T. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 78/3 (147-165) The paper presents a model for contaminant transport and flux through a consolidating subaqueous sediment and overlying cap. The formulation is based on the effect of consolidation and excess pore pressure dissipation on transient, nonlinear advective component of transport through sediment and the cap. The con- solidation is induced by the buoyant weight of the cap when it is placed on the contaminated sediments. One equation is presented for advective-diffusive transport through the sediment that is dependent upon soil/contaminant properties and transient advective velocity, which is calculated from a second equation based on the Terzaghi consolidation theory. A third equation is provided to describe the transport of contaminants in the cap. The parameters, including advective velocity, and boundary conditions used for contaminant transport through the cap are derived from the solution of the first two equations. The finite difference method is used to solve the system of equations for consolidation and contaminant transport. A hypothetical case is analyzed to demonstrate the formulation, and the results show that advection due to consolidation can accelerate breakthrough of contaminant through the cap by orders of magnitude. The derivation and results show that consolidation should be included for cap design, and that reactive caps are essential for delaying and reducing dissolved contaminant flux. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2156 Evaluation of synchrotron X-ray computerized microtomography for the visualization of transport processes in low-porosity materials Altman S.J., Peplinski W.J. and Rivers M.L. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 78/3 (167-183) Synchrotron-source X-ray computerized microtomography (CMT) is evaluated as a method to visualize transport processes. We conclude that CMT is adequate for visualization of transport experiments if the right conditions exist. Namely, 1) not much more than one-order-of-magnitude range in concentration data is needed for the study, 2) the pore space in the samples are greater than approximately 2-50 m, depending on the sample size and system setup; 3) the sample is fine-grained enough so that a representative elemental volume (REV) can be contained by a 2-10 mm diameter sample, and 4) the transport process is slow enough that significant changes do not occur within the 25-50 min (and possibly less in the future) needed to collect data for one threedimensional image. Absorption edge difference imaging (AEDI) in association with CMT is introduced as a method to enhance pore-space visualization. We successfully imaged the pore space in a low-porosity granodiorite, diorite and fine-grained granite cores and a higher-porosity soil aggregate sample. We found that the pore space important to transport in the core samples was smaller than what we were able to visualize with CMT. We also made rudimentary associations of minerals with pore-space location. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2157 Effects of sorption on transverse mixing in transient flows Cirpka O.A. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 78/3 (207229) Transverse mixing has been identified as a potentially limiting factor for natural attenuation of plumes originating from continuously emitting sources. Under steady-state flow conditions, dispersion is the only process leading to lateral mixing. This process is very slow and cannot explain the lateral spread of plumes observed in the field. When the flow direction fluctuates with time, transverse dispersion is slightly enhanced, but not very pronounced. Under these flow conditions, however, sorption can contribute to mixing into the mean transverse direction. If the reacting compounds differ in their strength of sorption, chromatographic mixing and separation alternate in time-periodic flows. For instantaneous sorption, the plumes may overlap within a stripe of fixed width. In contrast to sorption in local equilibrium, kinetic sorption contributes to mixing also for compounds with identical sorption strength. I derive an analytical expression for the equivalent transverse dispersion coefficient of a kinetically sorbing compound in a spatially uniform flow field undergoing sinusoidal fluctuations in time. This expression may be used for reactive transport calculations in an equivalent domain with constant flow. The effects are the strongest for compounds with a dimensionless partitioning coefficient of about unity, slow sorption kinetics, and slowly fluctuating velocities. For realistic parameters, kinetic sorption contributes to transverse mixing in the same range as heterogeneity. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. HYDROLOGY 2158 Upward movement of tritium from contaminated groundwaters: A numerical analysis Belot Y., Watkins B.M., Edlund O. et al. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2005 84/2 (259-270) This paper describes a research-oriented modelling exercise that addresses the problem of assessing the movement of tritium from a contaminated perched aquifer to the land surface. Participants were provided with information on water table depth, soil characteristics, hourly meteorological and evapotranspiration data. They were asked to predict the upward migration of tritium through the unsaturated soil into the atmosphere. Eight different numerical models were used to calculate the movement of tritium. The modelling results agree within a factor of two, if very small time and space increments are used. The agreement is not so good when the near-surface soil becomes dry. The modelling of the alternate upward and downward transport of tritium close to the ground surface generally requires rather complex models and detailed input because tritium concentration varies sharply over short distances and is very sensitive to many interactive factors including rainfall amount, evapotranspiration rate, rooting depth and water table position. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2159 Injection of innocuous oils to create reactive barriers for bioremediation: Laboratory studies Hunter W.J. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 80/1-2 (3148) In situ groundwater remediation may be achieved using stationary permeable barriers created by the injection of a substrate, such as innocuous vegetable oil, into the contaminated aquifer. The oil provides the electron donor stimulating microorganisms to degrade or sequester many contaminants. At present, little is known about the best procedures to use when injecting oil into an aquifer. In this investigation, laboratory column and sand tank studies were used as model systems to explore the effect of different injection parameters on the distribution of oil emulsions into water-saturated sand. The parameters investigated included injection pressures of 70, 1400 and 18,000 KPa; injection times of 15, 30, 60 or 120 s; and the influence of an emulsifier, polyoxyethylenesorbitan monooleate (Tween 80), upon the distribution of the injected oil. The longest injection patterns were achieved at 18,000 KPa. A pattern that was 46 1.8 cm long was produced with an 18,000 KPa injection for 60 s. Increasing the injection time to 120 s increased the length of the pattern by only 6.5%. Tween 80 at concentrations of 0.05% increased the width of the injection patterns but did not increase the length of the pattern. A multi-ported injection probe might be used to create in situ permeable barriers approximately 1 m wide. 2160 Interphase mass transfer during chemical oxidation of TCE DNAPL in an aqueous system Urynowicz M.A. and Siegrist R.L. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 80/3-4 (93-106) The chemical oxidation of trichloroethene dense non-aqueous phase liquid by permanganate was studied in an aqueous system using micro-reaction/extraction vessels in a novel approach. Experiments were conducted at ambient temperature (
20°C) under static and mixed conditions to evaluate the rate of TCEDNAPL dissolution as a function of permanganate concentration. Chemical oxidation by permanganate was shown to increase the rate of TCE DNAPL dissolution under static conditions and decrease the rate of dissolution under mixed conditions. The apparent inconsistency in results appears to result from the local deposition of a film at the DNAPL interface composed of manganese oxide solids as discovered through visual observation with the aid of a Goniometer. Data from interfacial deposition experiments suggest that the film formed rapidly and reached maturation within approximately 2 h with little or no growth occurring thereafter. A conceptual model of the reaction and mass transfer processes occurring at the DNAPL interface was proposed based on the experimental results. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All right reserved. 2161 Stochastic finite element method for probabilistic analysis of flow and transport in a three-dimensional heterogeneous porous formation Chaudhuri A. and Sekhar M. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-10) 411 [1] A probabilistic study is attempted to analyze the flow and transport in a three-dimensional (3-D) porous formation where the governing parameters are varying randomly in space. It is assumed that the soil parameters, namely, hydraulic conductivity, dispersivity, molecular diffusion, porosity, sorption coefficient, and decay rate, are random fields. A stochastic finite element method (SFEM), which is based on perturbation technique, is developed. The method developed here uses an alternate approach for obtaining improved computational efficiency. The derivatives of the concentration with respect to random parameters are obtained by using the derivatives of local matrices instead of global matrices. This approach increases the computational efficiency of the present method by several orders with respect to standard SFEM. Both accuracy and computational efficiency of this method are compared with that of commonly used Monte Carlo simulation method (MCSM). It is observed that for moderate values of coefficient of variations of the random parameters the mean and standard deviation match reasonably well with MCSM results. Using this method the excessive computational effort required by MCSM can be avoided. In the present study both 1-D as well as 3-D problems are solved to show the advantages of SFEM over MCSM. The correlation scale of the random field is found to be an important parameter. For the range of this parameter studied here it is found that as correlation scale increases, the standard deviation increases. The results obtained for two particular problems in this study show that the coefficient of variation of concentration is higher for the 1-D problem than the 3-D problem. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2162 Permeability anisotropy induced by the shear displacement of rough fracture walls Auradou H., Drazer G., Hulin J.P. and Koplik J. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-10) [1] The permeability anisotropy that results from a shear displacement u→ between the complementary self-affine walls of a rough fracture is investigated. Experiments in which a dyed fluid radially injected into a transparent fracture displaces a transparent one are presented. A clear anisotropy is observed in the presence of shear displacements and allows us to estimate the ratio of the permeabilities for flows parallel and perpendicular to u→ . A simple model which accounts for the development of channels perpendicular to u→ qualitatively explains these results and predicts a permeability decreasing (increasing) linearly with the variance of the aperture field for flow parallel (perpendicular) to the shear displacement. These predictions are then compared to the results of numerical simulations performed using a lattice Boltzmann technique and to the anisotropies measured in displacement experiments. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2163 Observations of preferential flow during a liquid release experiment in fractured welded tuffs Salve R. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-14) [1] To better understand preferential flow in fractured rock, we carried out an in situ field experiment in the Exploratory Studies Facility at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. This experiment involved the release of
22 m3 of ponded water (at a pressure head of
0.04 m) over a period of 7 months, directly onto a 12 m2 infiltration plot located on a fractured welded tuff surface. As water was released, changes in moisture content were monitored along horizontal boreholes located in the formation
19-22 m below. Distinct flow zones, varying in flow velocity, wetted cross-sectional area, and extent of lateral movement, intercepted the monitoring boreholes. There was also evidence of water being diverted above the ceiling of a cavity in the immediate vicinity of the monitoring boreholes. Observations from this field experiment suggest that isolated conduits, each encompassing a large number of fractures, develop within the fractured rock formation to form preferential flow paths that persist if there is a continuous supply of water. In addition, in fractured welded tuffs the propensity for fracture-matrix interactions is significantly greater than that suggested by existing conceptual models, in which flow occurs along a section of fracture surfaces. An overriding conclusion is that field investigations at spatial scales of tens of meters provide data critical to the fundamental 412 HYDROLOGY understanding of flow in fractured rock. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2164 Rainfall-runoff modelling in a catchment with a complex groundwater flow system: Application of the Representative Elementary Watershed (REW) approach Zhang G.P. and Savenije H.H.G. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/3 (243-261) Based on the Representative Elementary Watershed (REW) approach, the modelling tool REWASH (Representative Elementary WAterShed Hydrology) has been developed and applied to the Geer river basin. REWASH is deterministic, semi-distributed, physically based and can be directly applied to the watershed scale. In applying REWASH, the river basin is divided into a number of sub-watersheds, so called REWs, according to the Strahler order of the river network. REWASH describes the dominant hydrological processes, i.e. subsurface flow in the unsaturated and saturated domains, and overland flow by the saturation-excess and infiltration-excess mechanisms. The coupling of surface and subsurface flow processes in the numerical model is realised by simultaneous computation of flux exchanges between surface and subsurface domains for each REW. REWASH is a parsimonious tool for modelling watershed hydrological response. However, it can be modified to include more components to simulate specific processes when applied to a specific river basin where such processes are observed or considered to be dominant. In this study, we have added a new component to simulate interception using a simple parametric approach. Interception plays an important role in the water balance of a watershed although it is often disregarded. In addition, a refinement for the transpiration in the unsaturated zone has been made. Finally, an improved approach for simulating saturation overland flow by relating the variable source area to both the topography and the groundwater level is presented. The model has been calibrated and verified using a 4-year data set, which has been split into two for calibration and validation. The model performance has been assessed by multi-criteria evaluation. This work represents a complete application of the REW approach to watershed rainfall-runoff modelling in a real watershed. The results demonstrate that the REW approach provides an alternative blueprint for physically based hydrological modelling. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2165 Volumetrically significant recharge of Pleistocene glacial meltwaters into epicratonic basins: Constraints imposed by solute mass balances McIntosh J.C. and Walter L.M. Chemical Geology 2005 222/3-4 (292-309) Melting of kilometer-thick continental ice sheets, during Pleistocene glaciation, profoundly altered regional-scale groundwater flow in the low-lying stable interior of the North American craton. In this paper, we show that large volumes of glacial meltwater penetrated to great depths in underlying sedimentary basins through regionally extensive Silurian-Devonian carbonate aquifers, disrupting relatively stagnant saline fluids, and creating a strong disequilibrium pattern in fluid salinity. These dilute, isotopically light, meteoric waters migrated into overlying fractured, organic-rich Upper Devonian shales and significantly enhanced microbial methanogenesis, generating a unique class of natural gas deposits along the shallow basin margins. New data on formation water chemistry of Upper Devonian Antrim Shale gas wells along the northern and western margins of the Michigan Basin were integrated with previously published shale data and brines in subjacent Silurian-Devonian carbonates. This comprehensive database provides important constraints on fluid and solute transport, and makes a compelling case for the reorganization of drinking water resources and salinity structures along the shallow basin margins by Pleistocene glaciation. Na-Ca-Cl-Br relations and mass balance calculations were used to determine the relative volume of meteoric waters and sources of salinity in Antrim Shale fluids. The majority of shale formation waters contain greater than 50% meteoric water, with most containing over 80% meteoric water up to 300 m beneath the shale subcrop, despite the presence of a strong salinity gradient. Meteoric water recharge dissolved variable amounts of halite from evaporitebearing Silurian-Devonian carbonates along the flow path into the shale and displaced highly saline NaCaCl remnant marine brines. The majority of Antrim Shale fluids owe greater than 60% of their salinity to halite dissolution, while less than 40% of Cl- is from mixing with brines in Silurian-Devonian strata. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope chemistry and Carbon-14 age dating indicate these NaCl brines were likely generated since the Late Pleistocene. Our conceptual model of fluid flow along the Michigan Basin margins and its role in generation of microbial gas were extrapolated to the larger glaciated Midcontinent region, where the Silurian-Devonian carbonate subcrop is continuous along the Illinois, Michigan, and Appalachian basin margins, and is overlain by Upper Devonian black shales. Major differences in the hydrostratigraphy and fluid salinity of the epicratonic basins controlled the extent of meteoric water invasion and generation of microbial methane. Increased hydraulic gradients from melting of the continental ice sheets greatly enhanced recharge of dilute waters into deep Silurian-Devonian aquifers and overlying fractured shales, reversing regional-scale groundwater flow and altering the major ion composition. These fluid migration events occurred over relatively short time scales (thousands of years), compared to well-documented basinal-scale fluid migration events driven by tectonics and sediment compaction (over millions of years). Understanding the hydrogeochemistry of the saline-meteoric water mixing zones and the sources of salinity in sedimentary basins are both important for constraining fluid and solute transport, chemical evolution of basinal fluids, and physical stability of brines during meteoric water invasion. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2166 Improved inverse modeling for flow and transport in subsurface media: Combined parameter and state estimation Vrugt J.A., Robinson B.A. and Vesselinov V.V. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) Current approaches for inverse modeling (IM) to estimate flow and transport properties in subsurface media implicitly assume that uncertainty in the input-output representation of the model arises from uncertainty in the parameter estimates. However, uncertainties in the modeling procedure stem not only from uncertainties in the parameter estimates, but also from measurement errors, from incomplete knowledge of subsurface heterogeneity, and from model structural errors arising from the aggregation of spatially distributed real-world processes in a mathematical model. In this paper we present an improved concept for IM of subsurface flow and transport. Studies using interwell reactive tracer test data demonstrate that this new method, called Simultaneous Optimization and Data Assimilation, results in parameter estimates and model prediction uncertainty bounds which more closely mimic the properties of the subsurface. Most important is the finding that explicit treatment of input, output and model structural errors during IM, significantly alters the optimal values of the model parameters. 2167 Research progress on unsaturated and saturated soil water movement in forest catchments (Chinese) Yang H. and Pei T. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1773-1779) This paper reviewed the studies on the movement ways, i. e., infiltration, phreatic evaporation, ground water recharge and interflow, of unsaturated and saturated soil water in forest catchments, and introduced the present advances in soil hydraulic parameters, including soil water characteristic curve, and unsaturated and saturated soil hydraulic conductivity. Research directions in the future were also proposed. Groundwater processes: vadose zone 2168 A stochastic model for 3-dimensional flow patterns in infiltration experiments Schlather M. and Huwe B. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (17-27) Modelling the 3-dimensional water flux at field scale is important for the design and the analysis of dye tracer experiments. HYDROLOGY Furthermore, it enables the estimation of the risk to groundwater by pollutants, and the visualisation and classification of flux patterns. A stochastic model is presented that allows for the modelling of a wide range of flow patterns in soils as they appear in dye tracer experiments. The leading idea is that infiltrating water runs along paths, not necessarily preferential ones, and water spreads into the soil uniformly from the paths into the matrix. The model is essentially based on a Poisson point process and three independent random fields. The point process defines the starting points of the paths at the surface. The values of two random fields determine the course of the paths. The third random field governs the depth of the infiltration front. As an extension of the model, we present two simulated examples for stratified soils. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2169 The signific+ance of flow in the matrix of the Chalk unsaturated zone Mathias S.A., Butler A.P., McIntyre N. and Wheater H.S. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (62-77) The significance of flow in the matrix of the Chalk unsaturated zone, in comparison with flow in fractures, has been the subject of much debate. In this article, important elements of the literature are discussed in detail and several simple modelling analyses based on steady-state flow are presented. A study of the sensitivity of solute spreading to fracture spacing in models that ignore matrix flow shows that this latter assumption is generally incompatible with observed solute profiles, unless unrealistically small fracture spacings are assumed. The effect of air phase continuities (e.g. bedding planes) on matrix flow has also been examined. These discontinuities are frequently interrupted by points of connectivity between matrix blocks. An issue therefore is the relationship between connectivity and its effect on inter-block conductance. A simple analysis of the Laplace equation shows that just 1% connectivity represents an effective pathway equivalent to 18% of the local rock hydraulic conductivity. Obviously, when there is no fracture flow, solute spreading is significantly reduced. However, dual permeability model simulations show that matrix flow reduces solute spreading in the presence of persistent fracture flow. All of the above studies suggest that flow in the matrix of the Chalk unsaturated zone is significant and that ignoring it may result in a serious misunderstanding of the system. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2170 Groundwater use by vegetation in a tropical savanna riparian zone (Daly River, Australia) Lamontagne S., Cook P.G., O’Grady A. and Eamus D. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (280-293) Soil water matric potentials (m ) and the deuterium ( 2 H) composition at natural abundance levels of xylem water, soil water, river water and groundwater were used to evaluate whether trees use groundwater during the dry season in the riparian zone of the Daly River (Northern Territory, Australia). Groundwater was a significant source of water for plant transpiration, probably accounting for more than 50% of the water transpired during the dry season. Groundwater use occurred either when trees used water from the capillary fringe or when low m induced by soil water uptake lifted groundwater in the vadose zone. Several water use strategies were inferred within the riparian plant community. Melaleuca argentea W. Fitzg and Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. appeared to be obligate phreatophytes as they used groundwater almost exclusively and were associated with riverbanks and lower terraces with shallow (<5 m) water tables. Several species appeared to be facultative phreatophytes (including Cathorium umbellatum (Vahl.) Kosterm. and Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.) and tended to rely more heavily on soil water with increased elevation in the riparian zone. The levee-bound Corymbia bella K.D. Hill and L.A.S. Johnson mostly used soil water and is either a facultative phreatophyte or a non-phreatophyte. The temporal variability in groundwater utilisation by the trees is unclear because the study focused on the end of the dry season only. A decline in the regional water table as a result of groundwater pumping may affect the health of riparian zone vegetation in the Daly River because groundwater use is significant during the dry season. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 413 2171 An active region model for capturing fractal flow patterns in unsaturated soils: Model development Liu H.H., Zhang R. and Bodvarsson G.S. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 80/1-2 (18-30) Preferential flow commonly observed in unsaturated soils allows rapid movement of solute from the soil surface or vadose zone to the groundwater, bypassing a significant volume of unsaturated soil and increasing the risk of groundwater contamination. A variety of evidence indicates that complex preferential patterns observed from fields are fractals. In this study, we developed a relatively simple active region model to incorporate the fractal flow pattern into the continuum approach. In the model, the flow domain is divided into active and inactive regions. Flow occurs preferentially in the active region (characterized by fractals), and inactive region is simply bypassed. A new constitutive relationship (the portion of the active region as a function of saturation) was derived. The validity of the proposed model is demonstrated by the consistency between field observations and the new constitutive relationship. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2172 Saturated-unsaturated 3D groundwater model. I: Development Dogan A. and Motz L.H. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2005 10/6 (492-504) A new saturated-unsaturated three-dimensional (3D) groundwater flow model (SU3D) has been developed that calculates the pressure distribution over the entire groundwater flow domain in response to rainfall and evapotranspiration. Recent advances in solving the saturated-unsaturated groundwater flow equation are incorporated into SU3D, which solves the nonlinear, 3D, modified mixed form of the Richards equation continuously throughout the groundwater flow domain. The block-centered, finite-difference method with a variably sized grid is employed to solve the governing partial differential equation. The non-linear terms of the governing equation are linearized using a modified Picard iteration scheme, and the preconditioned conjugate gradient method is used to solve the linearized system of equations. SU3D can simulate the effects of pumping from an aquifer, and it has an option to calculate potential evapotranspiration (PET) from meteorological data. The PET is partitioned into potential evaporation and potential transpiration as a function of the leaf area index, and then the actual evaporation and transpiration are calculated. Overland flow and seepage face calculations are not included in SU3D. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering © ASCE. 2173 Saturated-unsaturated 3D groundwater model. II: Verification and application Dogan A. and Motz L.H. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2005 10/6 (505-515) Verification and application results are presented for a new saturated-unsaturated 3D groundwater flow model (SU3D) developing in Dogan and Motz, which can be used to calculate the pressure distribution over the entire groundwater flow domain in response to rainfall and evapotranspiration. SU3D solves the nonlinear 3D, modified mixed form of the Richards equation continuously throughout the groundwater flow domain, including both the unsaturated and saturated zones. The block-centered finite-difference method, a modified Picard iteration scheme, and the preconditioned conjugate gradient method are used to solve the governing partial differential equations in the new model. SU3D can simulate evaporation from land surface and transpiration from the root zone. Potential evapotranspiration is partitioned into potential evaporation and potential transpiration as a function of the leaf area index; actual evaporation and actual transpiration are then calculated individually. As shown in this paper, SU3D has been verified by reproducing the results of five analytical and numerical studies and a 3D unconfined-aquifer pumping test from the published literature. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering © ASCE. 2174 Effective unsaturated hydraulic conductivity for onedimensional structured heterogeneity Warrick A.W. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-6) [1] Effective hydraulic conductivities of unsaturated soils are defined for one-dimensional structured heterogeneity. The heterogeneity is defined using homogeneous sublayers forming re- 414 HYDROLOGY peated unit cells of length L. The effective conductivity is defined as the steady downward Darcian velocity in an infinitely deep profile. The dependence of the hydraulic conductivity upon the pressure head is found by computing the average value of pressure head within the repeating unit cells for each effective conductivity. For a cell of length L approaching zero, the effective conductivity becomes the harmonic average of the individual sublayer hydraulic conductivities weighted according to the cell fraction each occupies. In that case, as the profile approaches saturation, the effective conductivity is the same as the wellknown result for flow through an "array" of saturated layers. For a large cell length L, the effective hydraulic conductivity approaches an arithmetic average of the pressure heads which develop in each sublayer. Examples are computed for finite cell lengths L for both binary and tertiary systems. The effective hydraulic conductivity functions for the finite cell lengths fall within the envelope formed by the two limiting cases for small and large cell lengths. For the binary system, all of the hydraulic conductivity functions fall between the envelopes formed by the two hydraulic conductivity functions for the individual sublayer materials. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2175 Similarity analysis of subsurface flow response of hillslopes with complex geometry Berne A., Uijlenhoet R. and Troch P.A. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-10) [1] The matter of the efficient and parsimonious parameterization of hillslope subsurface flow remains an important issue in catchment hydrological studies (Brutsaert, 1995). Insights into the influence of the shape and hydraulic characteristics of hillslopes is required to further our understanding and our ability to model catchment hydrological processes. Recently, Troch et al. (2003) introduced the hillslope-storage Boussinesq (HSB) equation to describe subsurface flow and saturation along geometrically complex hillslopes. The HSB equation can be linearized and further reduced to an advection-diffusion equation for subsurface flow in hillslopes with constant bedrock slopes and exponential width functions. This paper presents a dimensional analysis of the latter equation in order to study the moments of the characteristic response function (CRF), corresponding to the free drainage of this type of hillslope. These moments, in a dimensionless form, can be expressed as functions of a similarity parameter, hereafter called the hillslope P´eclet number, and a group of dimensionless numbers accounting for the effects of the boundary and initial conditions. The analytical expressions for the first four central CRF moments are derived for two types of initial conditions. The analysis of their respective influences shows that the hillslope P´eclet number is an efficient similarity parameter to describe the hillslope subsurface flow response. Moreover, comparison between the CRF moments predicted by means of our similarity analysis and empirical moments derived from outflow measurements for different types of laboratory hillslopes shows good agreement. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2176 Recharge processes in karstic systems investigated through the correlation of chemical and isotopic composition of rain and spring-waters Aquilina L., Ladouche B. and D¨orfliger N. Applied Geochemistry 2005 20/12 (2189-2206) Four karstic springs in southern France, along with rainwater in the same area, were monitored during two hydrological cycles. Stable isotopic ratios ( 18 O and D) allow the contribution of the rain waters from the previous periods (discretised as winter or summer period) to the spring water to be estimated. These computations indicate that heavy rainfall events during the autumn season contribute for 56 7% and 68 9% of the spring water discharge during the following winter and summer seasons, respectively. During the low flow period, residence time does not exceed 1 hydrological cycle, for a large part of the water. Stable isotopic ratios ( 18 O and D) combined with Cl concentration allow the evapotranspiration coefficients to be estimated although the recharge surface is not known and hydrological balance can not be computed. Except for one spring, the evapotranspiration coefficients range from 0.54 to 0.38 (46-62% volume reduction), even during the high flow period. The short residence times, and the strong evapotranspiration coefficients whatever the period (winter or summer) are interpreted as the result of the major role of the epikarst reservoir in the karst recharge functioning over direct or diffuse infiltration. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Groundwater processes: phreatic zone 2177 Signatures in flowing fluid electric conductivity logs Doughty C. and Tsang C.- F. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (157-180) Flowing fluid electric conductivity logging provides a means to determine hydrologic properties of fractures, fracture zones, or other permeable layers intersecting a borehole in saturated rock. The method involves analyzing the time-evolution of fluid electric conductivity (FEC) logs obtained while the well is being pumped and yields information on the location, hydraulic transmissivity, and salinity of permeable layers. The original analysis method was restricted to the case in which flows from the permeable layers or fractures were directed into the borehole (inflow). Recently, the method was adapted to permit treatment of both inflow and outflow, including analysis of natural regional flow in the permeable layer. A numerical model simulates flow and transport in the wellbore during flowing FEC logging, and fracture properties are determined by optimizing the match between simulation results and observed FEC logs. This can be a laborious trial-and-error procedure, especially when both inflow and outflow points are present. Improved analyses methods are needed. One possible tactic would be to develop an automated inverse method, but this paper takes a more elementary approach and focuses on identifying the signatures that various inflow and outflow features create in flowing FEC logs. The physical insight obtained provides a basis for more efficient analysis of these logs, both for the present trial and error approach and for a potential future automated inverse approach. Inflow points produce distinctive signatures in the FEC logs themselves, enabling the determination of location, inflow rate, and ion concentration. Identifying outflow locations and flow rates typically requires a more complicated integral method, which is also presented in this paper. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2178 Pesticide transport in an aerobic aquifer with variable pH - Modeling of a field scale injection experiment Højberg A.L., Engesgaard P. and Bjerg P.L. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 78/3 (231-255) Three-dimensional reactive transport simulations were undertaken to study the sorption and degradation dynamics of three herbicides in a shallow aerobic aquifer with spatially variable pH during a 216 days injection experiment. Sorption of two phenoxy acids [( )-2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy) propanoic acid] (MCPP) and [( )-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)propanoic acid] (dichlorprop) was found to be negligible. Degradation of the phenoxy acids was rapid after an initial lag phase. Degradation of the phenoxy acids could only be reproduced satisfactorily by growthlinked microbial degradation. The model fit to the field data was slightly improved if degradation was assumed to be influenced by the local pH that was observed to increase with depth (
4.5-5.7). In the observed pH-range the nitroaromatic herbicide [2-Methyl4,6-dinitrophenol] (DNOC) was partly dissociated (pKa = 4.31) and present in both the neutral and ionized form. The model simulations demonstrated that most of the observed spatial variation in sorption of DNOC could be explained by assuming that only the neutral form of DNOC was subject to sorption. A varying flow field was observed during the injection experiment and the model simulations documented that this most likely resulted in different migration paths for DNOC and the non-sorbing solutes. The model simulations indicated that degradation of DNOC was an important process. The degradation rate of DNOC remained constant over time and was simulated adequately by first-order kinetics. Again, the model fit to field observation was slightly improved if local pH was assumed to influence the degradation rate. Only the maximum utilization rate was estimated from the field data, while the remaining degradation parameters where HYDROLOGY successfully transferred from the laboratory study. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2179 Transport of E. coli in columns of geochemically heterogeneous sediment Foppen J.W.A. and Schijven J.F. Water Research 2005 39/13 (3082-3088) To elucidate the parameters determining the transport of Escherichia coli in aquifers, the attachment of E. coli in low concentrations to column sediments was investigated. The sediments comprised 0.18-0.50 mm quartz sand, grains coated with goethite, calcite grains or grains of activated carbon (AC), in varying fractions ( =0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.7, 1.0) and all of similar diameter to the quartz sand. The weighted sum of favourable and unfavourable sticking efficiencies (total ) showed that upon increasing the fraction of favourable mineral grains ( ) there was an initial rapid increase, which then slowed down. This was most pronounced in the AC experiments, followed by the calcite experiments and then the goethite experiments. We ascribe this non-linear relation to surface charge and hydrophobic heterogeneity of the E. coli population. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2180 The impact of additives found in industrial formulations of TCE on the wettability of sandstone Harrold G., Lerner D.N. and Leharne S.A. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 80/1-2 (1-17) The wettability of aquifer rocks is a key physical parameter which exerts an important control on the transport, residual trapping, distribution and eventual fate of chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents (CHSs) released into the subsurface. Typically chlorinated solvents are assumed to be non-wetting in water saturated rocks and unconsolidated sediments. However industrially formulated solvent products are often combined with basic additives such as alkylamines to improve their performance; and the mineral surfaces of aquifer rocks and sediments usually possess a range of acid and hydrogen-bonding adsorption sites. The presence of these sites provides a mechanism whereby the basic additives in CHSs can be adsorbed at the solvent phase/solid phase interface. Given the amphiphilic molecular structure of these additives, this may result in changes in the wetting conditions of the solid phase. The aim of this study was therefore to test this conjecture for two classes of additives (alkylamines and quaternary ammonium salts) that are often encountered in industrial solvent formulations. Wettability assessments were made on sandstone cores by means of measurements of spontaneous and forced water drainage and spontaneous and forced water imbibition and through contact angle measurements on a smooth quartz surface. No solvent/additive combination produced solvent wetting conditions, though dodecylamine and octadecylamine significantly reduced the water wetting preference of sandstone which frequently resulted in neutral wetting conditions. The large volume of spontaneous water drainage observed in wettability experiments involving cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and octadecyltrimethylammonium bromide, suggested that the sandstone cores in these tests remained strongly water wetting. However equilibrium static contact angles of around 60° were measured on quartz suggesting that the sandstone surfaces should be close to neutral wetting conditions. This paradox was finally resolved by noting that contact between the solvent mixture and water in the sandstone core resulted in a final solvent phase which had an extremely low interfacial tension. It is therefore suspected that the observed spontaneous drainage of solvent from the core was driven by gravitational and buoyancy forces rather than strong water wetting conditions. Finally it was noted that the mobilisation of iron oxide coatings from the sandstone surface had a considerable influence in reducing the interfacial tension and in the formation and stabilisation of TCE/water emulsions. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2181 Parameter and observation importance in modelling virus transport in saturated porous media - Investigations in a homogenous system Barth G.R. and Hill M.C. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 80/3-4 (107-129) This paper evaluates the importance of seven types of parameters to virus transport: hydraulic conductivity, porosity, dispersivity, 415 sorption rate and distribution coefficient (representing physicalchemical filtration), and in-solution and adsorbed inactivation (representing virus inactivation). The first three parameters relate to subsurface transport in general while the last four, the sorption rate, distribution coefficient, and in-solution and adsorbed inactivation rates, represent the interaction of viruses with the porous medium and their ability to persist. The importance of four types of observations to estimate the virus-transport parameters are evaluated: hydraulic heads, flow, temporal moments of conservative-transport concentrations, and virus concentrations. The evaluations are conducted using one- and two-dimensional homogeneous simulations, designed from published field experiments, and recently developed sensitivity-analysis methods. Sensitivity to the transport-simulation time-step size is used to evaluate the importance of numerical solution difficulties. Results suggest that hydraulic conductivity, porosity, and sorption are most important to virus-transport predictions. Most observation types provide substantial information about hydraulic conductivity and porosity; only virus-concentration observations provide information about sorption and inactivation. The observations are not sufficient to estimate these important parameters uniquely. Even with all observation types, there is extreme parameter correlation between porosity and hydraulic conductivity and between the sorption rate and in-solution inactivation. Parameter estimation was accomplished by fixing values of porosity and in-solution inactivation. 2182 Experiments on vertical transverse mixing in a largescale heterogeneous model aquifer Rahman Md.A., Jose S.C., Nowak W. and Cirpka O.A. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 80/3-4 (130-148) Vertical transverse mixing is known to be a controlling factor in natural attenuation of extended biodegradable plumes originating from continuously emitting sources. We perform conservative and reactive tracer tests in a quasi two-dimensional 14 m long sandbox in order to quantify vertical mixing in heterogeneous media. The filling mimics natural sediments including a distribution of different hydro-facies, made of different sand mixtures, and micro-structures within the sand lenses. We quantify the concentration distribution of the conservative tracer by the analysis of digital images taken at steady state during the tracer-dye experiment. Heterogeneity causes plume meandering, leading to distorted concentration profiles. Without knowledge about the velocity distribution, it is not possible to determine meaningful vertical dispersion coefficients from the concentration profiles. Using the stream-line pattern resulting from an inverse model of previous experiments in the sandbox, we can correct for the plume meandering. The resulting vertical dispersion coefficient is approximately  4  10-9 m2 /s. We observe no distinct increase in the vertical dispersion coefficient with increasing travel distance, indicating that heterogeneity has hardly any impact on vertical transverse mixing. In the reactive tracer test, we continuously inject an alkaline solution over a certain height into the domain that is occupied otherwise by an acidic solution. The outline of the alkaline plume is visualized by adding a pH indicator into both solutions. From the height and length of the reactive plume, we estimate a transverse dispersion coefficient of  3  10-9 m2 /s. Overall, the vertical transverse dispersion coefficients are less than an order of magnitude larger than pore diffusion coefficients and hardly increase due to heterogeneity. Thus, we conclude for the assessment of natural attenuation that reactive plumes might become very large if they are controlled by vertical dispersive mixing. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2183 Biodegradation and mineral weathering controls on bulk electrical conductivity in a shallow hydrocarbon contaminated aquifer Atekwana E.A., Atekwana E., Legall F.D. and Krishnamurthy R.V. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 80/3-4 (149-167) Geochemical and stable carbon isotope data from closely spaced vertical intervals in a hydrocarbon-impacted aquifer were used to assess the relationship between biodegradation, mineral weathering, and enhanced bulk conductivity zones. The results show that depth zones of enhanced bulk conductivity in the contaminated aquifer had higher total dissolved solids (TDS) compared to background groundwater. The higher TDS in contaminated 416 HYDROLOGY groundwater were due to elevated ion concentrations from enhanced mineral weathering. Depth intervals with higher concentrations of major cations overlapped with zones with higher total petroleum hydrocarbons, which were the same zones where reduction of nitrate, iron, manganese, sulfate, and methanogenesis was occurring. Hence, the zones of higher bulk conductivity may be explained by mineral weathering related to hydrocarbon biodegradation. Our results suggest that biodegradation of hydrocarbons may impart changes to the aquifer geochemistry that can be indirectly observed using geophysical techniques. We therefore argue for inclusion of geophysical investigations as part of natural attenuation assessment programs. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2184 Flow to vertical and nonvertical wells in leaky aquifers Hunt B. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2005 10/6 (477-484) A solution is obtained for unsteady flow to a continuous point sink in a homogeneous, anisotropic, leaky aquifer. Then superposition is used to distribute sinks with constant strength along straight-line segments to model flow to either partially penetrating vertical wells or nonvertical wells with finite length. The result is shown to duplicate the Hantush solution for flow to a vertical, partially penetrating well in a fully confined aquifer. However, differences occur when the corresponding result for a leaky aquifer is compared with an approximate solution obtained by Hantush, who assumed that inflow leakage is distributed uniformly over the full aquifer thickness. These differences are believed to result from inaccuracies in the Hantush approximation. Additional examples are used to illustrate the method, including flow to a single horizontal well, flow to two horizontal wells crossed at right angles to each other, and flow to a "blind" well formed by joining inclined and horizontal wells. A particle tracking exercise is carried out to illustrate use of this solution for pump-and-treat groundwater remediation. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering © ASCE. 2185 Calculation of groundwater integral Hunt B. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2005 10/6 (516-518) Series expansions are obtained for a contour integral that appears in some solutions for flow in aquifers that have a bottom impermeable boundary and are capped on top with an aquitard containing a shallow standing water table. These solutions describe drawdown for delayed-yield flow to a well and the stream depletion and drawdown that occur when water is pumped from a well beside a stream. Hunt in 2003 previously gave a series expansion for the calculation of this integral for a somewhat more limited range of its parameters. However, the series expansions obtained herein give a more accurate and efficient way to compute values for this integral over the entire permissible range of its parameters. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering © ASCE. 2186 Estimation of hydraulic parameters from surface geophysical methods, kaliapaniultramafic complex, Orissa, India Dhakate R. and Singh V.S. Journal of Environmental Hydrology 2005 13/- (11p) A knowledge of aquifer parameters is essential for the assessment and management of groundwater resources. Conventionally, these parameters are estimated through pumping tests carried out on bore wells. Few bore wells may be available and carrying out pumping tests at a number of sites may be costly and time consuming. The application of surface geophysical methods in combination with pumping tests at a few sites provides a cost-effective and efficient alternative to estimate aquifer parameters. A surface geophysical method is used to obtain geophysical characteristics of aquifer parameters that are estimated through the pumping tests. A correlation is established between these parameters, which is subsequently used to estimate aquifer parameters from surface geophysical measurements at other sites where pumping has not been carried out. In this way, the entire investigation area can be covered to characterize an aquifer system. This study has been carried out in the Sukhinda valley, where the aquifer characteristics are required for the management of groundwater in the region. 2187 Traditional analysis of aquifer tests: Comparing apples to oranges? Wu C.- M., Yeh T.- C.J., Zhu J. et al. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-12) [1] Traditional analysis of aquifer tests uses the observed drawdown at one well, induced by pumping at another well, for estimating the transmissivity (T) and storage coefficient (S) of an aquifer. The analysis relies on Theis’ solution or Jacob’s approximate solution, which assumes aquifer homogeneity. Aquifers are inherently heterogeneous at different scales. If the observation well is screened in a low-permeability zone while the pumping well is located in a high-permeability zone, the resulting situation contradicts the homogeneity assumption in the traditional analysis. As a result, what does the traditional interpretation of the aquifer test tell us? Using numerical experiments and a first-order correlation analysis, we investigate this question. Results of the investigation suggest that the effective T and S for an equivalent homogeneous aquifer of Gaussian random T and S fields vary with time as well as the principal directions of the effective T. The effective T and S converge to the geometric and arithmetic means, respectively, at large times. Analysis of the estimated T and S, using drawdown from a single observation well, shows that at early time both estimates vary with time. The estimated S stabilizes rapidly to the value dominated by the storage coefficient heterogeneity in between the pumping and the observation wells. At late time the estimated T approaches but does not equal the effective T. It represents an average value over the cone of depression but influenced by the location, size, and degree of heterogeneity as the cone of depression evolves. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2188 Unusual drawdown curves for a pumping test in an unconfined aquifer at Lachenaie, Quebec: Field data and numerical modeling Chapuis R.P., Chenaf D., Acevedo N. et al. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 2005 42/4 (1133-1144) An unconfined aquifer was instrumented with monitoring wells over a surface area of about 100 m  100 m. The aquifer is a sand deposit overlying a thick nonfissured layer of Champlain Sea clay. The paper presents the results of a pumping test at a constant flow rate. None of the curves of drawdown versus time presented the S shape of current theories; however, all drawdowns indicated that the aquifer was homogeneous. The values for the specific yield were too low and varied with distance and time instead of being constant. The theories for steady and unsteady states provided different values for the saturated hydraulic conductivity. To understand the field behavior that differs from theoretical predictions, the pumping test conditions were modeled numerically using a finite element method. The transmissivity was derived from the Dupuit equation, and different curves for capillary retention and unsaturated permeability were examined. The numerical drawdowns agree with the experimental drawdowns. Several numerical models were investigated. All of them solved the inverse problem correctly for steady-state conditions and fairly well for transient conditions with highly nonlinear characteristic functions. The best solution to the transient problem was obtained using trial and error, by considering how the drawdown curves might be modified due to anisotropy and stratification. According to these field tests and the numerical analysis, the S shape is not the rule, and a different shape can be perfectly normal due to the complexity of unsaturated flow. © 2005 NRC Canada. 2189 Evaluating the hydraulic conductivity at three different scales within an unconfined sand aquifer at Lachenaie, Quebec Chapuis R.P., Dallaire V., Marcotte D. et al. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 2005 42/4 (1212-1220) This paper presents the evaluation of scale effects for the hydraulic conductivity, k, of a sand. Data were obtained using several methods at a site that was densely instrumented with piezometers within an area of about 100 m  100 m. The 3.13.6 m thick sand deposit rests on a thick, nonfissured Champlain Sea clay deposit. At the small scale, local k values were obtained from the grain-size curves of sand samples and also from groundpenetrating radar surveys. At the intermediate scale, k values were obtained from field variable-head tests using piezometers. HYDROLOGY At the large scale, k values were obtained from pumping-test drawdowns in steady-state conditions. In this sand aquifer, the careful evaluations at three scales gave similar narrow distributions for the hydraulic conductivity, and therefore no scale effect is evidenced. © 2005 NRC Canada. 2190 Numerical modelling of self-potential signals associated with a pumping test experiment Titov K., Revil A., Konosavsky P. et al. Geophysical Journal International 2005 162/2 (641-650) The study of electrical signals associated with groundwater flow is a powerful method to determine, in a non-invasive way, the distribution of hydraulic heads in aquifers, hence the distribution of the hydraulic conductivity and storativity. Experimental hydraulic heads and electrical (self-potential, SP) signals associated with a pumping test in an unconfined aquifer were reproduced with a numerical model based on the finite-difference method. For simplicity, we assumed axial symmetry around the pumping well. We assessed the equivalent hydraulic conductivity and specific storage of the aquifer by fitting the piezometric levels obtained in the course of the pumping against synthetic hydraulic heads produced by the model. The current coupling coefficient is obtained from the best fit between the experimental and modelled SP signals at the end of the pumping phase. Then, keeping the previously determined hydraulic parameters, the relaxation of both the hydraulic heads and the SP signals were modelled and found to be consistent with the measured values. The data show almost linear relationships between the hydraulic heads in the aquifer and the electrical signals recorded at the ground surface. These results show that SP signals allow monitoring subsurface flow in the course of pumping experiments. © 2005 RAS. 2191 Isotopic and hydrochemical studies of groundwater flow and salinity in the Southern Upper Rhine Graben Bauer M., Eichinger L., Elsass P. et al. International Journal of Earth Sciences 2005 94/4 (565-579) In order to determine the origin and the propagation mechanisms of highly concentrated chloride brines within the Quaternary aquifer system in the southern part of the Upper Rhine Graben, a combined isotope (H, O, C) and hydrochemical analysis was carried out. Groundwater recharge in this area is a complex system, consisting of local precipitation, river bank filtration, lateral flow from the Graben borders and, to a minor extent, an old Pleistocene component. In some areas, groundwater consists of up to 90% of recent bank filtrate, reaching depths down to at least 100 m. The isotopic and hydrochemical results show, that the elevated chloride concentrations in the Quaternary aquifer mainly result from leaky settling basins charged by the French potash mines until the mid 1970s. Input of natural brines coming from tertiary salt diapirs is of only minor importance. While infiltrating, the anthropogenic brines were strongly diluted by local river bank filtrate of the Rhine. Nevertheless, maximum chloride concentrations nowadays still reach some 10,000 mg/l at the base of the aquifer at a depth of more than 100 m below surface. The main volume of the brines is stored in the less permeable lower part of the quaternary sediments (BreisgauFormation) whereas only a minor part is transported northwards with the rapid convective groundwater flow. Brines undergoing only dilution preserve their hydrochemical characteristics (NaCl-type). In contrast, brines recirculated from the BreisgauFormation show a northwards increasing alteration through ion exchange processes. Potassium and sodium may be fixed in the fine grained aquifer material while calcium is set free into the groundwater. After a flow distance of about 12 km, complex hydraulic interactions between groundwater and surface waters lead to the rise of strongly diluted and hydrochemically altered brines with chloride contents up to maximum 700 mg/l. The presented case study is an example for a detailed analysis of a multicomponent groundwater mixing system using combined isotope and hydrochemical methods. Furthermore, cation exchange is shown as a major process affecting the hydrochemical evolution of the young groundwater in the southern Upper Rhine Graben which is locally strongly polluted by chloride as a consequence of former potash mining. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 417 2192 Hydrochemical characteristics and salinity of groundwater in the Ejina Basin, Northwestern China Wen X., Wu Y., Su J. et al. Environmental Geology 2005 48/6 (665-675) A hydrochemical investigation was conducted in the Ejina Basin to identify the hydrochemical characteristics and the salinity of groundwater. The results indicate that groundwater in the area is brackish and are significantly zonation in salinity and water types from the recharge area to the discharge area. The ionic ration plot and saturation index (SI) calculation suggest that the silicate rock weathering and evaporation deposition are the dominant processes that determine the major ionic composition in the study area. Most of the stable isotope 18 O and D compositions in the groundwater is a meteoric water feature, indicating that the groundwater mainly sources from meteoric water and most groundwater undergoes a long history of evaporation. Based on radioactive isotope tritium (3 H) analysis, the groundwater ages were approximately estimated in different aquifers. The groundwater age ranges from less than 5 years, between 5 years and 50 years, and more than 50 years. Within 1 km of the river water influence zone, the groundwater recharges from recent Heihe river water and the groundwater age is about less than 5 years in shallow aquifer. From 1 km to 10 km of the river water influence zone, the groundwater sources from the mixture waters and the groundwater age is between 5 years and 50 years in shallow aquifer. The groundwater age is more than 50 years in deep confined aquifer. © Springer-Verlag 2005. Groundwater quality 2193 Oxidation and removal of arsenic (III) from aerated groundwater by filtration through sand and zero-valent iron Leupin O.X. and Hug S.J. Water Research 2005 39/9 (1729-1740) Removing arsenic from contaminated groundwater in Bangladesh is challenging due to high concentrations of As(III), phosphate and silicate. Application of zero-valent iron as a promising removal method was investigated in detail with synthetic groundwater containing 500 g/L As(III), 2-3 mg/L P, 20 mg/L Si, 8.2 mM HCO-3 , 2.5 mM Ca2+ , 1.6 mM Mg 2+ and pH 7.0. In a series of experiments, 1 L was repeatedly passed through a mixture of 1.5 g iron filings and 3-4 g quartz sand in a vertical glass column (10 mm diameter), allowing the water to re-aerate between each filtration. At a flow rate of 1 L/h, up to 8 mg/L dissolved Fe(II) was released. During the subsequent oxidation of Fe(II) by dissolved oxygen, As(III) was partially oxidized and As(V) sorbed on the forming hydrous ferric oxides (HFO). HFO was retained in the next filtration step and was removed by shaking of the sand-iron mixture with water. Rapid phosphate removal provided optimal conditions for the sorption of As(V). Four filtrations lead to almost complete As(III) oxidation and removal of As(tot) to below 50 g/L. In a prototype treatment with a succession of four filters, each containing 1.5 g iron and 60 g sand, 36 L could be treated to below 50 g/L in one continuous filtration, without an added oxidant. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2194 Modification of a continuous flow method for analysis of trace amounts of nitrate in iron-rich sediment pore-waters of mine pit lakes Herzsprung P., Duffek A., Friese K. et al. Water Research 2005 39/9 (1887-1895) Nitrate was analysed in pore-waters with high ionic strength. Extremely high concentrations of dissolved ferrous iron interfere common analytical methods. The automatic photometrical procedure based on the cadmium reduction method is often used for analysis of nitrate in water samples (continuous flow analysis CFA). An integrated dialysis usually serves for sample dilution and (or) sample purification (from particles). Iron was precipitated as iron hydroxide due to the imidazole buffer system (pH 7.5). The dialysis membrane is an effective barrier for iron hydroxide particles to prevent interferences within the cadmium column or the flow-cell. However, dialysis membrane is blocked successively after analysis of several iron-rich pore-water samples by agglomeration of precipitated iron. The blocking of 418 HYDROLOGY nitrate diffusion through the dialysis membrane is tantamount to a decrease of analytical sensitivity to recognise by decreasing photometrical extinction. Minimising the iron deposition within the dialyser solved the problem. A simple modification of the CFA apparatus was found to keep the analytical sensitivity nearly constant: The mixing coil for the imidazole buffer was considerably elongated. Nearly all iron hydroxide was deposited at the glass coil surface installed before the dialyser. At least 50 ironrich samples could be analysed within one sample queue with a loss of sensitivity <10%. The recovery of nitrate was about 95%, demonstrated by spiking experiments. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2195 Radon in the spas of Croatia ˇ Radoli´c V., Vukovi´c B., Smit G. et al. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2005 83/2 (191-198) Radon concentrations in air and geothermal water of the spa pools in Croatia were measured and the average values of 40.3 and 4.5 kBq/m3 were obtained, respectively. Great difference between radon concentrations in pool and spring water was considered as a result of mixing normal and geothermal water in the pool as well as the radon decay. Estimation of an effective dose, received by the personnel in the Bizovac spa, gave the value of 0.27 mSv/y. At the location Stubica, the transfer factor of the radon for air and thermal water in the pool was calculated, and the value of 4.9 0.7  10 -3 was obtained. 2196 Progression of methanogenic degradation of crude oil in the subsurface Bekins B.A., Hostettler F.D., Herkelrath W.N. et al. Environmental Geosciences 2005 12/2 (139-152) Our results show that subsurface crude-oil degradation rates at a long-term research site were strongly influenced by small-scale variations in hydrologic conditions. The site is a shallow glacial outwash aquifer located near Bemidji in northern Minnesota that became contaminated when oil spilled from a broken pipeline in August 1979. In the study area, separate-phase oil forms a subsurface oil body extending from land surface to about 1 m (3.3 ft) below the 6-8-m (20-26 ft)-deep water table. Oil saturation in the sediments ranges from 10-20% in the vadose zone to 30-70% near the water table. At depths below 2 m (6.6 ft), degradation of the separate-phase crude oil occurs under methanogenic conditions. The sequence of methanogenic alkane degradation depletes the longer chain n-alkanes before the shorter chain nalkanes, which is opposite to the better known aerobic sequence. The rates of degradation vary significantly with location in the subsurface. Oil-coated soils within 1.5 m (5 ft) of land surface have experienced little degradation where soil water saturation is less than 20%. Oil located 2-8 m (6.6-26 ft) below land surface in areas of higher recharge has been substantially degraded. The best explanation for the association between recharge and enhanced degradation seems to be increased downward transport of microbial growth nutrients to the oil body. This is supported by observations of greater microbial numbers at higher elevations in the oil body and significant decreases with depth in nutrient concentrations, especially phosphorus. Our results suggest that environmental effects may cause widely diverging degradation rates in the same spill, calling into question dating methods based on degradation state. Copyright © 2005. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists/Division of Environmental Geosciences. All rights reserved. 2197 Impacts of petroleum production on ground and surface waters: Results from the Osage-Skiatook Petroleum Environmental Research A site, Osage County Oklahoma Kharaka Y.K., Thordsen J.J., Kakouros E. and Herkelrath W.N. Environmental Geosciences 2005 12/2 (127-138) As part of a multidisciplinary group of about 20 scientists, we are investigating the transport, fate, natural attenuation, and ecosystem impacts of inorganic salts and organic compounds present in releases of produced water and associated hydrocarbons at the Osage-Skiatook Petroleum Environmental Research (OSPER) sites, located in Osage County, Oklahoma. Geochemical data collected from nearby oil wells show that the produced water source is a Na-Ca-Cl brine (
150,000 mg/L total dissolved solids [TDS]), with relatively high concentrations of Mg, Sr, and NH4 , but low SO4 and H2 S. Results from the depleted OSPER A site show that the salts continue to be removed from the soil and surficial rocks, but degraded oil persists on the contaminated surface. Eventually, the bulk of inorganic salts and dissolved organics in the brine will reach the adjacent Skiatook Lake, a 4250-ha (10,501-ac) potable water reservoir. Repeated sampling of 44 wells show a plume of high-salinity water (2000-30,000 mg/L TDS) at intermediate depths that intersects Skiatook Lake and extends beyond the visibly impacted areas. No liquid petroleum was observed in this plume, but organic acid anions, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX), and other volatile organic carbon (VOC) are present. The chemical composition of released brine is modified by sorption, mineral precipitation and dissolution, evapotranspiration, volatilization, and bacterially mediated oxidation-reduction reactions, in addition to mixing with percolating precipitation water, lake water, and pristine groundwater. Results show that only minor amounts of salt are removed by runoff, supporting the conclusion that significant amounts of salts from produced water and petroleum releases still remain in the soils and rocks of the impacted area after more than 65 yr of natural attenuation. Copyright © 2005. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists/Division of Environmental Geosciences. All rights reserved. 2198 Groundwater inflow controls acidity fluxes in an iron rich and acidic lake Blodau C. Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologica 2005 33/2 (104117) To ascertain the influence of hydrological boundary conditions on acidity fluxes in lakes influenced by acid mine drainage, acidity budgets were developed for two sediments in areas of differential groundwater inflow (approx. 1 L m-2 d-1 and 10 L m-2 d-1 ). In both sediments iron was deposited as schwertmannite leading to iron(III) enriched sediments (3.9...6.2 mmol g-1 , referred to dry weight). Compared to the surface water, the inflowing groundwater had higher pH (4.5 vs. 3), ferrous iron (6...20 mmol L-1 vs. 0.8...2.0 mmol L-1 ), and sulfate (5...60 mmol L-1 vs. 8...13 mmol L-1 ) concentrations. The inflow changed the sediment pore water chemistry and triggered a further increase in pH to above 5.5. In both sediments acidity generation in the surface water (10...30 mol m-2 a-1 ) strongly prevailed over acidity consumption in the sediments (> -0.6 mol m-2 a-1 ). With advective groundwater inflow, however, more acidity was consumed due to TRIS formation (-0.12 mol m-2 a-1 vs. -0.017 mol m-2 a-1 ), iron carbonate burial (upper estimate: -0.14 mol m-2 a-1 vs. -0.022 mol m-2 a-1 ), and unspecific ferrous iron retention (-0.39 mol m-2 a-1 vs. -0.08 mol m-2 a-1 ). Also, less acidity was generated due to schwertmannite transformation (-2.4 mol m-2 a-1 vs. -0.11 mol m-2 a-1 ). The acidity balance of internal processes in the sediment with groundwater inflow was negative, whereas it was positive in the other sediment. The study demonstrates that in acidic and iron rich lakes the hydrological boundary conditions strongly affect geochemical processes as subsumed in acidity fluxes. © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. 2199 Chemical and mineralogical transformations caused by weathering in anti-tank du penetrators ("the silver bullets") discharged during the Kosovo war Mellini M. and Riccobono F. Chemosphere 2005 60/9 (12461252) A depleted-uranium penetrator, shot in 1999 at Djakovica, Western Kosovo, and there collected in June 2001, shows evident alteration processes, perceivable as black and yellow coatings. XRD indicates that the black coating mostly consists of uraninite, UO2 , with possible presence of other more oxidized uranium forms, such as U3 O8 . The yellow material is mostly amorphous, with variable weak diffraction lines, due to minor embedded uraninite grains, or possibly to schoepite, UO3  2H2 O. SEMEDS reveals only uranium. Whereas uraninite does not show any crystal shape, the yellow material recrystallizes to flattened pseudo-hexagonal prisms, approximately 2-10 m wide and 1-4 m long. Raman spectra of the yellow material have peaks at 3474 and 3222 cm-1 , indicative for OH groups, plus at 812 and 744 cm-1 , indicative for UO2+ 2 uranyl ions. Based on the different data, the yellow material covering the depleted-uranium dart is an oxidized corrosion product, containing uranyl ions and hydroxyls and/or water molecules, akin to schoepite. Therefore, the HYDROLOGY Djakovica dart shows evident oxidation and leaching processes, progressively releasing mobile uranium forms. As uranium will be progressively dispersed far from the impact sites, at a rate controlled by the presence of effective fixing mechanisms, we feel necessary to maintain long term geochemical control of water pollution within the battlefield surroundings. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2200 Spatial variability of shallow groundwater level, electrical conductivity and nitrate concentration, and risk assessment of nitrate contamination in North China Plain Hu K., Huang Y., Li H. et al. Environment International 2005 31/6 (896-903) In recent years, nitrate (NO3 ) contamination of groundwater has become a growing concern for people in rural areas in North China Plain (NCP) where groundwater is used as drinking water. The objective of this study was to evaluate groundwater resource level, to determine groundwater quality and to assess the risk of NO3 pollution in groundwater in Quzhou County in the NCP. Ordinary Kriging (OK) method was used to analyze the spatial variability of shallow groundwater level, groundwater electrical conductivity (EC) and NO3 -N concentrations, and Indictor Kriging (IK) method was used to analyze the data with NO3 -N concentrations equal or greater than the groundwater NO3 pollution threshold (20 mg L- 1 ). The results indicated that groundwater level averaged 9.81 m, a level 6 m lower than in 1990. The spatial correlation distances for groundwater level, EC and NO3 -N concentration were 21.93, 2.19 and 3.55 km, respectively. The contour map showed that shallow groundwater level areas extended from north to south across the County. Groundwater EC was above 3 dS m- 1 in the most part of the northern county. Groundwater NO3 pollution (NO3 -N  20 mg L- 1 ) mainly occurred in the County Seat areas due to wastewater irrigation and excessive fertilizer leaching from agricultural fields. At Henantuang town, besides suburban of the County Seat, groundwater was also contaminated by NO3 shown by the map generated using the IK method, which was not reflected in the map generated using the OK method. The map generated using the OK method could not reflect correctly the groundwater NO3 pollution status. The IK method is useful to assess the risk of NO3 pollution by giving the conditional probability of NO3 concentration exceeding the threshold value. It is suggested that risk assessment of NO3 pollution is useful for better managing groundwater resource, preventing soil salinization and minimizing NO3 pollution in groundwater. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2201 Removal of arsenic(III) from aqueous solutions using fresh and immobilized plant biomass Kamala C.T., Chu K.H., Chary N.S. et al. Water Research 2005 39/13 (2815-2826) The ability of Garcinia cambogia, an indigenous plant found in many parts of India, to remove trivalent arsenic from solution was assessed. Batch experiments were carried out to characterize the As(III) removal capability of fresh and immobilized biomass of G. cambogia. It was found that the kinetic property and uptake capacity of fresh biomass were significantly enhanced by the immobilization procedure. The uptake of As(III) by fresh and immobilized biomass was not greatly affected by solution pH with optimal biosorption occurring at around pH 6-8. The presence of common ions such as Ca and Mg at concentrations up to 100 mg/l had no effect on As(III) removal. However, the presence of Fe(III) at 100 mg/l caused a noticeable drop in the extent of As(III) removal but the effect was minimal when Fe(III) was present at 10 mg/l. The adsorption isotherms quantitatively predicted the extent of As(III) removal in groundwater samples collected from an arsenic-contaminated site in India. Immobilized biomass loaded with As(III) was amenable to efficient regeneration with NaOH solution. Column studies showed that immobilized biomass could be reused over five cycles of loading and elution. The excellent As(III) sequestering capability of fresh and immobilized G. cambogia biomass could lead to the development of a viable and cost-effective technology for arsenic removal in groundwater. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 419 2202 Studies of hexavalent chromium attenuation in redox variable soils obtained from a sandy to sub-wetland groundwater environment Hellerich L.A. and Nikolaidis N.P. Water Research 2005 39/13 (2851-2868) Laboratory experiments were conducted to characterize and quantify the capacity and kinetics of the combined effects of natural attenuation processes, such as adsorption, reduction, and precipitation, for hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] in a variable geochemical (i.e. fraction of organic carbon [foc], redox) environment of glaciated soils. Equilibrium attenuation terms: linear sorption (Kd), estimated capacity, and non-linear Langmuir (KL, Q) sorption parameters; varied over several orders of magnitude. The pseudo-first-order rate of disappearance of Cr(VI) from aqueous:soil slurries ranged from
10 -5 to
10-1 /min. An operationally defined kinetic attenuation term, attenuation capacity (AC), describing the quantity of Cr(VI) disappearing from the slurries, ranged from 1.1 to
12 g Cr(VI)/g soil/7 days. The linear Kd ‘s and estimated attenuation capacities were indirectly and directly related to increasing soil pH and foc, respectively. The AC values decreased and increased as a function of increasing soil pH and foc, respectively. The parameters determined in this work were used to evaluate the kinetics, capacity, and stability of chromium attenuation in the sub-wetland saturated soils in Hellerich (2004. A field, laboratory, and modeling study of natural attenuation processes affecting the fate and transport of hexavalent chromium in a redox variable groundwater environment. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut-Storrs) using a statistical simulation framework. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2203 Review of factors affecting microbial survival in groundwater John D.E. and Rose J.B. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7345-7356) This review quantitatively examines a number of published studies that evaluated survival and inactivation of public-health-related microorganisms in groundwater. Information from reviewed literature is used to express microbial inactivation in terms of log10 decline per day for comparison to other studies and organisms. The geometric mean value for inactivation rates for coliphage, poliovirus, echovirus, coliform bacteria, enterococci, and Salmonella spp. were similar at approximately 0.07-0.1 log10 day -1 , while geometric mean inactivation rates for hepatitis A virus, coxsackievirus, and phage PRD-1 were somewhat less at 0.02-0.04 log10 day-1 . Viruses show a temperature dependency with greater inactivation at greater temperatures; however this occurs largely at temperatures greater than 20 °C. Coliform bacteria dieoff in groundwater does not show the temperature dependency that viruses show, likely indicating a complex interplay of inactivation and reproduction subject to influences from native groundwater organisms, temperature, and water chemistry. The presence of native microorganisms seems to negatively impact E. coli survival more so than viruses, but in most cases, nonsterile conditions led to a greater inactivation for viruses also. The effect of attachment to solid surfaces appears to be virus-typedependent, with PRD-1 more rapidly inactivated as a result of attachment and hepatitis A and poliovirus survival prolonged when attached. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2204 A multivariate statistical approach to spatial representation of groundwater contamination using hydrochemistry and microbial community profiles Mouser P.J., Rizzo D.M., R¨oling W.F.M. and Van Breukelen B.M. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7551-7559) Managers of landfill sites are faced with enormous challenges when attempting to detect and delineate leachate plumes with a limited number of monitoring wells, assess spatial and temporal trends for hundreds of contaminants, and design long-term monitoring (LTM) strategies. Subsurface microbial ecology is a unique source of data that has been historically underutilized in LTM groundwater designs. This paper provides a methodology for utilizing qualitative and quantitative information (specifically, multiple water quality measurements and genome-based data) from a landfill leachate contaminated aquifer in Banisveld, 420 HYDROLOGY The Netherlands, to improve the estimation of parameters of concern. We used a principal component analysis (PCA) to reduce nonindependent hydrochemistry data, Bacteria and Archaea community profiles from 16SrDNA denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), into six statistically independent variables, representing the majority of the original dataset variances. The PCA scores grouped samples based on the degree or class of contamination and were similar over considerable horizontal distances. Incorporation of the principal component scores with traditional subsurface information using cokriging improved the understanding of the contaminated area by reducing error variances and increasing detection efficiency. Combining these multiple types of data (e.g., genome-based information, hydrochemistry, borings) may be extremely useful at landfill or other LTM sites for designing cost-effective strategies to detect and monitor contaminants. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2205 Bacterial bioassay for rapid and accurate analysis of arsenic in highly variable groundwater samples Trang P.T.K., Berg M., Viet P.H. et al. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7625-7630) In this study, we report the first ever large-scale environmental validation of a microbial reporter-based test to measure arsenic concentrations in natural water resources. A bioluminescenceproducing arsenic-inducible bacterium based on Escherichia coli was used as the reporter organism. Specific protocols were developed with the goal to avoid the negative influence of iron in groundwater on arsenic availability to the bioreporter cells. A total of 194 groundwater samples were collected in the Red River and Mekong River Delta regions of Vietnam and were analyzed both by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and by the arsenic bioreporter protocol. The bacterial cells performed well at and above arsenic concentrations in groundwater of 7 g/L, with an almost linearly proportional increase of the bioluminescence signal between 10 and 100 g As/L (r2 = 0.997). Comparisons between AAS and arsenic bioreporter determinations gave an overall average of 8.0% false negative and 2.4% false positive identifications for the bioreporter prediction at the WHO recommended acceptable arsenic concentration of 10 g/L, which is far better than the performance of chemical field test kits. Because of the ease of the measurement protocol and the low application cost, the microbiological arsenic test has a great potential in large screening campaigns in Asia and in other areas suffering from arsenic pollution in groundwater resources. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2206 Removal of methylated arsenic in groundwater with iron filings Cheng Z., Van Geen A., Louis R. et al. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7662-7666) Field and laboratory experiments were conducted to study the potential use of Fe filings to remove monomethyl arsenate (MMA) and dimethyl arsenate (DMA) from contaminated waters. Batch experiments show that the affinity of MMA for Fe filings is comparable to that of inorganic arsenate, but lower than that for arsenite. In contrast, very little DMA was retained by Fe filings or their corrosion products. The wide range of affinities of different As species for Fe filings was confirmed by a series of retention and selective-leaching experiments using small columns and Asspiked groundwater. The effectiveness of Fe filings was also demonstrated with a field deployment at a U.S. Superfund site where groundwater is highly contaminated with both organic and inorganic As species. Over the course of 4 months, a 3 L cartridge of Fe filings removed >85% of As contained in 16000 L of groundwater containing 1-1.5 mg/L total dissolved As,
30% of which was organic As. The results indicate that Fe filings could be used to treat groundwater contaminated with MMA, which is the main organic form of As at most contaminated sites. Indications of partial demethylation in the column of Fe filings suggest conditions might be optimized further to enhance the removal of DMA. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2207 Electrochemical denitrificaton of simulated ground water Dash B.P. and Chaudhari S. Water Research 2005 39/17 (40654072) Electrochemical denitrification of ground water was studied with an objective to maximize nitrate transformation to nitrogen gas. Aluminum, graphite, iron and titanium were selected as electrode materials. While aluminum, iron and titanium electrodes showed 70-97% nitrate reduction, with graphite electrode the removal was only 8%. Nitrate was transformed to ammonia with iron and aluminum electrodes but with titanium electrodes nitrogen was apparently the major end product. Iron electrodes exhibited the maximum reducing condition (ORP=-463 mV) and titanium showed the minimum (ORP=-206 mV). Nitrate reduction with titanium electrodes was retarded in the presence of chloride ions possibly due to formation of hypochlorite ions. The first-order nitrate transformation rate constant with respect to time decreased with decrease in current density. However, when the rate constant was expressed with respect to charge passed (Coulomb/l) it was nearly same under different experimental conditions (current density and pH). The study indicates that the process might be suitable for denitrification of drinking water. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2208 Dynamic factor analysis of groundwater quality trends in an agricultural area adjacent to Everglades National Park Mu˜noz- Carpena R., Ritter A. and Li Y.C. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 80/1-2 (49-70) The extensive eastern boundary of Everglades National Park (ENP) in south Florida (USA) is subject to one of the most expensive and ambitious environmental restoration projects in history. Understanding and predicting the water quality interactions between the shallow aquifer and surface water is a key component in meeting current environmental regulations and fine-tuning ENP wetland restoration while still maintaining flood protection for the adjacent developed areas. Dynamic factor analysis (DFA), a recent technique for the study of multivariate non-stationary timeseries, was applied to study fluctuations in groundwater quality in the area. More than two years of hydrological and water quality time series (rainfall; water table depth; and soil, ground and surface water concentrations of N-NO-3 , N-NH +4 , P-PO34 , Total P, F - and Cl- ) from a small agricultural watershed adjacent to the ENP were selected for the study. The unexplained variability required for determining the concentration of each chemical in the 16 wells was greatly reduced by including in the analysis some of the observed time series as explanatory variables (rainfall, water table depth, and soil and canal water chemical concentration). DFA results showed that groundwater concentration of three of the agrochemical species studied (N-NO-3 , P-PO34 and Total P) were affected by the same explanatory variables (water table depth, enriched topsoil, and occurrence of a leaching rainfall event, in order of decreasing relative importance). This indicates that leaching by rainfall is the main mechanism explaining concentration peaks in groundwater. In the case of N-NH+4 , in addition to leaching, groundwater concentration is governed by lateral exchange with canals. F- and Cl- are mainly affected by periods of dilution by rainfall recharge, and by exchange with the canals. The unstructured nature of the common trends found suggests that these are related to the complex spatially and temporally varying land use patterns in the watershed. The results indicate that peak concentrations of agrochemicals in groundwater could be reduced by improving fertilization practices (by splitting and modifying timing of applications) and by operating the regional canal system to maintain the water table low, especially during the rainy periods. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2209 Influence of hydrogeochemical processes on zero-valent iron reactive barrier performance: A field investigation Liang L., Moline G.R., Kamolpornwijit W. and West O.R. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2005 80/1-2 (71-91) Geochemical and mineralogical changes were evaluated at a field Fe 0 -PRB at the Oak Ridge Y-12 site concerning operation performance during the treatment of U in high NO-3 groundwater. In the 5-yr study period, the Fe0 remained reactive as shown in pore water monitoring data, where increases in pH and the removal of certain ionic species persisted. However, coring revealed varying degrees of cementation. After 3.8-yr treatment, porosity reduction of up to 41.7% was obtained from mineralogical analysis on core samples collected at the upgradient gravel-Fe0 interface. Elsewhere, Fe0 filings were loose with some cementation. Fe0 corrosion and pore volume reduction at this site are more severe HYDROLOGY NO-3 at a high level. Tracer tests indicate due to the presence of that hydraulic performance deteriorated: the flow distribution was heterogeneous and under the influence of interfacial cementation a large portion of water was diverted around the Fe0 and transported outside the PRB. Based on the equilibrium reductions 0 of NO-3 and SO24 by Fe and mineral precipitation, geochemical modeling predicted a maximum of 49% porosity loss for 5 yr of operation. Additionally, modeling showed a spatial distribution of mineral precipitate volumes, with the maximum advancing from the interface toward downgradient with time. This study suggests that water quality monitoring, coupled with hydraulic monitoring and geochemical modeling, can provide a low-cost method for assessing PRB performance. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2210 Groundwater contamination by chlorinated naphthalenes and related substances caused by activities of a former military base Vinzelberg G., Schwarzbauer J. and Littke R. Chemosphere 2005 61/6 (770-782) Water samples derived from two different aquifer layers of six sampling sites were analysed by GC/MS in order to characterize a groundwater contamination caused by chemicals used for wood impregnation. Mono- and dichlorinated naphthalenes, chlorobenzo(b)thiophene, 1-chloro-4-naphthol, 1-chloronaphthoic acid, acenaphthene and methyled naphthalenes were identified as the main pollutants and quantified. 1-Chloro-4naphthol and 1-chloronaphthoic acid are discussed as possible indicators for anaerobic degradation processes. Results of inorganic and compound specific stable carbon isotope analyses revealed only a minor degree of microbiological transformation. Thus, sorption was characterized as the main attenuation process within the aquifer affecting the contamination described. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2211 Pesticide fate at regional scale: Development of an integrated model approach and application Herbst M., Hardelauf H., Harms R. et al. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (542-549) As a result of agricultural practice many soils and aquifers are contaminated with pesticides. In order to quantify the sideeffects of these anthropogenic impacts on groundwater quality at regional scale, a process-based, integrated model approach was developed. The Richards’ equation based numerical model TRACE calculates the three-dimensional saturated/unsaturated water flow. For the modeling of regional scale pesticide transport we linked TRACE with the plant module SUCROS and with 3DLEWASTE, a hybrid Lagrangian/Eulerian approach to solve the convection/dispersion equation. We used measurements, standard methods like pedotransfer-functions or parameters from literature to derive the model input for the process model. A first-step application of TRACE/ 3DLEWASTE to the 20 km2 test area ‘Zwischenscholle’ for the period 19831993 reveals the behaviour of the pesticide isoproturon. The selected test area is characterised by an intense agricultural use and shallow groundwater, resulting in a high vulnerability of the groundwater to pesticide contamination. The model results stress the importance of the unsaturated zone for the occurrence of pesticides in groundwater. Remarkable isoproturon concentrations in groundwater are predicted for locations with thin layered and permeable soils. For four selected locations we used measured piezometric heads to validate predicted groundwater levels. In general, the model results are consistent and reasonable. Thus the developed integrated model approach is seen as a promising tool for the quantification of the agricultural practice impact on groundwater quality. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2212 Monitoring of carbamazepie concentrations in wastewater and groundwater to quantify sewer leakage Fenz R., Blaschke A.P., Clara M. et al. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (205-213) Monitoring of carbamazepine concentrations in wastewater and groundwater enables us to identify and quantify sewer exfiltration. The antiepileptic drug carbamazepine is hardly removed in wastewater treatment plants and not or just slightly attenuated during bank infiltration and subsoil flow. Concentrations in wastewater are generally 1,000 times higher than the limit 421 of quantification. In contrast to many other wastewater tracers carbamazepine is discharged to the environment only via domestic wastewater. The results from this study carried out in Linz, Austria indicate an average exfiltration rate of 1%, expressed as percentage of the dry weather flow that is lost to the groundwater on the city-wide scale. This rate is lower than sewage losses reported in most other studies which attempted to quantify exfiltration on the basis of groundwater pollution. However, it was also possible to identify one area with significantly higher sewage losses. This method seems to be very suitable for the verification of leakage models used to assess sewer exfiltration on a regional scale. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2213 Application of a leakage model to assess exfiltration from sewers Karpf C. and Krebs P. Water Science and Technology 2005 52/5 (225-231) The exfiltration of wastewater from sewer systems in urban areas causes a deterioration of soil and possibly groundwater quality. Beside the simulation of transport and degradation processes in the unsaturated zone and in the aquifer the analysis of the potential impact requires the estimation of quantity and temporal variation of wastewater exfiltration. Exfiltration can be assessed by the application of a leakage model. The hydrological approach was originally developed to simulate the interactions between the groundwater and surface water, it was adapted to allow for modelling of interactions between groundwater and sewer system. In order to approximate the exfiltration specific model parameters infiltration specific parameters were used as a basis. Scenario analysis of the exfiltration in the City of Dresden from 1997 to 1999 and during the flood event in August 2002 shows the variation and the extent of exfiltration rates. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2214 Manganese amended activated alumina for adsorption/oxidation of arsenic Kunzru S. and Chaudhuri M. Journal of Environmental Engineering 2005 131/9 (1350-1353) In a laboratory study, manganese amended activated alumina (MAA), prepared by calcining (400°C) manganese acetate-impregnated activated alumina, showed promise as a more effective medium than activated alumina (AA) for use in small municipal drinking water systems or point-of-use treatment, for removing arsenic [As(III) and As(V)] from groundwater. Batch adsorption/oxidation kinetic tests indicated that in fixed-bed operation, with a bed flowthrough time of 10-20 min, MAA would be a more effective medium than AA in removing arsenic [As(V), As(III), and As(III) and As(V) (present together)] from groundwater. In three cycles of downflow column test [bed depth 200 mm; bed flowthrough time 20 min; influent arsenic 1.0-0.6 mg/L As(III) and 0.4 mg/L As(V)], breakthrough bed volumes at the World Health Organization guideline value of 0.01 mg/L for arsenic in drinking water were 580, 550, and 485, and 825, 770, and 695, respectively, for AA and MAA. During regeneration (backwashing with a sodium hydroxide solution), 84-88% (for AA) and 86-89% (for MAA) of the removed arsenic was recovered. Manganese concentration in the MAA column effluent was low (below 0.02 mg/L.) A detailed study addressing the effects of some important factors (water pH, concentration and type of competing ions, and fouling by organics) on the process is needed. Journal of Environmental Engineering © ASCE. 2215 Ammonia shadow of my former self: A review of potential groundwater chemical pollution from cemeteries Hart A. Land Contamination and Reclamation 2005 13/3 (239245) The decomposition of human remains releases a variety of substances into the surrounding environment. Some of these have the potential to become pollutants of groundwater. A good understanding of the body composition and of the processes of decay and attenuation is needed for informed decision-making with respect to cemetery location and extent. In this paper the loadings of some potential pollutants that might be associated with a typical grave are reviewed. The extent of decay with time is discussed, and release rates for the main components are considered. © 2005 EPP Publications Ltd. 422 HYDROLOGY 2216 Natural radioactivity in Brazilian groundwater Godoy J.M. and Godoy M.L. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2006 85/1 (71-83) More than 220 groundwater samples were analyzed for 228 Ra, 226 Ra, 222 Rn, 210 Pb, Unat , Th nat , pH, conductivity, fluoride and some additional elements determined by ICP-MS. Since samples from several Brazilian states were taken, involving areas with quite different geologies, no general trend was observed relating the chemical composition and the natural radionuclide content. On the other hand, 210 Pb strongly depends on the water content of its progenitor, 222 Rn. The values obtained during the present work were compared with those reported by Hainberger et al. [Hainberger, P.L., de Oliveira Paiva, I.R., Salles Andrade, H.A., Zundel, G., Cullen, T.L., 1974. Radioactivity in Brazilian mineral waters. Radiation Data and Reports, 483-488.], when more than 270 groundwater samples were analyzed, mainly, for 226 Ra. Based on the results of both works, it was possible to build a database including the results of both works, generating a set with the radium content of circa 350 groundwater sources. It was demonstrated that 228 Ra, 226 Ra, 222 Rn, 210 Pb and Unat content in Brazilian groundwater follows a lognormal distribution and the obtained geometric mean were 0.045, 0.014, 57.7, 0.040 Bq L-1 and 1.2 g L-1 , respectively. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2217 The source of anomalous radioactivity in the springs bordering the Sea of Galilee, Israel Ilani S., Minster T., Kronfeld J. and Even O. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2006 85/1 (137-146) Situated within the Jordan Rift Valley, along the shores of Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) which serves as the national water reservoir of Israel, are saline hot springs that are notable for their enrichment in radon and radium. Though the anomalous radioactivity has been known for almost half a century, the source of the radioactive anomalies has been a subject of conjecture. Radiometric analysis of a rock core drilled through Mt. Arbel, situated to the west of the lake, reveals that the oil shale sequence of the Senonian En Zetim and Ghareb formations is strikingly deficient in radium. Mt. Arbel has been cut by Rift Valley related faults that serve as conduits for ascending brines. The organic matter enriched sequence is encountered in the subsurface at elevations lower than the water level of the nearby radioactive enriched hot springs. It is thus concluded that hot ascending brines underlying the lake flush through the organic matter enriched sequence and remove a substantial percentage of 226 Ra from the uranium enriched organic material, before draining to the outlets of the springs. Saline springs that are in contact with organic matter enriched sequence show excess of radium and radon, while fresh water springs in the same stratigraphic position show only excess of radon. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2218 Mobility and leaching of glyphosate: A review Vereecken H. Pest Management Science 2005 61/12 (1139-1151) There is currently concern that glyphosate, a strongly sorbing non-selective herbicide which is widely used in Europe, may be leached from the root zone into drainage water and groundwater. The purpose of this review is to present and discuss the state of knowledge with respect to the mobility and leaching of glyphosate from agricultural soils. Specific attention is given to the adsorption behaviour of glyphosate and the analysis of available studies on glyphosate transport. In addition, there are a number of experimental and numerical studies indicating that other strongly sorbing substances may be transported rapidly to the sub-surface. The experimental studies analysed in the paper encompass column-, lysimeter- and field-scale experiments on glyphosate transport. The experimental findings, combined with transport studies on other strongly sorbing pesticides in the literature, support the hypothesis that transport of glyphosate may be caused by an interaction of high rainfall events shortly after application on wet soils showing the presence of preferential flow paths. Concentrations of glyphosate in European groundwater have been reported occasionally but monitoring is still limited. © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry. 2219 A geostatistical simulation approach to a pollution case in Northeastern Italy Fabbri P. and Trevisani S. Mathematical Geology 2005 37/6 (569586) The study zone is located in the city of Padova (the Veneto region, NE Italy). The industrial activities present in this area since 1950 have produced very high concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cu, Pcb and oils until a depth of 7 m. The unsaturated and the saturated zones are both polluted. Because of the abundance of Pb values it was decided to analyze the lead distribution in the studied zone. In many studies of the polluted sites, the geometry of the investigated volume is highly anisotropic. Generally we have an extension of some hectares in the horizontal plane and of a few meters in depth. It is likely that different horizontal spatial continuity structures in pollution distribution are found at different depths both for the layered nature of the medium and for the transition between unsaturated and saturated conditions. In such conditions the decision to divide a 3D problem into 1D and 2D problems can be useful. Initially the studied volume was divided into seven layers up to 5 m in depth; the study was then approached in two phases. First, the Pb values in the vertical direction were analyzed, considering a derive along z, and estimating the values using the Kriging with Trend (KT) method. Thus it was possible to increase the data in the z direction, especially in the deeper layers. Second, 500 realizations of the Pb distribution for each of the seven layers were simulated using the simulated annealing procedure. Finally, results were presented and discussed for each layer in terms of median and probability maps. © 2005 International Association for Mathematical Geology. Groundwater quality: vadose zone 2220 Impact of salinity on the air-water partition coefficient of gas tracers Zhong L., Pope G.A., Evans J.C. and Cameron R.J. Journal of Environmental Engineering 2005 131/9 (1354-1357) The use of a gas partitioning interwell tracer test (PITT) has been proposed as a standard approach to the measurement of fieldscale vadose zone water saturation fractions. The accuracy of the saturation measurement is largely dependent on the determination of the air-water partition coefficient, K, of the tracers. In practice, K is strongly influenced by the physical and chemical properties of the site water. In this study, column tests were conducted to investigate the impact of salinity on tracer partition coefficients for two promising gas phase candidate tracers, dibromomethane and dimethylether. Sodium thiosulfate was used as a salinity surrogate. The dynamic K values of the two partitioning tracers were measured for sodium thiosulfate concentrations between 0% and 36% by weight. Methane was used as the nonpartitioning tracer for all experiments. K values were found to decrease significantly with increasing sodium thiosulfate concentration. Similar correlations between K values and sodium thiosulfate concentration were found for both of the partitioning tracers. Journal of Environmental Engineering © ASCE. 2221 Chemistry of waters from selected caves in Slovakia A reconnaissance study Motyka J., Gradzi´nski M., Bella P. and Hol´ubek P. Environmental Geology 2005 48/6 (682-692) The chemical composition of water samples was studied from different caves in Slovakia. The water samples were collected from caves of two karst regions: (1) the Dem¨anovsk´y Cave System (DCS), situated in the Low Tatra Mountains (Northern Slovakia), which is mainly formed of limestone and dolomites; and (2) the Slovakian Karst to the Southeast is formed of limestone. A considerable difference between water from the two regions was shown. The waters from the DCS, that were controlled by vadose water percolating through different types of host rocks, contained more Mg ions than those from the Slovakian Karst caves whereas, the concentration of SO4 was controlled by the dissolution of displacive gypsum and/or oxidation of pyrite. The distribution of NO3 in the studied samples was random, hence nitrates probably derived from few pollution sources. The total mineralization HYDROLOGY 423 of the water was covariant with calcite and aragonite saturation indices. In general, both parameters are higher in the Slovakian Karst caves than in the DCS. It is controlled probably by differences in climatic conditions, soil and plant covers between these two regions. The main goal of this article is to characterize the major-ion water chemistry within the studied caves as well as some microelements. The results have confirmed the dominant role of the bedrock petrography in forming the general chemistry of cave waters. © Springer-Verlag 2005. rameters such as yields, weathered zone thickness, weathered materials and morphological positions (upper slope, mid-slope, lower slope or valley bottom) are scrutinized. A correlation was found between high salinity and low flow, shallow groundwater environments (flat hill tops, valley bottoms, weakly developed and clayey weathered zones) and between low salinity and high flow environments (granular, well-developed weathered zones and situation on valley slopes). © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2222 Pesticide and nutrient contamination in the Kestel polje-Kirkgoz karst springs, Southern Turkey Ekmekci M. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (19-29) The Kirkgoz karst springs are in the well-developed Taurus karst zone in southern Turkey. Discharge is at an average rate of 15 m3 /s. The large Kestel polje is 40 km from the springs and within the recharge area of the system. Utilization of the Kestel polje for agriculture as well as sewage disposal at sinkholes are sources of pollution. Water samples were analyzed for nutrients and some of the pesticides among the persistent organic pollutants. Although nutrient contamination is not critical yet, pesticide concentrations that range between 81 and 9,009 g/l are above the international guidelines. This is the first record of pesticide contamination in karst systems in Turkey. Pesticides may be useful as tracers. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2225 Spatial and temporal changes in the structure of groundwater nitrate concentration time series (1935-1999) as demonstrated by autoregressive modelling Jones A.L. and Smart P.L. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (201-215) Autoregressive modelling is used to investigate the internal structure of long-term (1935-1999) records of nitrate concentration for five karst springs in the Mendip Hills. There is a significant short term (1-2 months) positive autocorrelation at three of the five springs due to the availability of sufficient nitrate within the soil store to maintain concentrations in winter recharge for several months. The absence of short term (1-2 months) positive autocorrelation in the other two springs is due to the marked contrast in land use between the limestone and swallet parts of the catchment, rapid concentrated recharge from the latter causing short term switching in the dominant water source at the spring and thus fluctuating nitrate concentrations. Significant negative autocorrelation is evident at lags varying from 4 to 7 months through to 14-22 months for individual springs, with positive autocorrelation at 19-20 months at one site. This variable timing is explained by moderation of the exhaustion effect in the soil by groundwater storage, which gives longer residence times in large catchments and those with a dominance of diffuse flow. The lags derived from autoregressive modelling may therefore provide an indication of average groundwater residence times. Significant differences in the structure of the autocorrelation function for successive 10-year periods are evident at Cheddar Spring, and are explained by the effect the ploughing up of grasslands during the Second World War and increased fertiliser usage on available nitrogen in the soil store. This effect is moderated by the influence of summer temperatures on rates of mineralization, and of both summer and winter rainfall on the timing and magnitude of nitrate leaching. The pattern of nitrate leaching also appears to have been perturbed by the 1976 drought. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Groundwater quality: phreatic zone 2223 Effect of humic acid on the pH-dependent adsorption of terbium (III) onto geological materials Lippold H., M¨uller N. and Kupsch H. Applied Geochemistry 2005 20/6 (1209-1217) Mobilization of actinides by interaction with humic colloids in aquifers is essentially determined by the geochemical conditions. In this study, the pH dependence of the influence of humic acid on metal adsorption on a variety of geological solids (kaolinite, phyllite, diabase, granite, sand) was investigated for Tb(III) as an analogue of trivalent actinides, using 160 Tb as a radiotracer. Humic material was radiolabelled with 131 I to allow experiments at low DOC concentrations, as encountered in subsurface systems in the far-field of a nuclear waste repository. For all solids, a changeover from mobilization to demobilization is observed on acidification. Except for phyllite, the reversal occurs at slightly acidic pH values, and is thus relevant in respect of risk assessments. A composite distribution model was employed to reproduce the changeover on the basis of the underlying constituent processes. For this purpose, humate complexation of Tb(III) and adsorption of humic acid as a function of pH were investigated as well. Although the ternary systems cannot be constructed quantitatively by combining the binary subsystems, the relevant interdependences are adequately described by the composite approach. For a more general discussion in view of the diversity of natural organic colloids, adsorption isotherms of various humic and fulvic acids on sand were compared. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2224 Origin of the high variability of water mineral content in the bedrock aquifers of Southern Madagascar Rabemanana V., Violette S., De Marsily G. et al. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (143-156) This study assesses the causes of the high spatial variability of the mineral content of groundwater in crystalline bedrock of Southern Madagascar. Although many kilometres from the coast and at a mean altitude of 400 m a.s.l, wells drilled in this area produce water with electrical conductivities in the range of 300-30,000 S cm-1 with a high spatial variability. Chemical and isotopic data are used to identify the processes involved in the groundwater mineralization. It is shown that the chemical composition of the groundwater in this region has its origin in (i) normal silicate and carbonate weathering reactions and (ii) input of marine salts, probably via rainfall recharge, modified by evapo-concentrative processes probably including precipitation and re-dissolution of secondary evaporites in the unsaturated zone. To obtain a better understanding of the spatial salinity distribution, well pa- 2226 Influence of water chemistry and travel distance on bacteriophage PRD-1 transport in a sandy aquifer Blanford W.J., Brusseau M.L., Yeh T.C.J. et al. Water Research 2005 39/11 (2345-2357) Experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact of groundwater chemistry and travel distance on the transport and fate behavior of PRD-1, a bacteriophage employed as a surrogate tracer for pathogenic enteric viruses. The experiments were conducted in the unconfined aquifer at the United States Geological Survey Cape Cod Toxic-Substances Hydrology Research Site in Falmouth, Massachusetts. The transport behavior of bromide (Br- ) and PRD-1 were evaluated in a sewage-effluent contaminated zone and a shallower uncontaminated zone at this site. Several multilevel sampling devices located along a 13-m transect were used to collect vertically discrete samples to examine longitudinal and vertical variability of PRD-1 retardation and attenuation. The concentration of viable bacteriophage in the aqueous phase decreased greatly during the first few meters of transport. This decrease is attributed to a combination of colloid filtration (attachment) and inactivation. The removal was greater (10 -12 relative recovery) and occurred within the first meter for the uncontaminated zone, whereas it was lesser (10-9 relative recovery) and occurred over 4 m in the contaminated zone. The lesser removal observed for the contaminated zone is attributed to the influence of sorbed and dissolved organic matter, phosphate, and other anions, which are present in higher concentrations in the contaminated zone, on PRD-1 attachment. After the initial decrease, the aqueous PRD-1 concentrations remained essentially constant in both zones for the remainder of the tests (total travel distances of 13 m), irrespective of variations in geochemical properties within and between the two zones. 424 HYDROLOGY The viable, mobile PRD-1 particles traveled at nearly the rate of bromide, which was used as a non-reactive tracer. The results of this study indicate that a small fraction of viable virus particles may persist in the aqueous phase and travel significant distances in the subsurface environment. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2227 In situ bioremediation of a cis-dichloroethylene-contaminated aquifer utilizing methane-rich groundwater from an uncontaminated aquifer Takeuchi M., Nanba K., Iwamoto H. et al. Water Research 2005 39/11 (2438-2444) At a trichloroethylene (TCE)-contaminated site in Chikura, Chiba, Japan, TCE had spread over to the first and second aquifers over years. After 8 years of pumping and treatment, finally derivative of TCE, cis-dichloroethylene (c-DCE) remained only in the second aquifer. In this study, feasibility of a low cost in situ bioremediation utilizing groundwater of the third aquifer, which contained natural dissolved methane possibly derived from natural gas field nearby, to stimulate methane-oxidizing bacteria was examined. In vitro experiment showed that a mixture of the groundwater from the second and third aquifers stimulated a growth of methane oxidizing bacteria and enhanced c-DCE degradation. The groundwater of the third aquifer was introduced into the second aquifer in situ. The population of methanotrophs with high Vmax and Km for methane uptake increased, resulting in successful degradation of c-DCE at a monitoring well 2 m downgradient of the injection well. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2228 Chromium-removal processes during groundwater remediation by a zerovalent iron permeable reactive barrier Wilkin R.T., Su C., Ford R.G. and Paul C.J. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/12 (4599-4605) Solid-phase associations of chromium were examined in core materials collected from a full-scale, zerovalent iron permeable reactive barrier (PRB) at the U.S. Coast Guard Support Center located near Elizabeth City, NC. The PRB was installed in 1996 to treat groundwater contaminated with hexavalent chromium. After eight years of operation, the PRB remains effective at reducing concentrations of Cr from average values > 1500 g L-1 in groundwater hydraulically upgradient of the PRB to values <1 g L -1 in groundwater within and hydraulically downgradient of the PRB. Chromium removal from groundwater occurs at the leading edge of the PRB and also within the aquifer immediately upgradient of the PRB. These regions also witness the greatest amount of secondary mineral formation due to steep geochemical gradients that result from the corrosion of zerovalent iron. X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy indicated that chromium is predominantly in the trivalent oxidation state, confirming that reductive processes are responsible for Cr sequestration. XANES spectra and microscopy results suggest that Cr is, in part, associated with iron sulfide grains formed as a consequence of microbially mediated sulfate reduction in and around the PRB. Results of this study provide evidence that secondary iron-bearing mineral products may enhance the capacity of zerovalent iron systems to remediate Cr in groundwater, either through redox reactions at the mineral-water interface or by the release of Fe(II) to solution via mineral dissolution and/or metal corrosion. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2229 Atrazine and alachlor inputs to surface and ground waters in irrigated corn cultivation areas of Castilla-Leon Region, Spain S´anchez- Camazano M., Lorenzo L.F. and S´anchez- Martn M.J. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2005 105/1-3 (11-24) The inputs of atrazine and alachlor herbicides to surface and ground waters from irrigated areas dedicated to corn cultivation in the Castilla-Le´on (C-L) region (Spain) as related to the application of both herbicides were studied. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) were used for monitoring the atrazine and alachlor concentrations in 98 water samples taken from these areas. Seventy-nine of the samples were of ground waters and 19 were of surface waters. The concentration ranges of the herbicides detected in the study period (October 1997-October 1998) were 0.04-25.3 g L-1 in the surface waters and 0.04-3.45 g L-1 in the ground waters for atrazine, and 0.06-31.9 g L-1 in the surface waters and 0.05-4.85 g L-1 in the ground waters in the case of alachlor. The highly significant correlation observed between the concentrations of both herbicides in the surface waters (r = 0.89, p < 0.001) pointed to a parallel transport of atrazine and alachlor to these waters. A study was made of the temporal evolution of the concentrations of both herbicides, and it was found a maximum recharge of atrazine in the ground waters for April 1998 and of alachlor in October 1997 and October 1998. The temporal evolution of the concentrations of both herbicides in surface waters was parallel. The highly significant correlations observed between atrazine concentrations determined by ELISA and by HPLC (r = 0.92, p < 0.001) and between alachlor concentrations also determined by both methods (r = 0.96, p < 0.001) confirmed the usefulness of ELISA for monitoring both herbicides in an elevated number of samples. Using HPLC, the presence in some waters of the alachlor ethanesulfonate (ESA) metabolite was found at a concentration range of 0.52-4.01 g L-1 . However the interference of ESA in the determination of alachlor by ELISA was negligible. The inputs of atrazine and alachlor to waters found in this study, especially the inputs to ground waters, could pose a risk for human health considering that some waters, though sporadically, are even used for human consumption. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 2230 Compost-based permeable reactive barriers for the source treatment of arsenic contaminations in aquifers: Column studies and solid-phase investigations K¨ober R., Daus B., Ebert M. et al. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7650-7655) The bulk of arsenic (As) at contaminated sites is frequently associated with iron (hydr)oxides. Various studies ascribe increasing dissolved As concentrations to the transformation of iron (hydr)oxides into iron sulfides, which is initiated by dissolved sulfide. We investigated whether this processes can be utilized as a source treatment approach using compost-based permeable reactive barriers (PRB), which promote microbial sulfate reduction. Arsenic-bearing aquifer sediment from a contaminated industrial site showed a decrease in As content of <10% after 420 days of percolation with sulfide-free artificial groundwater. In contrast, water that had previously passed through organic matter and exhibited sulfide concentrations of 10-30 mg/L decreased As content in the sediment by 87% within 360 days. X-ray diffraction showed no arsenic sulfides, but XANES spectra (X-ray absorption near edge structure) and associated linear combinations revealed that adsorbed arsenate of the original sediment was in part reduced to arsenite and indicated the formation of minor amounts of a substance that contains As and sulfur. The speciation of dissolved As changed from initially As(V)-dominated to As-(III)-dominated after sulfide flushing was started, which increases the mobility of As. Because sulfide can be supplied not only by compost-based PRBs but also by direct injection, sulfide flushing has a wide range of application for the source treatment of arsenic. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2231 Contributions of diffusion, dissolution, ion exchange, and leakage from low-permeability layers to confined aquifers Atteia O., Andre L., Dupuy A. and Franceschi M. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-15) [1] In this paper the evolution of the groundwater chemical composition in aquifers from large sedimentary basins over geological timescale is investigated. The solutes upon which we focus are sulfate, chloride, and sodium because they often display concentration gradients at the regional scale and they are largely undersaturated with respect to any mineral. To explain these gradients, several phenomena are studied: leakage, dissolution of minerals or ion exchange within an aquifer, and dissolution of minerals or ion exchange from an overlying aquitard. Assuming local equilibrium, the study of dissolution within the aquifer shows that the minerals containing sulfate and chloride must have been leached out rapidly after aquifer flushing and should not exist after one million years of water flow. In addition, a simplified model of leakage shows that dissolution of minerals embedded in an aquitard could deliver a flux of ions able to explain significant gradients within the aquifer. Without water transfer from aquitard to aquifer, diffusion from the aquitard can HYDROLOGY also lead to significant concentration gradient along the aquifer. A detailed study of ion exchange shows that the clays existing in the aquifer are rapidly (thousands of years) saturated with calcium and will not release sodium later. On the other hand, exchange from the aquitard clays, followed by diffusion, is able to change sodium and calcium concentrations significantly over geological time intervals in the aquifer. The intensities of each process studied are compared. It is shown that given the assumptions made, the influence of each process can be differentiated where the aquifer-aquitard system is well enough characterized. Analysis of aquifers with clay beds, detailed in the discussion, suggests that these layers may play a secondary role over geological timescales. However, they can lead to disconnected parts of the aquifer that can show different water chemistry. Our work suggests that the composition of major aquitards may have a significant effect on the chemistry of the aquifer water. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2232 Health impact evaluation of boron in drinking water: A geographical risk assessment in Northern France Yazbeck C., Kloppmann W., Cottier R. et al. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2005 27/5-6 (419-427) Objective: To evaluate health impact of boron in drinking water. Methods: A regional scale geographical study in Northern France was conducted. Assessment of boron blood levels in a group of 180 healthy individuals and correlation with boron content in drinking water were followed by an assessment of health indicators such as birth rates, mortality rates, and sex ratios in zones of different boron content in drinking water. Results: After necessary adjustments, men living in municipalities with more than 0.30 mg/L of boron in drinking water had elevated but not significant boron blood levels compared with those living in municipalities with boron water levels of less than 0.30 mg/L (159.1 versus 123.0 ng/g; p > 0.05). The standardized birth ratio adjusted for the reference geographic zone and calendar time period was 1.07 and 1.28 in the low and high (>0.3 mg/L) boron content municipalities, respectively. The birth rate in municipalities with high boron content in drinking water was higher than that of the reference geographic zone and of the French general population (p < 10-4 ). The standardized mortality ratio adjusted for the reference geographic zone and calendar time period was 0.94 and 0.92 in the low and high boron content municipalities, respectively. The mortality rate in municipalities with high boron content in drinking water was less than that of the reference geographic zone and of the French general population (p < 10-3 ). No statistical difference was noted in the male-female sex ratios between the different municipality zones (p = 0.45). Conclusions: The results of this study do not support the idea of a deleterious effect of boron on human health, at the boron water level contents found in this specific region. In fact, there is a tendency toward a beneficial effect with low-dose environmental exposure (less than 1 mg/L of boron) in drinking water. © Springer 2005. 2233 Identifying the source of saline groundwater contamination using geochemical data and modeling Uliana M.M. Environmental and Engineering Geoscience 2005 11/2 (107-123) The source of salinization of an unconfined aquifer located in West Texas, near the Pecos River, is determined by a combination of graphical methods, comparative statistics, mass-balance mixing models, and geochemical thermodynamic equilibrium models. Water samples from the site are divided into two groups: Group 1 samples are chemically similar to groundwater samples typical of the region; Group 2 samples are chemically similar to salt-water disposal (SWD) brines injected into deeper formations for disposal and petroleum recovery enhancement. The spatial distribution of the two groups and the results of statistical analyses support the similarity between the Group 2 and the SWD samples and are consistent with the hypothesis that the Group 2 samples were contaminated by SWD brine. Bivariate plots and mixing models suggest that the Group 2 samples are a combination of brine contamination and subsequent reaction with mineral phases present in the aquifer. Three conceptual models for salinization of the Group 2 wells are tested using geochemical models: 1) evaporation of groundwater with no contamination, 2) release of brine directly into the aquifer, and 3) deep release of brine with mineral reactions in the sub-surface. Results indicate 425 that the most likely scenario is a deep release of brine, equilibration with halite in the underlying formation, and release of the modified brine into the shallow aquifer with subsequent mineralphase reactions. The model results suggest that Br- /Cl- , widely accepted as a conservative ratio, can be modified by dissolution of low Br- halide minerals. 2234 Numerical modelling of chloride propagation in the quaternary aquifer of the southern Upper Rhine Graben Lang U., Gudera T., Elsass P. and Wirsing G. International Journal of Earth Sciences 2005 94/4 (550-564) The deep groundwater in the quaternary gravel sequence of the southern Upper Rhine Graben locally contains high chloride concentrations near the river Rhine between Fessenheim (France) in the South and Breisach (Germany) in the North. This historical pollution is mainly due to past infiltration from the former brine storage basins of the French potash mines on the "Fessenheim Island" and - to a lesser extent - from the leaching of the salt dumps of the German potash mines in Buggingen and Heitersheim. The spreading of the salt plume was investigated by means of a groundwater model. The aim of the model was to understand the brine movement, the present distribution of chloride as defined by recent hydrochemical investigations, and to select locations for new reconnaissance boreholes. The geological structure was reproduced by a three layer model, which was calibrated for steady state flow conditions. The hydraulic conductivity of the first layer was determined by comparing measured and calculated heads in the model area. The vertical resolution was refined to simulate the density-dependent salt transport processes. The transport of the salt plumes was simulated over a 40-year period, starting at the beginning of brine storage in the 1950s. The relevant transport parameters have been estimated in a sensitivity analysis, where the simulated breakthrough curves of chloride concentration have been compared with the measured data. The results of the groundwater model indicate that brines containing approximately 1 million tons of chloride are still present at the bottom of the aquifer. These highly concentrated salt brines mix with fresh water from the upper part of the aquifer. This dispersive process leads to the formation of a plume of chloride-rich water extending downstream, where pumping wells for several local water supplies are located. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2235 Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes: A case study of Peddavanka watershed, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India Gowd S.S. Environmental Geology 2005 48/6 (702-712) In India, the quantity and quality of water available for irrigation is variable from place to place. Assessment of water quality has been carried out to determine the sources of dissolved ions in groundwater. Quality of groundwater in a 398 km2 Peddavanka watershed of a semi-arid region of south India is evaluated for its suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes. The middle Proterozoic Cuddapah Supergroup and Kurnool Group of rocks underlie most of the watershed. The main lithologic units consist chiefly of quartzite, limestone, and shale. Seventy-six water samples were collected from open-wells and bore-holes. Water samples were collected representative of the post-monsoon (winter) and pre-monsoon (summer). The quality assessment is made through the estimation of Ca2+ , Mg2+ , Na+ , K+ , Cl- , SO 4 2, CO 3 2- , HCO 3 - , total hardness as CaCO 3 , TDS, EC, and pH. Based on these analyses, parameters like sodium adsorption ratio, % sodium, residual sodium carbonate, non-carbonate hardness, potential salinity, Kelley’s ratio, magnesium ratio, index of base exchange and permeability index were calculated. According to Gibbs’ ratio samples in both seasons fall in the rock dominance field. The overall quality of waters in the study area in postmonsoon season is high for all constituents ruling out pollution from extraneous sources. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2236 Geological and geochemical examination of arsenic contamination in groundwater in the Holocene Terai Basin, Nepal Gurung J.K., Ishiga H. and Khadka M.S. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (98-113) Geological and geochemical study has been carried out to investigate arsenic contamination in groundwater in Nawalparasi, the western Terai district of Nepal. The work carried out includes 426 HYDROLOGY analyses of core sediments, provenance study by rare earth elements analyses, 14 C dating, and water analyses. Results showed that distribution of the major and trace elements are not homogeneous in different grain size sediments. Geochemical characteristics and sediment assemblages of the arsenic contaminated (Nawalparasi) and uncontaminated (Bhairahawa) area have been compared. Geochemical compositions of sediments from both the areas are similar; however, water chemistry and sedimentary facies vary significantly. Extraction test of sediment samples showed significant leaching of arsenic and iron. Chemical reduction and contribution from organic matter could be a plausible explanation for the arsenic release in groundwater from the Terai sediments. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2237 Arsenic contamination in groundwater from parts of Ambagarh-Chowki block, Chhattisgarh, India: Source and release mechanism Acharyya S.K., Shah B.A., Ashyiya I.D. and Pandey Y. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (148-158) Arsenic contamination in tube-well water in Ambagarh-Chowki block, central India, is restricted to local areas confined within the N-S trending Dongargarh rift zone. Affected areas are preferentially located in acid volcanics, close to shear zones and also in granites. Dug-wells even in severely contaminated areas generally have As concentration  10 g/l. But in Kaurikasa area, several tube-wells and dug-wells are severely polluted. Weathered rocks and soils are also enriched in As from severely contaminated areas. As preferentially occurs in iron-enriched soil and similarly altered biotite, chlorite in granite. As sorbed in hydrated iron oxide (HFO) that preferably occurs in acidleachable fraction and possibly as coatings on kaolinite, illite and goethite in soil or as coatings and along cleavage traces on weathered biotite and chlorite. Reductive dissolution of HFO released sorbed As to groundwater and enriched it in Fe. Pyrite in volcanic and shear zone rocks, although locally As-bearing is a minor source of As in groundwater. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2238 Geochemical and isotopic investigation of the aquifer system in the Djerid-Nefzaoua basin, southern Tunisia Kamel S., Dassi L., Zouari K. and Abidi B. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (159-170) In the Djerid-Nefzaoua region, southern Tunisia, about 80% of agricultural and domestic water supply is provided by the complex terminal (CT) aquifer. However, 20% of this demand is provided by other hydraulically connected aquifers, namely the continental intercalaire (CI) and the Plio-Quaternary (PQ). Overexploitation of the CT aquifer for agricultural practices has contributed to the loss of the artesian condition and the decline of groundwater level which largely increased the downward leakage from the shallow PQ aquifer. Excess irrigation water concentrates at different rates in the irrigation channels and in the PQ aquifer itself. Then, it returns to the CT aquifer and mixes with water from the regional flow system, which contributes to the salinization of the CT groundwater. A geochemical and isotopic study had been undertaken over a 2-years period in order to investigate the origin of waters pumped from the CT aquifer with an emphasis on its hydraulic relationships with the underlying and the overlying CI and PQ aquifers. Geochemistry indicates that groundwater samples collected from different wells show an evolution of the water types from Na-Cl to Ca-SO4 -Cl. Dissolution of halite, gypsum and anhydrite-bearing rocks is the main mechanism that leads to the salinization of the groundwater. Isotopic data indicate the old origin of all groundwater in the aquifer system. Mixing and evaporation effects characterizing the CT and the PQ aquifers were identified using 2 H and 18 O relationship and confirmed by the conjunction of 2 H with chloride concentration. © Springer-Verlag 2005. Glacial hydrology 2239 Meltwater features that suggest Miocene ice-sheet overriding of the Transantarctic Mountains in Victoria Land, Antarctica Denton G.H. and Sugden D.E. Geografiska Annaler, Series A: Physical Geography 2005 87/1 (67-85) We illustrate here spectacular meltwater features associated with outburst floods beneath an ice sheet that overrode the Transantarctic Mountains in southern Victoria Land. Because of longterm hyperarid polar climate, these features are part of an ancient landscape preserved for about 14 million years. Some channels are associated with areal scouring of basement rocks extending from sea level to as much as 1200-2100 m elevation in coastal regions. Scablands with scallops, pot-holes and plunge pools are cut in Beacon Supergroup sandstones and Ferrar Dolerite and cover wide areas of high western plateaus near the mountain crest. Subglacial channel systems commonly originate near divides and converge downhill toward the northeast. We argue that the landforms were created beneath a major Antarctic Ice Sheet that submerged the whole area, with the possible exception of the high peaks of the Royal Society Range, as it flowed northeastward toward the outer Antarctic continental shelf. Areal scouring, associated with warm-based regimes, is restricted to the lower slopes close to the coast. In the higher terrain, meltwater channels and scabland alongside preserved patches of regolith are best explained by the breaching of cold-based ice on the mountain rim by subglacial meltwater outbursts. Melt from warm-based ice, along with subglacial lakes trapped upstream of the mountain rim, are possible sources of the meltwater necessary to form the channel systems and scablands. 2240 Snow in Lebanon: A preliminary study of snow cover over Mount Lebanon and a simple snowmelt model Aouad- Rizk A., Job J.- O., Khalil S. et al. Hydrological Sciences Journal 2005 50/3 (555-569) The physical properties of snow, including apparent density, snow cover distributitn and snowmelt in the Nahr El Kelb basin (Mount Lebanon), were studied in order to design a simple empirical snowmelt model. In February 2001, snow covered an area of 1600 km2 on Mount Lebanon, representing a water equivalent of 1.1  109 m3 . The snow surface area was calculated by combining TM5 images with a digital elevation model, and field observations made every three days, from 1400 to 2300 m altitude. The depletion of snow cover was measured from the end of December 2000 to the end of June 2001. The snowmelt was measured from surface depletion on a degree-day basis. A simple model relating the daily snowmelt to the product of wind speed and average positive daily air temperature, is presented and discussed. For Mount Lebanon, this model gave a better approximation of snowmelt than a simple degree-day model. Copyright © 2005 IAHS Press. 2241 Application of a degree-day snow depth model to a Swiss glacierised catchment to improve neural network discharge forecasts Schumann G. and Lauener G. Nordic Hydrology 2005 36/2 (99111) A trained soft artificial neural network (SANN) model was applied to the Gornera catchment (Valais Alps, Switzerland) over the melt season May to September 2001 to predict hourly discharge up to five days ahead A SANN discharge forecast for three days ahead has previously been performed on this catchment using only past discharge and past and forecast air temperature as model training inputs. In this study, present zonal snow depth was included as a model input, which was predicted for five altitudinal catchment zones using an empirical degree-day model. Hourly discharge values for up to five days ahead were reconstructed using SANN predicted daily discharge parameters along with a normalised long-term moving average model (MAHM). The efficiency criterion R2 gives a model performance of 0.927 for a 24-hour-ahead forecast and 0.824 for a 120-hour-ahead forecast. Compared to previous work, adding the snow model to the SANN model inputs considerably increases the forecast accuracy, in particular during days of progressive discharge in- HYDROLOGY crease and thunderstorms. The SANN model yields excellent results on days marked by stable weather conditions, with an R2 value between 0.913 and 0.995. However, the model is unable to reliably predict low frequency, high magnitude events, e.g. release of stored water from a glacial lake. © IWA Publishing 2005. 2242 Subglacial drainage processes at a High Arctic polythermal valley glacier Bingham R.G., Nienow P.W., Sharp M.J. and Boon S. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (15-24) Dye-tracer experiments undertaken over two summer melt seasons at polythermal John Evans Glacier, Ellesmere Island, Canada, were designed to investigate the character of the subglacial drainage system and its evolution over a melt season. In both summers, dye injections were conducted at several moulins and traced to a single subglacial outflow. Tracer breakthrough curves suggest that supraglacial meltwater initially encounters a distributed subglacial drainage system in late June. The subsequent development and maintenance of a channelled subglacial network are dependent upon sustained high rates of surface melting maintaining high supraglacial inputs. In a consistently warm summer (2000), subglacial drainage became rapidly and persistently channelled. In a cooler summer (2001), distributed subglacial drainage predominated. These observations confirm that supraglacial meltwater can access the bed of a High Arctic glacier in summer, and induce significant structural evolution of the subglacial drainage system. They do not support the view that subglacial drainage systems beneath polythermal glaciers are always poorly developed. They do suggest that the effects on ice flow of surface water penetration to the bed of predominantly cold glaciers may be short-lived. 2243 Influx of meltwater to subglacial Lake Concordia, East Antarctica Tikku A.A., Bell R.E., Studinger M. et al. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (96-104) We present evidence for melting at the base of the ice that overlies Lake Concordia, an 800 km2 subglacial lake near Dome Concordia, East Antarctica, via a combination of glaciohydraulic melting (associated with the tilted ice ceiling and its influence on lake circulation/melting temperature) and melting by extreme strain heating (where the ice sheet is grounded). An influx of water is necessary to provide nutrients, material and biota to support subglacial lake ecosystems but has not been detected previously. Freezing is the dominant observed basal process at over 60% of the surface area above the lake. The total volume of accreted ice above the lake surface is estimated as 50-60 km3 , roughly 25-30% of the 200 40 km3 estimated lake volume. Estimated rates of melting and freezing are very similar, 2-6 mm a-1 . The apparent net freezing may reflect the present-day response of Lake Concordia to cooling associated with the Last Glacial Maximum, or a large influx of water either via a subglacial hydrological system or from additional melting of the ice sheet. Lake Concordia is an excellent candidate for subglacial exploration given active basal processes, proximity to the Dome Concordia ice core and traverse resupply route. Land use, forestry and agriculture 2244 A review of paired catchment studies for determining changes in water yield resulting from alterations in vegetation Brown A.E., Zhang L., McMahon T.A. et al. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (28-61) Paired catchment studies have been widely used as a means of determining the magnitude of water yield changes resulting from changes in vegetation. This review focuses on the use of paired catchment studies for determining the changes in water yield at various time scales resulting from permanent changes in vegetation. The review considers long term annual changes, adjustment time scales, the seasonal pattern of flows and changes in both annual and seasonal flow duration curves. The paired catchment studies reported in the literature have been divided into four broad categories: afforestation experiments, deforestation experiments, regrowth experiments and forest conversion 427 experiments. Comparisons between paired catchment results and a mean annual water balance model are presented and show good agreement between the two methodologies. The results highlight the potential underestimation of water yield changes if regrowth experiments are used to predict the likely impact of permanent alterations to a catchment’s vegetation. An analysis of annual water yield changes from afforestation, deforestation and regrowth experiments demonstrates that the time taken to reach a new equilibrium under permanent land use change varies considerably. Deforestation experiments reach a new equilibrium more quickly than afforestation experiments. The review of papers reporting seasonal changes in water yield highlights the proportionally larger impact on low flows. Flow duration curve comparison provides a potential means of gaining a greater understanding of the impact of vegetation on the distribution of daily flows. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2245 The response of flow duration curves to afforestation Lane P.N.J., Best A.E., Hickel K. and Zhang L. Journal of Hydrology 2005 310/1-4 (253-265) The hydrologic effect of replacing pasture or other short crops with trees is reasonably well understood on a mean annual basis. The impact on flow regime, as described by the annual flow duration curve (FDC) is less certain. A method to assess the impact of plantation establishment on FDCs was developed. The starting point for the analyses was the assumption that rainfall and vegetation age are the principal drivers of evapotranspiration. A key objective was to remove the variability in the rainfall signal, leaving changes in streamflow solely attributable to the evapotranspiration of the plantation. A method was developed to (1) fit a model to the observed annual time series of FDC percentiles; i.e. 10th percentile for each year of record with annual rainfall and plantation age as parameters, (2) replace the annual rainfall variation with the long term mean to obtain climate adjusted FDCs, and (3) quantify changes in FDC percentiles as plantations age. Data from 10 catchments from Australia, South Africa and New Zealand were used. The model was able to represent flow variation for the majority of percentiles at eight of the 10 catchments, particularly for the 10-50th percentiles. The adjusted FDCs revealed variable patterns in flow reductions with two types of responses (groups) being identified. Group 1 catchments show a substantial increase in the number of zero flow days, with low flows being more affected than high flows. Group 2 catchments show a more uniform reduction in flows across all percentiles. The differences may be partly explained by storage characteristics. The modelled flow reductions were in accord with published results of paired catchment experiments. An additional analysis was performed to characterise the impact of afforestation on the number of zero flow days (Nzero ) for the catchments in group 1. This model performed particularly well, and when adjusted for climate, indicated a significant increase in Nzero . The zero flow day method could be used to determine change in the occurrence of any given flow in response to afforestation. The methods used in this study proved satisfactory in removing the rainfall variability, and have added useful insight into the hydrologic impacts of plantation establishment. This approach provides a methodology for understanding catchment response to afforestation, where paired catchment data is not available. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2246 Impacts of land use conversion on bankfull discharge and mass wasting Riedel M.S., Verry E.S. and Brooks K.N. Journal of Environmental Management 2005 76/4 (326-337) Mass wasting and channel incision are widespread in the Nemadji River watershed of eastern Minnesota and northwestern Wisconsin. While much of this is a natural response to glacial rebound, sediment coring and tree ring data suggest that land use has also influenced these erosional processes. We characterized land use, inventoried mass wasting, surveyed stream channels and collected discharge data along segments of five streams in the Nemadji River watershed. Due to natural relief in this region, wetlands and agricultural lands are concentrated in the flatter terrain of the uplands of the Nemadji watershed, while forestland (coniferous or deciduous) is concentrated in the deeply incised (50-200% slope) stream valleys. Bankfull discharge was higher 428 HYDROLOGY where forests had been converted from coniferous to deciduous forests and where there were fewer wetlands. Mass wasting increased exponentially with bankfull flows. While mass wasting was not correlated with forest type conversion and agricultural land use, it was negatively dependent upon wetland extent in headwater areas. Interactions between the spatial distribution of land use and terrain obfuscate any clear cause-and-effect relationships between land use, hydrology and fluvial processes. 2247 Impacts of the sustainable forestry initiative landscape level measures on hydrological processes Azevedo J.C., Williams J.R., Messina M.G. and Fisher R.F. Water Resources Management 2005 19/2 (95-110) The effects on hydrological processes of the application of the landscape level measures included in the sustainable forestry initiative (SFI) program were analyzed through simulation. A landscape scenario where limitation of harvesting units’ size, imposition of a green-up interval, and establishment of streamside management zones (SMZ) were simulated was compared with a reference scenario where no SFI rules were followed. An intensively managed forested landscape located in East Texas, USA, was used as the study area. The HARVEST landscape model was used to simulate landscape pattern and a modified version of the APEX model was used to simulate hydrological processes. Water and sediment yields were generally small within the observation period and most of the runoff and erosion observed occurred during intense storm events. Water and sediment yield at the subarea level and water yield at the watershed level were similar in both scenarios. However, sediment yield at the watershed level was higher in the non-SFI scenario. The differences were due to the reduction in channel erosion resulting from the presence of SMZs. The effect of buffer zones in terms of sediment deposition was not different between scenarios, which can be attributed to the level slopes of the study area. Landscape measures of the SFI program, namely buffer zones, seem important in reducing channel degradation, particularly during major storm events, in intensively managed forest landscapes in East Texas. © Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005. 2248 Application of the SWAT model on the Medjerda river basin (Tunisia) Bouraoui F., Benabdallah S., Jrad A. and Bidoglio G. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (497-507) The Medjerda river basin (Northern Tunisia) is experiencing an intensification of agriculture and the irrigated area is increasing rapidly. The SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model, a soil, water, sediment, and nutrient transformation and fate simulator for agricultural watersheds, was applied to this catchment to study the potential impact of land management scenarios. The model was able to represent the hydrological cycle even though some discrepancies were observed, probably due to a lack of sufficient rainfall data, and due to the lack of representation of reservoirs. It was predicted that converting all agricultural land to irrigated crop introduced significant changes on nitrate concentration in surface water. However, the concentration was still below the limit of potability. It was also predicted that drastic reduction in the load of ammonium and phosphorus could be achieved by collecting and treating wastewater from major urban areas. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2249 Effects of land-use changes on the hydrologic response of reclamation systems Camorani G., Castellarin A. and Brath A. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (561-574) Our study investigates the possible effects of recent land-use changes on the frequency regime of floods for reclaimed lands. We modelled the runoff concentration behaviour of a reclaimed area of 76 km2 , located in the Po River plain near the city of Bologna (northern Italy), through the combined application of a semi-distributed rainfall-runoff model, which captures the key features of surface and sub-surface flows, and a hydrodynamic streamflow routing model. Three land use data from 1955, 1980 and 1992 were available. We implemented the rainfall-runoff model to the three land-use scenarios and analysed the hydrological-hydraulic behaviour of the study area for numerous rainfall events associated with different recurrence interval. The results of our study show a rather significant sensitivity of the flood frequency regime of the reclaimed land to land-use changes, and the sensitivity tends to increase as the recurrence interval of the rainfall event decreases. © 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. 2250 River water shortage in a highland-lowland system: A case study of the impacts of water abstraction in the Mount Kenya region Aeschbacher J., Liniger H. and Weingartner R. Mountain Research and Development 2005 25/2 (155-162) In the past decade, water shortage on the western and northern slopes of Mount Kenya and particularly in the adjoining lowland areas has reached a severity not experienced before. Rapid population growth and rising demand for irrigation are increasing the pressure on water resources, as can be demonstrated by an inventory of water abstractions from the Naro Moru River. A total of 98 abstraction points were documented within a river section of only 30 km, providing water to about 30,000 people. However, about 97% of the abstracted water is used for irrigation of 9% of the total catchment area. In 2002, about 30% of the annual discharge and 80 to 100% of the low flow discharge of the Naro Moru River was abstracted by furrows, gravity pipes, and pumps. The highland-lowland s ystem of the Upper Ewaso Ng’iro Basin, with Mount Kenya functioning as a crucial water tower, has reached and repeatedly exceeded the limits of water availability in the past decade. In contrast to the heavily decreasing low flow discharge, the mean discharge does not show any decreasing tendency, This is due to higher flood flows, which may be induced by accelerated ruoff generation due to land use change. The present study seeks to support Water Users’ Associations (WUAs, ie self-help initiatives aiming to mitigate conflicts over the allocation of water) by providing them with up-to-date information about demand, supply and use of river water, as well as tools and methods for improving water management. 2251 The effects of watershed urbanization on the stream ˜ hydrology and riparian vegetation of Los Penasquitos Creek, California White M.D. and Greer K.A. Landscape and Urban Planning 2006 74/2 (125-138) We investigated the effects of watershed urbanization on streamflow characteristics and the riparian vegetation community of Los Pe˜nasquitos Creek, in coastal Southern California. We used stream gage records to assess streamflow changes and historic aerial photographs to measure land use and riparian vegetation changes in the watershed. During the period 1966-2000, urban land uses increased from 9% to 37% of the watershed. Over the same time period, median and minimum daily discharges, dryseason runoff, and flood magnitudes in Los Pe˜nasquitos Creek increased significantly. Altered channel geomorphology and a doubling of the area of riparian vegetation accompanied changes in streamflow characteristics. The increased area of impervious surfaces and imported municipal water supplies associated with urbanization in the watershed have driven changes in the historic riparian vegetation community by altering streamflow characteristics and channel geomorphology. Thus, watershed urbanization in coastal Southern California can significantly modify the character and integrity of stream and riparian ecosystems, which has significant implications for their conservation in the light of rapid pace of urbanization in the region. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2252 Anthropogenic impacts on sediment discharge in the dry-hot valleys of SW China - The example of Longchuanjiang Lu X.X., Zhu Y.M. and Zhou Y. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (197-204) The sediment discharge data measured in a dry-hot valley, Longchuanjiang basin in the Lower Jinsha tributary, were analysed with Mann-Kendall, Seasonal Mann-Kendall and Sen’s tests. In the upper reach, water discharge and sediment yield increased by 2.0 and 2.48% per year, respectively, during the period from 1970 to 2001. In the lower reach they increased by 1.95 and 3.94%, respectively. The sediment discharge showed a significant increase (0.05 at Xiaohekou and 0.01 at Xiaohuangguayuan), despite numerous reservoir constructions and insignificant changes in water discharge. This could be attributed to the in- HYDROLOGY tensification of human activities, especially those related to land surface disturbance such as deforestation and afforestation, expansion of agriculture land, and road construction. The increase was more significant in the lower reach of the river due to the dry-hot climate. The profound increase observed in sediment discharge has significant implications for effective management of the on-going Three Gorges reservoir project. 2253 Land-use change and water losses: The case of grassland afforestation across a soil textural gradient in central Argentina Nosetto M.D., Jobb´agy E.G. and Paruelo J.M. Global Change Biology 2005 11/7 (1101-1117) Vegetation changes, particularly those involving transitions between tree- and grassdominated covers, often modify evaporative water losses as a result of plant-mediated shifts in moisture access and demand. Massive afforestation of native grasslands, particularly important in the Southern Hemisphere, may have strong yet poorly quantified effects on the hydrological cycle. We explored water use patterns in Eucalyptus grandis plantations and the native humid grasslands that they replace in Central Argentina. In order to uncover the interactive effects that land cover type, soil texture and climate variability may have on evaporative water losses and water use efficiency, we estimated daily evapotranspiration (ET) in 117 tree plantations and grasslands plots across a soil textural gradient (clay-textured Vertisols to sandy-textured Entisols) using radiometric information from seven Landsat scenes, existing timber productions records, and 13 C measurements in tree stems. Tree plantations had cooler surface temperatures (-5°C on average) and evaporated more water ( + 80% on average) than grasslands at all times and across all sites. Absolute ET differences between grasslands and plantations ranged from
0.6 to 2 mm day-1 and annual upscaling suggested values of
630 and
1150 mm yr1 for each vegetation type, respectively. The temporal variability of ET was significantly lower in plantations compared with grasslands (coefficient of variation 36% vs. 49%). Daily ET increased as the water balance became more positive (accumulated balance for previous 18 days) with a saturation response in grassland vs. a continuous linear increase in plantations, suggesting lower ecophysiological limits to water loss in tree canopies compared with the native vegetation. Plantation ET was more strongly affected by soil texture than grassland ET and peaked in coarse textured sites followed by medium and fine textured sites. Timber productivity as well as 13 C concentration in stems peaked in medium textured sites, indicating lower water use efficiency on extreme textures and suggesting that water limitation was not responsible for productivity declines towards finer and coarser soils. Our study highlighted the key role that vegetation type plays on evapotranspiration and, therefore, in the hydrological cycle. Considering that tree plantations may continue their expansion over grasslands, problematic changes in water management and, perhaps, in local climate can develop from the higher evaporative water losses of tree plantations. © 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Water resources and management 2254 Self-adaptive penalty approach compared with other constraint-handling techniques for pipeline optimization Wu Z.Y. and Walski T. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 2005 131/3 (181-192) Optimal design and rehabilitation of a water distribution system is a constrained nonlinear optimization problem. A penalty function is often employed to transform a constrained into a nonconstrained optimization problem within the framework of a genetic algorithm search. A penalty factor is used for defining the penalty function and calculating the penalty cost for the solutions with constraint violation. Effective penalty factors vary from one optimization model to another. This paper introduces a selfadaptive penalty approach to artificially evolve both the penalty factor and the design solutions. Solution robustness is proposed and quantified, along with solution fitness, for representing the boundary between the infeasible and feasible solutions of a highdimension optimization problem. The solution space of multiple 429 dimensions is mapped onto a 2D space, providing significant insight into the self-adaptive penalty approach, which is compared with other constraint-handling techniques tested on a benchmark example. The results show that this approach is more effective than other penalty methods used for searching for optimal and near-optimal solutions. The self-adaptive penalty approach relieves modelers from tuning the penalty function and facilitates a practical optimization modeling for water distribution design. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management © ASCE. 2255 Geographic information system-based pipeline route selection process Luettinger J. and Clark T. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 2005 131/3 (193-200) The Metropolitan Water District of Salt Lake and Sandy recently began construction of the Point of the Mountain Aqueduct. This 1,524 mm (60 in.) diameter pipeline will convey finished water approximately 9 km (12 mi) through mostly developed areas of two communities. Construction of a large-diameter transmission pipeline through heavily developed cities creates many engineering, construction, and public relations challenges. A geographic information system (GIS)-based route selection process was used to provide a rational basis for narrowing hundreds of potential alternatives into one final alignment corridor. The route selection process was based on construction costs as well as important noncost issues. The use of GIS data and GIS analysis software was critical to the success of this project. The GIS software allowed large amounts of pipeline cost-related data to be collected, stored, and documented for each alignment alternative. It was also used to analyze the network of possible alternatives to quickly determine the optimum route between two points based upon construction costs. This allowed for a logical selection and ranking of alternatives, resulting in one final alignment corridor that was acceptable to all of the stakeholders in the project. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management © ASCE. 2256 Threat assessment of water supply systems using Markov latent effects modeling Tidwell V.C., Cooper J.A. and Silva C.J. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 2005 131/3 (218-227) Recent amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act emphasize efforts toward safeguarding our nation’s water supplies against attack and contamination. Specifically, the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 established requirements for each community water system serving more than 3,300 people to conduct an assessment of the vulnerability of its system to a terrorist attack or other intentional acts. Integral to evaluating system vulnerability is the threat assessment, which is the process by which the credibility of a threat is quantified. Unfortunately, full probabilistic assessment is generally not feasible, since there is insufficient experience and/or data to quantify the associated probabilities. For this reason, an alternative approach is proposed predicated on Markov latent effects (MLE) modeling, which provides a framework for quantifying imprecise subjective metrics through possibilistic or fuzzy mathematics. Here, the MLE approach is introduced and demonstrated within the context of water supply system threat assessment. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management © ASCE. 2257 Simulating exposures to deliberate intrusions into water distribution systems Nilsson K.A., Buchberger S.G. and Clark R.M. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 2005 131/3 (228-236) A well-known network solver (EPANET) and a novel wateruse generator (PRPsym) were linked in Monte Carlo computer experiments to simulate a deliberate biochemical assault on a municipal drinking-water distribution system. The attack was modeled as a steady 6-hour injection delivering 3,600 g of a soluble conservative contaminant to a single node on the main line in a small town. Migration of the contaminant plume was tracked for 55 hours throughout the pipe network, and the cumulative mass loading was computed at four target nodes strategically located on looping links and dead-end branches. This exercise was repeated for 1,000 independent trials to establish a baseline distribution of consumer dose exposures at the target nodes. A battery of simulation experiments was then performed to examine the sensitivity 430 HYDROLOGY of the nodal load distributions to various system characteristics and water-use patterns. Results show that variability in the total mass load received at a node can be apportioned between the variability in the water-use volume and variability in the mean delivered concentration. Overall, however, the operation of the network storage tank had the greatest influence on the nodal mass loadings. This study demonstrates that Monte Carlo techniques are a useful tool for simulating the dynamic performance of a municipal drinking-water supply system, provided that a calibrated model of realistic network operations is available. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management © ASCE. 2258 Sensor placement in municipal water networks Berry J.W., Fleischer L., Hart W.E. et al. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 2005 131/3 (237-243) We present a model for optimizing the placement of sensors in municipal water networks to detect maliciously injected contaminants. An optimal sensor configuration minimizes the expected fraction of the population at risk. We formulate this problem as a mixed-integer program, which can be solved with generally available solvers. We find optimal sensor placements for three test networks with synthetic risk and population data. Our experiments illustrate that this formulation can be solved relatively quickly and that the predicted sensor configuration is relatively insensitive to uncertainties in the data used for prediction. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management © ASCE. 2259 Emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from tropical plant species in India Padhy P.K. and Varshney C.K. Chemosphere 2005 59/11 (16431653) Foliar emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from common Indian plant species was measured. Dynamic flow enclosure technique was used and the gas samples were collected onto Tenax-GC/Carboseive cartridges. The Tenax-GC/Carboseive cartridges were attached to the thermal disorber sample injection system and the gas sample was analysed using gas chromatography (GC) with flame ionisation detection (FID). Fifty-one local plant species were screened, out of which 36 species were found to emit VOC (4 high emitter; 28 moderate emitter; and 4 lowemitter), while in the remaining 15 species no VOC emission was detected or the levels of emission were below detection limit (BDL). VOC emission was found to vary from one species to another. There was a marked seasonal and diurnal variation in VOC emission. The minimum and maximum VOC emission values were <0.1 and 87 g g-1 dry leaf h -1 in Ficus infectoria and Lantana camara respectively. Out of the 51 plant species studied, 13 species are reported here for the first time. Among the nine tree species (which were selected for detailed study), the highest average hourly emission (9.69 8.39 g g-1 dry leaf) was observed in Eucalyptus species and the minimum in Syzygium jambolanum (1.89 2.48 g g-1 dry leaf). An attempt has been made to compare VOC emission from different plant species between present study and the literature (tropical and other regions). © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2260 Phreatophytic vegetation and groundwater fluctuations: A review of current research and application of ecosystem response modeling with an emphasis on great basin vegetation Naumburg E., Mata- Gonzalez R., Hunter R.G. et al. Environmental Management 2005 35/6 (726-740) Although changes in depth to groundwater occur naturally, anthropogenic alterations may exacerbate these fluctuations and, thus, affect vegetation reliant on groundwater. These effects include changes in physiology, structure, and community dynamics, particularly in arid regions where groundwater can be an important water source for many plants. To properly manage ecosystems subject to changes in depth to groundwater, plant responses to both rising and falling groundwater tables must be understood. However, most research has focused exclusively on riparian ecosystems, ignoring regions where groundwater is available to a wider range of species. Here, we review responses of riparian and other species to changes in groundwater levels in arid environments. Although decreasing water tables often result in plant water stress and reduced live biomass, the converse is not necessarily true for rising water tables. Initially, rising water tables kill flooded roots because most species cannot tolerate the associated low oxygen levels. Thus, flooded plants can also experience water stress. Ultimately, individual species responses to either scenario depend on drought and flooding tolerance and the change in root system size and water uptake capacity. However, additional environmental and biological factors can play important roles in the severity of vegetation response to altered groundwater tables. Using the reviewed information, we created two conceptual models to highlight vegetation dynamics in areas with groundwater fluctuations. These models use flow charts to identify key vegetation and ecosystem properties and their responses to changes in groundwater tables to predict community responses. We then incorporated key concepts from these models into EDYS, a comprehensive ecosystem model, to highlight the potential complexity of predicting community change under different fluctuating groundwater scenarios. Such models provide a valuable tool for managing vegetation and groundwater use in areas where groundwater is important to both plants and humans, particularly in the context of climate change. © 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2261 Multilevel approach for optimizing land and water resources and irrigation deliveries for tertiary units in large irrigation schemes. I: Method Smout I.K. and Gorantiwar S.D. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 2005 131/3 (254-263) This paper presents the area and water allocation model (AWAM), which incorporates deficit irrigation for optimizing the use of water for irrigation. This model was developed for surface irrigation schemes in semiarid regions under rotational water supply. It allocates the land area and water optimally to the different crops grown in different types of soils up to the tertiary level or allocation unit. The model has four phases. In the first phase, all the possible irrigation strategies are generated for each crop-soil-region combination. The second phase prepares the irrigation program for each strategy, taking into account the response of the crop to the water deficit. The third phase selects the optimal and efficient irrigation programs. In the fourth phase of the model, irrigation programs are modified by incorporating the conveyance and the distribution efficiencies. These irrigation programs are then used for allocating the land and water resources and preparing the water release schedule for the canal network. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering © ASCE. 2262 Multilevel approach for optimizing land and water resources and irrigation deliveries for tertiary units in large irrigation schemes. II: Application Gorantiwar S.D. and Smout I.K. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 2005 131/3 (264-272) The resource allocation model, area and water allocation model, incorporates the concept of deficit irrigation through a variable depth irrigation approach, VDI. It uses this to allocate land and water resources optimally to different crops in a heterogeneous irrigation scheme with limited water under rotational water supply. This model was applied to a medium irrigation scheme in India as a case study, to obtain the land and water allocation plans. These optimal allocation plans were compared to those obtained by using the model with the existing approach (full irrigation with a fixed irrigation interval of 21 days in Rabi and 14 days in the summer season). The allocation plans were obtained taking into account the different parameters that were included in the model, such as crops and cropping pattern, soils, irrigation interval, initial reservoir storage volumes, efficiencies, and the outlet and canal capacities. The total net benefits were compared for the two cases of fixed cropping distribution and free cropping distribution and a sensitivity analysis was conducted on other parameters. Summaries of the allocation plans with the VDI approach are presented for the two cases. The total net benefits obtained with the VDI approach introduced in the model were found to be 22% higher than those obtained with the existing approach. The results of this study are thus indicative of the benefits of deficit irrigation and its application within irrigation schemes that have limited water supply. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering © ASCE. HYDROLOGY 2263 A case study of the anthropogenic impact on the catchment of Mogyor´od-brook, Hungary Nagy Zs. and Jung A. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 2005 30/8-10 (588-597) The achievement of the good ecological status of surface waters has become obligatory due to the European Water Framework Directive in all European countries. In water management plans required by the directive, all human impacts on the aquatic environment shall be quantified and evaluated. For this purpose watershed related assessment methods are needed. The aim of the study is to present the watershed condition of Mogyor´od-brook located in the North surrounding of Hungarian capital, through its ecological and chemical condition in the light of 60/2000/EC Directive. This paper presents more the methodological aspects of the work, which aim is to test regulations on River Basin Management Plan-creations on a smaller watershed area (on the watershed area of Mogyor´od-brook), than punctual results. The field investigation and regulation reviews have already begun, but have not been finished yet (expected by 2005 summer). The used method is based on water sampling and Riparian, Channel and Environmental Inventory. Historical outlook was detected out by investigation of water engineering plans. The main goals of the paper are to present the question of implementation of the directive in meso-scale level and to search the possibility of adaptation of different methods for complex evaluation. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2264 Are we scorpions? The role of upstream-downstream dialogue in fostering cooperation in the Nile Basin Mason S.A. Mountain Research and Development 2005 25/2 (115-120) Water consumed upstream does not flow downstream. Consequently, upstream-down-stream relations along a shared river may entail competitive use or even shared conflict. What is the role of communication in preventing or transforming such behavior? The present article addresses this question based on lessons learned in 3 Dialogue Workshops carried out between 2002 and 2004 in the Eastern Nile Basin, with participants from Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan. It indicates that the danger of upstream-downstream relations is not primarily "scorpionlike" behavior (damaging an opponent), but rather "ostrich-like" behavior (burying one’s head in the sand, ignoring unilateral developments). Dialogue is shown to be a key determinant in rectifying this situation, as it is the basis for trust-building, exchange of information, and development of mutually acceptable management options. Other key factors to be considered are the balance of power between high land-lowland actors and the legal/ institutional framework governing their interaction. 2265 Assessing and managing scarce tropical mountain water resources: The case of Mount Kenya and the semiarid Upper Ewaso Ng’iro Basin Liniger H., Gikonyo J., Kiteme B. and Wiesmann U. Mountain Research and Development 2005 25/2 (163-173) Mountains play a crucial role in the supply of freshwater to humankind, in highland and lowland areas alike. Increasing demand urgently requires careful management of mountain water resources in order to mitigate growing water crises and conflicts. Monitored river flow was analyzed for 3 selected catchments (Timau, Burguret, and Likii) on the slopes of Mount Kenya from 1960 to 2004, In the 10 years from 1995 to 2004, the extreme low flow (Q95) of the rivers was found to have been reduced to 10%, 23%, and 71%, respectively, of the values for the decade from 1961 to 1970. Water awareness creation campaigns in 1997 and 2004 revealed that the number of abstraction points had more than doubled, and that there was a two- to eightfold increase in the amount of river water abstracted. The present article documents increasing water abstraction and the difficulties in establishing limits for low flows such as the Q80 value (flow available on 80% of the days per year). The article also presents the role of Water Users’ Associations (WUAs) in mitigating water conflicts related to over-abstraction. Evaluation of the activities of 13 WUAs showed that they solved 45 of 52 conflicts. WUAs are also involved in activities such as environmental education, awareness creation, improved irrigation practices, afforestation, and regulating water. The recent restructuring of the government ministry resulted in a formalized role for WUAs. Long-term 431 data on availability, abstraction, and use of water are needed to mitigate water conflicts within and between WUAs, negotiate water allocation, and establish allocation thresholds. 2266 Hydrological issues associated with the determination of environmental water requirements of ephemeral rivers Hughes D.A. River Research and Applications 2005 21/8 (899908) The paper reviews the generic characteristics of ephemeral rivers compared with seasonal and perennial systems in the context of southern Africa. The difficulties of estimating the natural characteristics of ephemeral systems are discussed as well as the difficulties of estimating the impacts of water resource management strategies. Many of the problems are associated with the potentially discontinuous occurrence of flow in both time and space and the fact that static pools, as well as flowing water, may be of ecological importance. The most obvious impact of water resource developments on ephemeral rivers may be a reduction in the number and size of flow events. However, delays in the onset of flow in seasonal rivers and changes in the duration, quantity and quality of in-channel pool storage may be of equal importance. In a number of South African ephemeral channels the major impacts have been caused by the importation of water from elsewhere and a consequent reduction in streamflow variability. The paper suggests that there are a number of gaps in the understanding of the hydrology of ephemeral rivers, but perhaps more importantly, in the methods that are available to supply the type of information required by ecological specialists to be able to determine ecological water requirements under managed flow situations. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2267 From knowledge to action: Lessons and planning strategies from studies of the upper San Pedro basin McSherry L., Steiner F., Ozkeresteci I. and Panickera S. Landscape and Urban Planning 2006 74/2 (81-101) This paper summarizes a project that analyzed previous research undertaken in the upper San Pedro basin of Arizona (USA) and Sonora (M´exico). Various groups had undertaken the previous research over the past decade. A literature review and an e-mail survey resulted in a list of 10 lessons for watershed planning research as well as suggested watershed planning strategies. 2268 Ecology, planning, and river management in the United States: Some historical reflections Reuss M. Ecology and Society 2005 10/1 (11p) River ecologists are also river-basin planners. However, their role in planning has developed slowly over the decades since the beginning of the 20th century. Three major factors explain this phenomenon. First, ecologists focused on plant and animal communities rather than on broader policy issues related to land settlement and water development. Second, the federal government, and most state and local governments as well, used mainly economic criteria to justify projects. Intangible benefits, including the value of species or an aesthetically pleasing landscape, drew relatively little attention. Third, the public generally favored development, especially during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Only after World War II did the public’s position shift in favor of more preservation, as ecologists developed the concept of the ecosystem, large dam projects forced basin inhabitants from their homes, and chemical and nuclear pollutants threatened the environment. Also, urbanization increased support for the preservation of recreation sites and of streams undisturbed by human intervention. Meanwhile, partly through important advances in geomorphology and hydrology, ecologists acquired new tools to understand the land-water relationship within river basins. Neverthless, benefit-cost analysis continued to dominate federal water-resources planning, and organizational culture and competing or overlapping bureaucracies hampered rational water resources administration. Environmental groups and physical, natural, and even social scientists began to promote alternative ways to develop rivers. Today, the ideas of integrated water resources management, sustainable development, and comprehensive river-basin management dominate much of the thinking about the future course of river planning in the United States. Any future planning must include ecologists who can help their planning colleagues choose from among rational choices that balance 432 HYDROLOGY ecological and human demands, provide advice when planning guidance is drafted, assist engineers in designing projects that lead to ecologically responsible solutions, and help monitor results. Copyright © 2005 by the author(s). 2269 Metropolitan Board approves agreement for groundwater storage project in Eastern Los Angeles County World Dredging, Mining and Construction 2005 41/9 (27) The Metropolitan Board has signed a 25-year agreement with the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California to fund a groundwater project which will store nearly 1.08B gal. for eastern Los Angeles County cities and communities. The project will receive nearly US$1.23M of the $45M Metropolitan given by the state from 2000’s Proposition 13 to help develop the project. Three Valleys, which serve an area spanning the Pomona and Walnut valleys, and the eastern portion of the San Gabriel Valley, will provide $1.45M to the $2.68M project. The agreement permits to store upto 3000 ac. ft of water in the Upper Claremont Heights Basin during wet periods and withdraw 1,000 ac.-ft for three consecutive years for dry spells, draught or emergencies. The Three Valley project requires a new well to be constructed in Claremont, and a pipeline to the nearby San Antonio Spreading Grounds. 2270 Downstream effects of river impoundment on hydrological and geomorphological aspects of bedrock rivers (Golan Heights, Israel) Shtober- Zisu N. and Inbar M. IAHS-AISH Publication 2005 -/299 (217-222) Construction of dams along rivers affects the hydrological regime and the geomorphology. Two similar catchments were analysed: the impounded Daliyyot River (with impounded runoff index IR = 37%) and the nonimpounded Meshushim River (IR = 1%). In the impounded basin, the specific average peak discharge and the annual average water volume discharge decreased by more than 50%; the recurrence interval time period increased for highest peak flows and the bankfull flow area decreased as peak discharges fell. Minor geomorphic changes occurred in the morphological cross sections only after major floods, with a recurrence interval of 1:5 years for the Meshushim River and 1:20 years. Small ponds downstream of the dams were partially filled with fine sediments. 2271 Decision support system for reservoir water management conflict resolution Rajasekaram V. and Nandalal K.D.W. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 2005 131/6 (410-419) A decision support system for reservoir water management conflict resolution (RWM-CRSS) in a multipurpose single reservoir system has been developed. The system consists of a communication system, a database management system, and a model-base management system. A new approach is used in developing the communication system, in which the use of artificial intelligence markup language facilitates the task of developing human-like communication between the stakeholders and the system. Tools that are common to analyze a multipurpose single reservoir system are provided in the model-base management system. RWMCRSS is designed to handle conflict between two groups who have on-demand water requirements for irrigation, drinking water, hydropower generation, or minimizing flood damage. A hypothetical scenario of irrigation versus drinking water supply is demonstrated. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management © ASCE. 2272 Restoration of pastureland ecosystems: Case study of Western Inner Mongolia Liu H., Cai X., Geng L. and Zhong H. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 2005 131/6 (420-430) Western Inner Mongolia is located in the downstream area of the Hei River Basin, the second largest inland basin in China. Since the 1960s, water depletion in the basin has increased very rapidly due to intensive irrigation development in the middle stream area of the Basin. As a result, the downstream Erjina Oasis gradually receded and the destination inland lake disappeared. In the late 1990s, the Chinese government initialized activities for the ecological restoration of the region, including annual flow releases to downstream by administrative order. These releases have con- tained further degradation of the ecosystem. The challenge that needs to be addressed now is how the short-term administered flow releases can be converted into sustainable water management practices. In particular, research on the determination of environmental flow requirement and livestock carrying capacity will be important for decision making support in the sustainable development of the region. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management © ASCE. 2273 Case study: Multicriteria assessment of drought mitigation measures Rossi G., Cancelliere A. and Giuliano G. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 2005 131/6 (449-457) The proactive approach to drought management is based on measures devised and implemented before, during, and after the drought event, according to a planning strategy rather than within an emergency framework. The measures taken before the initiation of a drought event consist of long-term measures oriented to improve the reliability of the water supply system to meet future demands under drought conditions. The measures taken after a drought is forecasted or starts are short-term measures that try to mitigate the impacts of the particular drought on the basis of a contingency plan. Selection of the preferable mix of long-term and short-term measures can be accomplished through multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA), which enables the comparison of alternatives on the basis of appropriate quantitative and/or qualitative assessment criteria. In this paper, a methodology for the assessment of drought mitigation measures based on a combined use of simulation models and MCDA is applied to a water supply system located in eastern Sicily, Italy. The system comprises two reservoirs and several diversion dams and hydropower plants, and its main uses are irrigation and municipal water supply. First, a simulation model is applied to evaluate the effects of several drought mitigation alternatives consisting of a mix of long- and short-term measures. Then, MCDA is applied to rank the different alternatives on the basis of economic, environmental, and social criteria, taking into account the process of coalition formation among stakeholders on the basis of their different point of view. The results confirm the applicability of the proposed multicriteria methodology for a transparent comparison of drought mitigation measures to be adopted as a support for the decision making process. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management © ASCE. 2274 Incorporating research results into wetland management: Lessons from recovery catchments in saline landscapes Halse S.A. and Massenbauer T. Hydrobiologia 2005 552/1 (3344) Use of science in wetland management has increased considerably over the last 50 years but there is still scope for improving the transfer of research results into management. Issues that lead to less than optimal transfer include: (1) managers not accessing existing technical information adequately, (2) researchers addressing issues of peripheral importance to management rather than key information needs, (3) managers failing to identify significant information gaps and to resource appropriate research in a timely way, (4) scale of research and certainty of results being inappropriate for application to broad-scale situations by managers responsible for outcomes, and (5) funding bodies not fully recognizing that transfer of research results to management requires a development phase. Establishment of recovery catchments in the Western Australian wheatbelt, with the aim of maintaining regional biodiversity in the face of increasing dryland salinisation, is a program that relies on transferring research results into management. However, the multi-disciplinary nature of managing salinisation is a challenge for many catchment managers and formal management systems are probably an important adjunct to close knowledge of the catchment when making management decisions. An examination of management planning and actions in the Lake Warden Natural Diversity Recovery Catchment, south-west Western Australia, highlights the continuum between research and management, the importance of understanding the physical environment when managing biodiversity, and the fact that much wetland conservation relies on management action in terrestrial landscapes. © Springer 2005. HYDROLOGY 2275 A common parched future? Research and management of Australian arid-zone floodplain wetlands Jenkins K.M., Boulton A.J. and Ryder D.S. Hydrobiologia 2005 552/1 (57-73) Wetlands in arid and semi-arid areas face intensifying pressure for their water resources yet harbour unique biota and ecological processes that rely on the "boom and bust" regime of alternating flood and drought. Recent research in Australia has revealed that models of ecosystem processes derived from northern temperate zone wetlands are often inapplicable to arid zone wetlands, confounding efforts to manage or protect these threatened habitats. We review four case studies from inland Australia that demonstrate different degrees of successful management, aiming to draw out lessons learned that will improve our sustainable use of these delicate systems. Inappropriate extrapolation across scales that ignores the inherent spatial and temporal variability of aridzone wetlands, "reactive" rather than "collaborative" research and management, and a reluctance to adopt functional indicators to complement state variables are several common themes. We are optimistic that managers and researchers are collaborating to tackle these issues but warn that a parched future faces some wetlands where jurisdictional boundaries hamper their effective management or entrenched beliefs and community distrust of managers threaten ecologically sustainable resource use. In arid areas where water is so precious, environmental allocations are costly and their long-term effects are difficult to identify against a backdrop of high inherent variability. Preservation of this variability is the key to successful management of these "boom and bust" systems but diametrically opposes the desire for regulated, reliable water supplies for human use. Social and institutional acceptance and change now appear to be greater barriers than limited ecological understanding to effective management of many "parched wetlands" in Australia. © Springer 2005. 2276 The effects of an environmental flow release on water quality in the hyporheic zone of the Hunter River, Australia Hancock P.J. and Boulton A.J. Hydrobiologia 2005 552/1 (75-85) Environmental flow releases have been advocated as a useful rehabilitation strategy for improving river condition but assessments of their success have typically focused on surface water quality and biota. In this study, we investigated the impacts of an environmental flow release on water temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, and nitrate concentrations in surface and subsurface (hyporheic) water at upwelling and downwelling zones in three sites along the Hunter River, New South Wales, Australia. We hypothesised that the flow pulse would ‘flush’ the sediments with oxygenated water, stimulating hyporheic microbial activity and nitrification, enhancing nitrate concentrations over time. Surface and subsurface samples were collected before, 7 days after, and 49 days after an environmental flow release of 5000 Ml for a period of 3 days. No lasting effects on dissolved oxygen or conductivity were evident at most sites although dissolved oxygen declined over time at the downwelling site at Bowmans Crossing. At the downwelling zones at all sites, hyporheic nitrate concentrations declined initially following the release, but then rose or leveled off by Day 49. This initial drop in concentration was attributed to flushing of nitrate from the sediments. At two sites, nitrate concentrations had increased by Day 49 in the upwelling zones while at the third site, it fell significantly, associated with very low dissolved oxygen and likely reductive loss of nitrate. Electrical conductivity data indicate that potential inputs of agriculturally enriched groundwater may contribute to the nitrogen dynamics of the Hunter River. This study highlights the spatial heterogeneity that occurs in the hyporheic zone within and among sites of a regulated river, and emphasises the need for multiple-site surveys and an understanding of groundwater dynamics to assess physicochemical responses of the hyporheic zone to environmental flow releases. © Springer 2005. 2277 Nitrogen spiraling in subsurface-flow constructed wetlands: Implications for treatment response Kadlec R.H., Tanner C.C., Hally V.M. and Gibbs M.M. Ecological Engineering 2005 25/4 (365-381) Nitrogen processing in treatment wetlands was investigated by use of the stable isotope 15 N introduced as ammonium. Two small field-scale, gravel-bed wetlands with horizontal subsurface-flow (SSF) received primary meat processing water. Four 433 SSF cascade mesocosms, each comprising five tanks in series, received primary meat processing water, primary dairy water, secondary dairy water or aerated secondary dairy water. The mesocosms and one of the field-scale wetland contained well-established bulrushes (Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani), and the other field-scale wetland remained unvegetated. The systems were operated at steady inflows, with a nominal detention times of 4-5 days. The incoming ammonium nitrogen ranged from 18.5 to 177 g m-3 , and removals ranged from 15 to 90% for the various feed waters. Each system was dosed with a single pulse of 15 N ammonium mixed into the feed wastewater, and the fate and transport of the isotopic nitrogen were determined. The 15 N pulses took 120 days to clear the heavily loaded fieldscale wetlands. During this period small reductions in 15 N were attributable to nitrification/denitrification, and a larger reduction due to plant uptake. Mesocosm tests ran for 24 days, during which only 1-16% of the tracer exited with water, increasing with N loading. Very little tracer gas emission was found (
1%). The majority of the tracer was found in plants (6-48%) and sediments (28-37%). These results indicated a rapid absorption of ammonium into a large sediment storage pool, of which only a small proportion was denitrified during the period of the experiment. Plant uptake claimed a fraction of the ammonium, determined mainly by the plants requirement for growth rather than the magnitude of the nitrogen supply. A rapid return of ammonium to the water was also found, so that movement of 15 N through the wetland mesocosms was comprised of a spiral of uptake and release along the flow path. A two compartment model was found to reasonably represent the isotope progress through the wetlands. First order exchanges and removals were employed in dynamic mass balances on water and solids. It is concluded that interpretation of nitrogen dynamics in wetlands must include the nitrogen spiral through the wetland, as well as plant uptake. This greatly increases the N residence time in treatment wetlands relative to the hydraulic detention time, resulting in long delays of treatment system response to changes in N loading and attenuation of short-term fluctuations in loading. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2278 Wetland remediation of cyanide and hydrocarbons Gessner T.P., Kadlec R.H. and Reaves R.P. Ecological Engineering 2005 25/4 (457-469) Cyanide is a common constituent present in groundwater from historical aluminum industry landfills. Aluminum manufacturing produces wastes which contain cyanide, together with fluoride, a variety of metals, and some petroleum hydrocarbons. These leachates pose a moderate threat to receiving ecosystems and human health. Source control is virtually impossible, and physico-chemical removal processes are expensive and energy intensive. This pilot project investigated the use of free water surface wetlands for the reduction of complex and free cyanide and associated pollutants in water from a groundwater spring. Shallow basins, initially planted with cattail (Typha latifolia) and bulrush (Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani), subsequently converted to coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) and pondweed (Potamageton spp.). Both total and free cyanide were effectively reduced during 7 d detention, by 56% and 88%, respectively. Gasoline range organics and diesel range organics were reduced by approximately 67%. These removals are lower bound estimates, because effluent concentrations were often below detection. First order areal removal rate constants were in the range 13-100 m/year for the various constituents. Preliminary, synoptic studies indicated little volatilization of the cyanide, but significant microbial degradation, and essentially no harmful byproducts. The full-scale treatment wetland is entering the final design stages and is scheduled for construction in 2004. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2279 Land subsidence in China Xue Y.- Q., Zhang Y., Ye S.- J. et al. Environmental Geology 2005 48/6 (713-720) Land subsidence in China occurs in different regions. It is primarily caused by excessive groundwater withdrawal. Other reasons for the subsidence include the oil, warm groundwater withdrawal and the neotectonic movement. The common characteristics of land subsidence in China are slow, accumulative, irreversible, 434 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY and other unique properties. The range of subsidence still keeps extending and the accumulative subsidence increasing though some measures taken. Adjustment of the aquifer exploitation practice is a subsidiary way to control land subsidence, but it cannot solve this problem completely. In a specfic way of groundwater changing, the contribution of a certain soil layer to the total subsidence depends on its compressibility and thickness. Besides the elasticity, both cohesive soil layers (aquitards) and sand layers (aquifers) are observed to be plastic and creep when the groundwater level fluctuates in a specific way, which often leads to subsidence delay. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2280 Identifying sources of groundwater recharge in the Merguellil basin (Tunisia) using isotopic methods: Implication of dam reservoir water accounting Dassi L., Zouari K. and Faye S. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (114-123) Thirty-two groundwater samples collected from the Merguellil Wadi basin (central Tunisia) complemented by the Haouareb dam reservoir water samples have been isotopically analysed in order to investigate the implication of the reservoir water to recharging the aquifer, and also to infer the sources, relative ages and mixing processes in the aquifer system. Plots of the stable isotopes data against the local meteoric lines of Tunis-Carthage and Sfax indicate a strong implication of the dam water noticeable up to a distance of 6-7 km. A contribution as much as 80% of the pumped water has been evidenced using isotopic mass balance. In addition, poorly distinguished water clusters in the stable isotope plots, but clearly identified in the diagrams 18 O versus 3 H and 3 H versus 14 C, indicate various water types related to sources and timing of recharge. The isotopic signatures of the dam accounting water, the "old" and "native" recharged waters, have been evidenced in relation to their geographical distribution and also to their radiogenic isotopes (3 H and 14 C) contents. In the south-western part of the aquifer, mixing process occurs between the dam reservoir water and both the "old" and "native" water components. © Springer-Verlag 2005. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY Instrumentation 2281 Estimating octanol-air partition coefficients with octanol-water partition coefficients and Henry’s law constants Meylan W.M. and Howard P.H. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (640644) The octanol-air partition coefficient (KOA ) is useful for predicting the partitioning behavior of organic compounds between air and environmental matrices such as soil, vegetation, and aerosol particles. At present, experimentally determined KOA values are available for only several hundred compounds. Therefore, the ability to estimate KOA is necessary for screening level evaluation of most chemicals. Although it is possible to estimate KOA from the octanol-water partition coefficient (KOW ) and Henry’s law constant (HLC), various concerns have been raised in regard to the usability of this estimation methodology. This work examines the accuracy and usability of KOW and HLC in application to a comprehensive database set of KOA values for screening level environmental assessment. Results indicate that KOW and HLC can be used to accurately predict KOA even when estimated KOW and HLC values are used. For an experimental dataset of 310 log KOA values for different compounds, the KOW -HLC method was statistically accurate as follows: correlation coefficient (r2 ): 0.972, standard deviation: 0.526, absolute mean error: 0.358 using predominantly experimental KOW and HLC values. When KOW and HLC values were estimated (using the KOWWIN and HENRYWIN programs), the statistical accuracy was: correlation coefficient (r2 ): 0.957, standard deviation: 0.668, absolute mean error: 0.479. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2282 A cautionary note on the use of error bars Lanzante J.R. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3699-3703) Climate studies often involve comparisons between estimates of some parameter derived from different observed and/or modelgenerated datasets. It is common practice to present estimates of two or more statistical quantities with error bars about each representing a confidence interval. If the error bars do not overlap, it is presumed that there is a statistically significant difference between them. In general, such a procedure is not valid and usually results in declaring statistical significance too infrequently. Simple examples that demonstrate the nature of this pitfall, along with some formulations, are presented. It is recommended that practitioners use standard hypothesis testing techniques that have been derived from statistical theory rather than the ad hoc approach involving error bars. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2283 On sampling errors in empirical orthogonal functions Quadrelli R., Bretherton C.S. and Wallace J.M. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3704-3710) A perturbation analysis is carried out to quantify the eigenvector errors due to the mixing with other eigenvectors that occur when empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs) are computed for a finite-size data sample. Explicit forms are provided for the second-order eigenvalue error and first-order eigenvector error. The eigenvector sampling error depends monotonically on the ratio of the lower to the higher eigenvalues that mix. The relationship to the eigenvalue separation criterion of North et al. is discussed. The eigenvector error formula i s applied to quantify sampling errors for the leading EOF of the Northern Hemisphere wintertime geopotential height at various pressure levels, and it is found that the smallest sampling error in the troposphere occurs for the sea level pressure EOF. The errors in the 500hPa height EOFs are almost twice as large. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2284 Bimodality of the planetary-scale atmospheric wave amplitude index Christiansen B. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2528-2541) The evidence for multiple flow regimes in the planetary-scale atmospheric wave amplitude index (WAI) is studied using the 56 winters from the NCEP reanalysis data. The regimes are identified by bimodality in the probability density estimates. Both the probability density of the WAI alone and the probability density in the two-dimensional space spanned by the WAI and its temporal rate of change are examined. The latter procedure allows us to exploit the quasi stationarity of the regimes and increase the statistical significance. The statistical significance of bimodality in the probability densities is tested by a Monte Carlo approach using surrogate time series that preserve the full autocorrelation spectrum of the original WAI. By using a longer dataset and including the rate of change, some of the questions raised in previous studies about the robustness and statistical significance of the bimodality of the WAI are resolved. Statistically significant bimodality is found in the WAI based on the 500-hPa height. The probability density of the WAI shows considerable low-frequency variability on decadal scales. However, the bimodality is reproduced in all decadal subperiods although without statistical significance. The last decade has been dominated by a strong (disturbed) regime while a weak (zonal) regime dominates the previous decades. This recent change toward the disturbed regime is statistically significant. Imprints of the regimes are found at other tropospheric levels including the sea level. In particular, the regimes are found with statistical significance in the WAI based on the sea level pressure for the subperiod 19792003. Systematically varying the upper and lower boundaries of the latitudinal interval over which the geopotential height is averaged shows that the bimodality of the WAI is rather sensitive to these parameters, but also that statistically significant bimodality is found for a range of intervals with the lower boundary at 45°-50°N. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2285 A stochastic model for the angular momentum budget of latitude belts Egger J. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (25922601) The stochastic model of Weickmann et al. for the global angular momentum budget is modified to become applicable to latitude METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 435 belts. In particular, a Langevin equation is added for the flux divergence of angular momentum in a belt. The friction torque Tf is assumed to be purely damping with respect to angular momentum M. The mountain torque To is generated by red noise but also damps angular momentum directly as suggested by recent stochastic models. The model parameters are tuned such that the variances of all model variables come close to the observations. The corresponding equations for the covariance functions of all variables are solved analytically. The results are compared to observations for selected belts. It is found that the model captures the observed decay rates of all covariance functions. The covariance of the flux divergence and the angular momentum is simulated successfully for positive lags but rarely for negative ones. The covariance of friction torque and angular momentum is reproduced reasonably well. The model is also successful with respect to the covariance of mountain torque and M in the Tropics, but there are large discrepancies at midlatitudes because the observed mountain torque events are accompanied by flux divergences in these belts. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. through the slits in its sides. The effect of suction on the flow field is twofold. First, at the Reynolds numbers that the thermometer is operated suction eliminates aerodynamic disturbances. Second, suction diverts the inner part of the boundary layer into the slit. This inner part is a region of strong shear and, therefore, a region where intensive viscous heating takes place. When the suction is on much of the air that is heated in the boundary layer in the front part of the shield is removed through the slits and never reaches the sensor. To study the role of the shield with suction and confirm its chosen shape, two-dimensional (2D) direct numerical simulations (DNSs) are performed of the airflow and of the trajectories of droplets of various sizes and initial positions. The influence on the temperature distribution of the irreversible dissipation of energy due to air viscosity is also examined. This is found to have a small but measurable effect. The effects associated with sampling and processing of the analog signal obtained from the sensing wire are discussed. The results herein quantitatively explain the nature of the measured aerodynamic noise. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2286 A refinement of the Millionshchikov quasi-normality hypothesis for convective boundary layer turbulence Gryanik V.M., Hartmann J., Raasch S. and Schr¨oter M. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2632-2638) The Millionshchikov hypothesis of quasi-normal distribution of fourth-order moments fails for convective conditions where the probability density functions of temperature and vertical velocity fluctuations are skewed. This is shown for aircraft and large-eddy simulation (LES) data, and new closures for fourth-order moments that take the skewness into account are suggested. These new closures are in very good agreement with the data. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2290 An introduction to the near-real-time QuikSCAT data Hoffman R.N. and Leidner S.M. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (476-493) The NASA Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) satellite carries the Sea Winds instrument, the first satellite-borne scanning radar scatterometer. QuikSCAT, which was launched on 19 June 1999, is designed to provide accurate ocean surface winds in all conditions except for moderate to heavy rain (i.e., except for vertically integrated rain rate >2.0 km mm h-1 , the value used to tune the Sea Winds rain flag). QuikSCAT data are invaluable in providing high-quality, high-resolution winds to detect and locate precisely significant meteorological features and to produce accurate ocean surface wind analyses. QuikSCAT has an 1800-km-wide swath. A representative swath of data in the North Atlantic at 2200 UTC 28 September 2000, which contains several interesting features, reveals some of the capabilities of QuikSCAT. Careful quality control is vital for flagging data that are affected by rain and for flagging errors during ambiguity removal. In addition, an understanding of the instrument and algorithm characteristics provides insights into the factors controlling data quality for QuikSCAT. For example data quality is reduced for low wind speeds, and for locations either close to nadir or to the swath edges. The special data characteristics of the QuikSCAT scatterometer are revealed by examining the likelihood or objective function. The objective function is equal to the sum of squared scaled differences between observed and simulated normalized reflected radar power. The authors present typical examples and discuss the associated data quality concerns for different parts of the swath, for different wind speeds, and for rain versus no rain. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2287 A new scaling for tornado-like vortices Nolan D.S. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2639-2645) A new approach is presented for the nondimensionalization of the Navier-Stokes equations for tornado-like vortices. This scaling is based on the results of recent numerical simulations and physical reasoning. The method clarifies and unifies the results of numerous earlier studies that used numerical simulations of axisymmetric incompressible flow to study tornadoes. Some examples are presented. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2288 Correction of the bright band using dual-polarisation radar Rico- Ramirez M.A., Cluckie I.D. and Han D. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (40-46) This article presents an algorithm to correct the increase in reflectivity in the melting layer using weather radars. The correction starts with a fuzzy logic system (FLS) to classify rain, snow and melting snow using the reflectivity factor, the differential reflectivity, the linear depolarisation ratio and the height of the measurement from the ground surface. Using the output of the FLS, a correction is performed on the bright band contaminated reflectivity data assuming an idealised vertical reflectivity profile typical from stratiform precipitation and obtained from a considerable number of observations at S-band frequencies. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2289 Theoretical and experimental characterization of the ultrafast aircraft thermometer: Reduction of aerodynamic disturbances and signal processing Rosa B., Bajer K., Haman K.E. and Szoplik T. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (988-1003) The ultrafast aircraft thermometer, built for measuring temperature in clouds at flight speeds up to 100 ms-1 , employs a 2.5m-thick platinum-coated tungsten wire as a sensing element. When temperature increases, the wire resistance increases. The changes are amplified by an electronic system. Temperature measurements made in a wind tunnel and during flights show noise that is related to the von K´arm´an vortex street generated behind the shield that protects the sensing element against the impact of cloud droplets. To reduce both the level of turbulence and the amount of water collected on the shield, suction is applied 2291 Evaluation of three model estimations of solar radiation at 24 UK stations Rivington M., Bellocchi G., Matthews K.B. and Buchan K. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (228-243) Meteorological station records often consist only of precipitation and air temperature data. There is therefore a need for appropriate methods to estimate solar radiation data to enable complete data set creation, by combining observed and estimated data. It is important to know the quality and characteristics of the estimates made in order to understand what impacts the data may have on the use to which they are put. This paper describes a detailed evaluation of the performance and characteristic behaviour of two air temperature based models and one sunshine duration conversion method of estimating solar radiation, for 24 meteorological stations in Britain. Comparisons were made using a fuzzy-logic based multiple-indices assessment system (Irad) and tests of the temporal distribution of mean errors over a year. The conversion from sunshine duration to solar radiation produces the best overall estimates, but shows systematic seasonal errors. The two air temperature based methods can be reliable alternatives when only air temperature data are available. Fundamentally, the study demonstrates the value and importance of using a range of assessment methods to evaluate model estimates. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 436 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2292 Hurricane hunters: GPS dropsondes trace Katrina’s course Whitford M. GPS World 2005 16/10 (20-22) While many residents of Mississippi and Louisiana wisek ran from the oncoming Category Five hurricane that hit the Gulf Coast in August, a few scientific types were teaming with military pilots to fly into the eyewall of the mother of all storms - armed with GPS-enabled dropsondes designed to track and predict the strength, speed, and direction of storms such as Katrina. The U.S. Naval Research Lab (NRL) flew a P-3 aircraft into Katrina’s eyewall and dropped 36 Airborne Vertical Atmospheric Profiling System (AVAPS) GPS dropsondes into the whirlwind to gather data for the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR). The NCAR-designed drop sondes combine GPS receivers with pressure, temperature, and humidity (PTH) sensors to capture atmospheric profiles and thermodynamic data in hurricanes. While the dropsonde is descending on a parachute, in-air scientists receive data via radio frequency (RF) transmitters in the device to review, quality assure, and forward the information within minutes to forecasters at the National Hurricane Center (NHC) in Miami, Florida. System (EOS) Terra platform launched in 1999. MODIS and MISR cloud-top products were from the recent collections (4 and 3, respectively) that cover the entire mission. The cloud characteristics are different at each ground site, with clouds generally residing at higher altitudes at SGP, but with a greater occurrence of broken or multilayered clouds at CFARR. A method is presented to automatically eliminate scenes where clouds are of a broken nature, since it is difficult in these conditions to ensure that ground-based and satellite measurements refer to the same cloud deck. The intercomparison between MODIS and radar cloud-top heights reveals that MODIS cloud-top heights agree with radar within about 1 km for mid- and high-level clouds. However, this accuracy is degraded to nearly 3 km for low-level clouds. MISR cloud-top heights are found to agree with radar cloud-top heights to within 0.6 km, which is in line with theoretical expectations. In single-level cloud situations MODIS and MISR cloud-top heights tend to agree within 1 km. This comparison also reveals that the loss of radar sensitivity during 2001 resulted in the CFARR instrument being less accurate for highlevel cloud-top height measurements. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2293 Influence of regional scale information on the global circulation: A two-way nesting climate simulation Lorenz P. and Jacob D. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The influence of regional scale information on the global circulation has been investigated through the development and application of the so-called "two-way nesting" technique. The two-way nesting climate model system consists of a spectral atmospheric general circulation model and a grid point regional atmospheric model. Two simulations of 10 years each have been carried out with and without the feedback of the regional model to the global model. For the regional model domain the Maritime Continent covering the tropical area of the Indonesian islands has been selected as a key region influencing the global climate. The analysis of the global atmospheric temperature field shows a clear improvement through the regional model feedback; the systematic error with respect to re-analysis data can be reduced even in regions far away from the regional model domain. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2296 A new approach to momentum flux determinations using SKiYMET meteor radars Hocking W.K. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/7 (2433-2439) The current primary radar method for determination of atmospheric momentum fluxes relies on multiple beam studies, usually using oppositely directed coplanar beams. Generally VHF and MF radars are used, and meteor radars have never been successfully employed. In this paper we introduce a new procedure that can be used for determination of gravity wave fluxes down to time scales of 2-3 h, using the SKiYMET meteor radars. The method avoids the need for beam forming, and allows simultaneous determination of the three components of the wind averaged over the radar volume, as well as the variance and flux components u¯
2 -, v¯
2 -, w¯
2 -, u¯
v¯
, u¯
w¯
and v¯
w¯
, where u
refers to the fluctuating eastward wind, v
refers to the fluctuating northward wind, and w
refers to the fluctuating vertical wind. Data from radars in New Mexico and Resolute Bay are used to illustrate the data quality, and demonstrate theoretically expected seasonal forcing. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2294 Freshwater bivalves tell of past climates: But how clearly do shells from polluted rivers speak? Dunca E., Sch¨one B.R. and Mutvei H. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2005 228/1-2 (43-57) Freshwater bivalves, Margaritifera margaritifera (Linnaeus) and Unio crassus (Philipsson), from rivers in Sweden (79 specimens) and England (one specimen) were used to study the effects of human-induced pollution on shell growth (Table 1). We analyzed variations in annual and daily shell growth rates of 80 specimens from unpolluted and polluted (pH < 5, oxygen depletion and eutrophication) localities. 35% of the variability in annual growth of shells from unpolluted rivers is explained by ambient temperature during June through August. Daily shell growth also co-varies with the temperature during the growth season (approximately April-October). Long-term trends in temperature and growth compare well to each other. A weak correlation was also found for shell growth and the summer North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index. However, all of these environmental signals are obscured in specimens from polluted settings. In settings with high human impact, shell growth does not co-vary with summer temperatures or the NAO. Results of our study suggest a judicious sampling strategy when shells are used for climate reconstructions. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2297 A study of tropical tropopause using MST radar Satheesan K. and Krishna Murthy B.V. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/7 (2441-2448) Using the MST radar data of vertical wind, the characteristics of the tropical tropopause, following four different definitions, depending on 1) temperature lapse rate, 2) cold point, 3) convective outflow and 4) potential temperature lapse rate minimum, are studied. From the vertical wind data of the radar, the altitude profiles of temperature and horizontal divergence are derived, from which the tropopause levels corresponding to i) the lapse rate ii) cold point iii) convective outflow level and iv) potential temperature lapse rate minimum are determined. The convective outflow level and hence the convective tropopause altitude is determined, for the first time using the MST radar data. The tropopause altitudes and temperatures obtained following the four definitions are compared on a day-to-day basis for the summer and winter seasons. Winter and summer differences in the tropopause altitude and temperature are also studied. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2295 Intercomparison of multiple years of MODIS, MISR and radar cloud-top heights Naud C.M., Muller J.- P., Clothiaux E.E. et al. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/7 (2415-2424) Radar cloud-top heights were retrieved at both the Chilbolton Facility for Atmospheric and Radio Research, UK (CFARR) and the ARM Southern Great Plain site, USA (SGP), using millimetre wave cloud radars and identical algorithms. The resulting cloudtop heights were used for comparison with MODIS and MISR retrieved cloud-top heights, from March 2000 to October 2003. Both imaging instruments reside on the NASA Earth Observing Radiation 2298 Intercomparison and validation of snow albedo parameterization schemes in climate models Pedersen C.A. and Winther J.- G. Climate Dynamics 2005 25/4 (351-362) Snow albedo is known to be crucial for heat exchange at high latitudes and high altitudes, and is also an important parameter in General Circulation Models (GCMs) because of its strong positive feedback properties. In this study, seven GCM snow albedo schemes and a multiple linear regression model were intercompared and validated against 59 years of in situ data from Svalbard, the French Alps and six stations in the former Soviet METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY Union. For each site, the significant meteorological parameters for modeling the snow albedo were identified by constructing the 95% confidence intervals. The significant parameters were found to be: temperature, snow depth, positive degree day and a dummy of snow depth, and the multiple linear regression model was constructed to include these. Overall, the intercomparison showed that the modeled snow albedo varied more than the observed albedo for all models, and that the albedo was often underestimated. In addition, for several of the models, the snow albedo decreased at a faster rate or by a greater magnitude during the winter snow metamorphosis than the observed albedo. Both the temperature dependent schemes and the prognostic schemes showed shortcomings. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2299 Surface albedo of the Antarctic sea ice zone Brandt R.E., Warren S.G., Worby A.P. and Grenfell T.C. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3606-3622) In three ship-based field experiments, spectral albedos were measured at ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths for open water, grease ice, nilas, young "grey" ice, young grey-white ice, and first-year ice, both with and without snow cover. From the spectral measurements, broadband albedos are computed for clear and cloudy sky, for the total solar spectrum as well as for visible and near-infrared bands used in climate models, and for Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) solar channels. The all-wave albedos vary from 0.07 for open water to 0.87 for thick snow-covered ice under cloud. The frequency distribution of ice types and snow coverage in all seasons is available from the project on Antarctic Sea Ice Processes and Climate (ASPeCt). The ASPeCt dataset contains routine hourly visual observations of sea ice from research and supply ships of several nations using a standard protocol, Ten thousand of these observations, separated by a minimum of 6 nautical miles along voyage tracks, are used together with the measured albedos for each ice type to assign an albedo to each visual observation, resulting in "ice-only" albedos as a function of latitude for each of five longitudinal sectors around Antarctica, for each of the four seasons. These ice albedos are combined with 13 yr of ice concentration estimates from satellite passive microwave measurements to obtain the geographical and seasonal variation of average surface albedo. Most of the Antarctic sea ice is snow covered, even in summer, so the main determinant of area-averaged albedo is the fraction of open water within the pack. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2300 Simple optical models for diagnosing surface-atmosphere shortwave interactions Winton M. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3796-3805) A technique is developed for diagnosing effective surface and atmospheric optical properties from climate model shortwave flux diagnostics. These properties can be used to distinguish the contributions of surface and atmospheric optical property changes to shortwave flux changes at the surface and top of the atmosphere. In addition to the four standard shortwave flux diagnostics (upward, downward, surface, and top of atmosphere), the technique makes use of surface-down and top-up fluxes over a zero-albedo surface obtained from an auxiliary online shortwave calculation. The simple model optical properties, when constructed from the time-mean fluxes, are effective optical properties, useful for predicting the time-mean response to optical property changes. The technique is tested against auxiliary online shortwave calculations at four validation albedos and shown to predict the monthly mean surface absorption with an rms error of less than 2% over the globe. The reasons for the accuracy of the technique are explored. Less accurate techniques that make use of existing shortwave diagnostics are presented and compared. 2301 A polarized delta-four-stream approximation for infrared and microwave radiative transfer: Part I Liou K.N., Ou S.C., Takano Y. and Liu Q. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2542-2554) The delta-four-stream polarized (vector) thermal radiative transfer has been formulated and numerically tested specifically for application to satellite data assimilation in cloudy atmospheres. It is shown that for thermal emission in the earth’s atmosphere, the [I, Q] component of the Stokes vector can be decoupled from the [U, V] component and that the solution of the vector 437 equation set involving the four-stream approximation can be expressed in an analytic form similar to the scalar case. Thus, the computer time requirement can be optimized for the simulation of forward radiances and their derivatives. Computations have been carried out to illustrate the accuracy and efficiency of this method by comparing radiance and polarization results to those computed from the exact doubling method for radiative transfer for a number of thermal infrared and microwave frequencies. Excellent agreement within 1% is shown for the radiance results for all satellite viewing angles and cloud optical depths. For polarization, differences between the two are less than 5% if brightness temperature is used in the analysis. On balance of the computational speed and accuracy, the four-stream approximation for radiative transfer appears to be an attractive means for the simulation of cloudy radiances and polarization for research and data assimilation purposes. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2302 Coupling diffuse sky radiation and surface albedo Pinty B., Lattanzio A., Martonchik J.V. et al. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2580-2591) New satellite instruments have been delivering a wealth of information regarding land surface albedo. This basic quantity describes what fraction of solar radiation is reflected from the earth’s surface. However, its concept and measurements have some ambiguity resulting from its dependence on the incidence angles of both the direct and diffuse solar radiation. At any time of day, a surface receives direct radiation in the direction of the sun, and diffuse radiation from the various other directions in which it may have been scattered by air molecules, aerosols, and cloud droplets. This contribution proposes a complete description of the distribution of incident radiation with angles, and the implications in terms of surface albedo are given in a mathematical form, which is suitable for climate models that require evaluating surface albedo many times. The different definitions of observed albedos are explained in terms of the coupling between surface and atmospheric scattering properties. The analytical development in this paper relates the various quantities that are retrieved from orbiting platforms to what is needed by an atmospheric model. It provides a physically simple and practical approach to evaluation of land surface albedo values at any condition of sun illumination irrespective of the current range of surface anisotropic conditions and atmospheric aerosol load. The numerical differences between the various definitions of albedo for a set of typical atmospheric and surface scattering conditions are illustrated through numerical computation. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. Atmospheric electricity 2303 Remote sensing of cloud-to-ground lightning location using the TOGA of sferics Ramachandran V., Kumar S. and Kishore A. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/2 (128-132) Using the Time Of Group Arrival (TOGA) of sferics about 3700 cloud-to-ground (CG) flashes were recorded in one year (2003) in the largest island, Viti Levu in Fiji. A maximum CG flash density of 0.49 flashes/km2 per year was recorded in two locations in the island. The seasonal variation showed enhanced lightning incidences during November-April and the diurnal variation showed peak activity from 14:00-16:00 h local time. Five-year data of the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) aboard the NASA Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite are also presented, which show good correlation of seasonal and diurnal variations with those obtained from TOGA measurements. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2304 Lightning-initiation locations as a remote sensing tool of large thunderstorm electric field vectors Maggio C., Coleman L., Marshall T. et al. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (1059-1068) The lightning data that are recorded with a three-dimensional lightning mapping array (LMA) are compared with data from an electric field change sensor (in this case a flat-plate antenna 438 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY operated both as a "slow" and a "fast" antenna). The goal of these comparisons is to quantify any time difference that may exist between the initial responses of the two instruments to a lightning flash. The data consist of 136 flashes from two New Mexico thunderstorms. It is found that the initial radiation source detected by the LMA usually precedes the initial response of both the slow and fast antennas. In a small number of cases, the flat-plate antenna response precedes the initial LMA source, but by no more than 2 ms. The observations of such a close time coincidence suggest that the first LMA radiation source of each flash was located at or very near the flash-initiation point. Thus, the first LMA radiation source and the initial sequence of sources from a lightning flash can be used as remote sensing tools to give information about the magnitude of the electric field (relative to lightning-initiation thresholds) and the direction of the electric field at the initiation location. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2305 Warm season lightning distributions over the northern Gulf of Mexico coast and their relation to synoptic-scale and mesoscale environments Smith J.R., Fuelberg H.E. and Watson A.I. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (415-438) Cloud-to-ground lightning data from the National Lightning Detection Network are used to create a warm season (May-September) lightning climatology for the northern Gulf of Mexico coast for the 14-yr period 1989-2002. Each day is placed into one of five flow regimes based on the orientation of the low-level flow with respect to the coastline. This determination is made using the vector mean 1000-700-hPa wind data at Lake Charles and Slidell, Louisiana. Flash densities are calculated for daily, hourly, and nocturnal periods. Spatial patterns of composite 24-h and nocturnal flash density indicate that lightning decreases in an east-to-west direction over the region. Flash densities for the 24-h period are greatest over land near the coast, with relative maxima located near Houston, Texas; Lake Charles, Baton Rouge, and New Orleans, Louisiana; Biloxi, Mississippi; and Mobile, Alabama. Flash densities during the nocturnal period are greatest over the coastal waters. Lightning across the northern Gulf co ast is closely related to the prevailing low-level synoptic flow, which controls the sea breeze, the dominant forcing mechanism during the warm season. Southwest flow, the most unstable and humid of the five regimes, exhibits the most flashes. In this case, sea-breeze-induced convection is located slightly inland from the coast. Northeast flow, the driest and most stable of the regimes, exhibits the least amount of lightning. The large-scale flow restricts the sea breeze to near the coastline. Geographic features and local mesoscale circulations are found to affect lightning across the region. Geographic features include lakes, bays, marshes, swamps, and coastline orientations. Thermal circulations associated with these features interact with the main sea breeze to produce complex lightning patterns over the area. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2306 Cloud-to-ground lightning production in strongly forced, low-instability, convective lines associated with damaging wind van den Broeke M.S., Schultz D.M., Johns R.H. et al. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (517-530) During 9-11 November 1998 and 9-10 March 2002, two similar convective lines moved across the central and eastern United States. Both convective lines initiated over the southern plains along strong surface-based cold fronts in moderately unstable environments. Both lines were initially associated with cloudto-ground (CG) lightning, as detected by the National Lightning Detection Network, and both events met the criteria to be classified as derechos, producing swaths of widespread damaging wind. After moving into areas of marginal, if any, instability over the upper Midwest, CG lightning production ceased or nearly ceased, although the damaging winds continued. The 9 March 2002 line experienced a second phase of frequent CG lightning farther east over the mid-Atlantic states. Analysis of these two events shows that the production of CG lightning was sensitive to the occurrence and vertical distribution of instability. Periods with frequent CG lightning were associated with sufficient instability within the lower mixed-phase region of the cloud (i.e., the temperature range approximately between - 10° and - 20°C), a lifting condensation level warmer than -10°C, and an equilibrium level colder than -20°C. Periods with little or no CG lightning possessed limited, if any, instability in the lower mixed-phase region. The current Storm Prediction Center guidelines for forecasting these convective lines are presented. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2307 Lightning that ignites forest fires in Finland Larjavaara M., Pennanen J. and Tuomi T.J. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (171-180) We studied probabilities that lightning strokes ignite a forest fire. Lightning location data from 1998 to 2002 was used. Flashes were grouped into thunderstorms based on their closeness both in time and space. Information on location, time of ignition and cause of all forest fires as recorded by chiefs of local fire brigades during this 5-year period were also used. Fires judged to be ignited by lightning were linked to strokes occurring within 10 km and 50 h of ignition. The probability that a stroke had ignited a particular fire was computed based on the distance between the two in time and space and on the number of other strokes that might have ignited the same fire. Our results show that positive and negative strokes ignite with equal probability. Increasing number of strokes per flash, hereafter referred to as "multiplicity" of flashes tended to decrease ignition probability of a stroke. Strokes in long-lasting and intense thunderstorms are less likely to cause ignition than strokes in local, small-scale thunderstorms. Our results clearly contradict those of earlier North American studies that suggest that long continuing current associated with positive flashes and negative flashes of high multiplicity are needed for ignition. Our results may find use in forecasting or nowcasting lightening-caused forest fire ignitions in Finland, and lead to the development of a similar methodology for testing and use elsewhere. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2308 DC electric field amplification in the mid-latitude ionosphere over seismically active faults Sorokin V.M., Yaschenko A.K., Chmyrev V.M. and Hayakawa M. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 2005 5/5 (661666) DC electric field in the ionosphere above seismically active regions can be formed in a process of external current insertion into the atmosphere-ionosphere electric circuit. This current arises as a result of convective upward transport of charged aerosols and their gravitational sedimentation. Aerosols are injected into the atmosphere by soil gases intensified in the zones of active faults. In general case the horizontal distribution of injected aerosols in such zones is asymmetric. In this report we propose the method for computation of DC electric field generated in the ionosphere and the atmosphere by external electric current with arbitrary spatial distribution. Oblique magnetic field and the conjugate ionosphere effects are taken into consideration. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2309 On the field-aligned currents in the vicinity of prenoon auroral arcs Kozlovsky A., Nilsson H., Sergienko T. et al. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The EISCAT Svalbard radar (at 75° MLAT) was used to investigate the ionospheric plasma flows along auroral arcs in the 7-11 MLT sector with the radar beam directed along the L-shell. In nine cases auroral arcs appeared in the immediate vicinity of the radar beam allowing for observations of plasma flow simultaneously at different distances across the arc. In eight cases the arcs were associated with a plasma flow shear indicating sheets of upward field-aligned current (FAC) over the arcs. However, in one case the data indicate a downward net current in the region of the arc, with a flow shear and, especially, a downward FAC sheet adjoining the arc on the equatorial side. We suggest that in the downward FAC sheet, the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability can generate a series of auroral spots forming an arc, if the current sheet is co-located with a plasma boundary inside the magnetosphere. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2310 Multispectral observations of auroral rays and curls Ivchenko N., Blixt E.M. and Lanchester B.S. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Two cases of discrete aurora are presented, in which auroral curls and auroral rays, respectively, were seen. The aurora was imaged by two spatially separated imagers with a long-pass filter (mainly sensitive to N2 and N+2 emissions), and another imager with a ´ filter (sensitive to forbidden O+ doublet). narrow-band 7325 U Also, spectra of the aurora were recorded. Using the multispectral imaging and spectra we find that the curls occurred in aurora caused by precipitation of energetic electrons with a lack of low-energy population, while in the rays both high and low energy precipitation were present simultaneously. These findings are confirmed by the altitude determination from triangulation. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2311 Real time monitoring for nowcasting and forecasting ionospheric space weather in Europe with ground digisondes Belehaki A. Annals of Geophysics 2005 48/3 (453-465) The Earth’s ionosphere largely determines space weather effects on radio wave communications, navigation and surveillance systems. Lately there has been an increasing demand for ionospheric nowcast and accurate forecast services by various groups of users, including European industry. The paper reviews research activities in Europe based on the exploitation of real-time ground digisondes for the provision of nowcasting and forecasting ionospheric space weather information and useful products and services to support operational applications. During the last few years, important progress in databasing, modelling and forecasting ionospheric disturbances based on real-time data from ground digisondes was achieved in the frames of COST Action 271 «Effects of the Upper Atmosphere on Terrestrial and EarthSpace Communications». Further developments are expected to be deployed with the new COST Action 724 on «Developing the basis for monitoring, modelling and predicting space weather», as well as through the Space Weather Pilot Project of the European Space Agency and through projects funded by the European Commission programmes. 439 2314 Comparison of the calculated and measured electron temperatures and densities in the midlatitude ionosphere and plasmasphere in November 13-15, 1991 Pavlov A.V., Pavlova N.M. and Makarenko S.F. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy 2005 45/5 (592-603) The composition, structure and dynamics of the ionosphere and plasmasphere in November 13-15, 1991, along the geomagnetic field line intersecting Millstone Hill station were calculated. It has been indicated that the electron density (Ne ) and temperature (Te ) calculations agree with the Ne and Te measurements if the corrected N2 and O2 densities from the NRLMSIS-00 empirical model are used in the calculations. An additional irregular source of plasmaspheric electron heating is introduced into the model in order to bring calculated Te , in correspondence with Te , measured on the EXOS-D satellite in the plasmasphere. The heat flux from the plasmasphere to the ionosphere increases under the action of this source, as a result of which Te in the upper ionosphere increases and calculated and measured Te in the upper ionosphere become strongly different if the expression for the electron heat flux in an approximation of the generally accepted Spitzer-Harm theory is used in calculations. Using in calculations of a nonlocal coefficient of electron transfer decelerates the heat income from the plasmasphere into the ionosphere, which pronouncedly increases the agreement between calculated and measured Te simultaneously in the ionosphere and plasmasphere. It has been shown that if the reactions of O+ (4 S) with vibrationally excited N2 (v > 0) and O2 (v > 0) are taken into account in the model, NmF2 is decreased by a factor of 1.14-1.86. This decrease in Ne leads to a decrease in the cooling rate of electrons, as a result of which Te increases to 784 K at an hmF2 height. The calculated Ne and Te values do not agree with the measured values if the reactions of O+ (4 S) with N2(V> 0) and O2 (v> 0) are ignored in the model. It has been shown that the Boltzmann distribution of N2 (v) and O2 (v) over vibrational levels can be used in model calculations of the parameters of the ionosphere and plasmasphere. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 2312 The TID model for modulation of large scale electron density models Leitinger R. and Rieger M. Annals of Geophysics 2005 48/3 (515-523) Various modern applications of empirical electron density models need realistic structures of the electron density distribution with smaller scales than the model background. Travelling Ionospheric Disturbances (TIDs) produce three dimensional and time dependent disturbances of the background ionization. We present a TID model suitable to «modulate» large scale electron density distributions by multiplication. A model TID takes into account the forward tilt of the disturbance wave front, a distinct vertical structure, a fan type horizontal radiation characteristic, geometric dilution and attenuation. More complicated radiation patterns can be constructed by means of superposition. The model TIDs originate from source regions which can be chosen arbitrarily. We show examples for TID modulations of the background model family developed at Trieste and Graz (NeQuick, COST-prof and NeUoG-plas). 2315 Response of the ionosphere to the strong geomagnetic storm: Observations and simulation Zherebtsov G.A., Pirog O.M., Polekh N.M. et al. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy 2005 45/5 (604-613) The response of the midlatitude ionosphere to the strong geomagnetic storm of September 24-27, 1998, has been studied. Data of measurements at the network of ionospheric stations, located in the regions of Siberia and Far East along the 130° E and 90° E geographic meridians, are used to analyze the behavior of the ionospheric parameters. Data of certain European ionospheric stations and the Irkutsk incoherent scatter (IS) radar are compared. Results of the numerical simulation of the ionospheric response to this magnetic storm at the corresponding observation points are presented. It has been established that the ionospheric response to the storm was mainly controlled by the disturbance in the composition of the neutral atmosphere. According to the numerical models, the negative disturbance becomes positive at the early phase of storm recovery under the action of the sources of corpuscular and photo ionization. In this case the sign of the ionospheric disturbance depends on the local time of beginning of the geomagnetic disturbance. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 2313 Lightning current waves measured at short instrumented towers: The influence of sensor position Visacro S. and Silveira F.H. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) The influence of the current sensor position along short-instrumented towers on the contamination of measured lightning current waves was evaluated. The evaluation was performed by simulation, employing a hybrid electromagnetic model. Assuming certain simplifications, the dynamic behavior of lightning channel was considered, including core losses and corona sheath. The results showed that, for realistic front time values of negative downward strokes, the current wave measured at tower top and at its base is practically the same, for first and subsequent strokes. Therefore, for short towers, the wave amplitude is not dependent on the current sensor position. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2316 Specific features of sporadic structures in the ionospheric E region during strong geomagnetic disturbances of October 29-31, 2003, according to the data of the radar instrumental facility of the Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences Medvedev A.V., Grozov V.P., Ratovskii K.G. et al. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy 2005 45/5 (614-619) The effects in the ionospheric E region recorded during the strong magnetic storm of October 29-31, 2003, are considered. In midlatitude Eastern Siberia, the storm resulted in the phenomena typical of the sub-polar ionosphere: anomalous absorption, sharp decrease in the electron density, plasma instability in the lower ionosphere, and large spatial gradients of ionization. The ionospheric response to the magnetic storm in Irkutsk (52° N, 104° E) was studied at the radar instrumental facility of Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Siberian Division, Russian Academy 440 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY of Sciences, including the DPS-4 digisonde, ionospheric chirp sounder, and incoherent scatter radar. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 2317 Two-point measurements of the polarization parameters of VLF emissions going out of the ionosphere Mullayarov V.A. and Lvov S.I. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy 2005 45/5 (620-626) The polarization characteristics of magnetospheric VLF signals received on the magnetically disturbed day at two spaced points near Yakutsk are analyzed. The characteristics of the noise (VLF hiss) and discrete (chorus, whistlers) signals are considered. The characteristics of the chorus polarization ellipse at two points are different because the distance of the southern point from the secondary emission sources in the ionosphere is larger than that of the northern point. The polarization characteristics of VLF hiss indicate that the ionospheric sources of hiss were located at lower latitudes than those of VLF chorus. The distributions of the values of the parameter characterizing the polarization degree of magnetospheric VLF emissions indicate that the average values of this parameter exceed 0.85 in the overwhelming majority of cases, although the polarization degree of VLF signals can sometimes be not higher than 0.5 regardless of a signal type. A certain difference in the polarization degree of emissions at two separated points is related to different distances of the stations from the ionospheric projection of the magnetospheric source. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 2318 Specific features of the propagation of ULF planetary electromagnetic waves in the Earth’s ionosphere related to the geomagnetic field curvature Aburjania G.D. and Khantadze A.G. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy 2005 45/5 (633-640) The construction of the theory of ULF electromagnetic planetary wave generation in the Earth’s ionosphere is continued. Based on solving the system of equations of magnetic hydrodynamics of the ionosphere, it has been indicated that the latitudinal nonuniformity of the geomagnetic field - a factor (fundamental for global processes) permanently acting in the Earth’s ionosphere produces an additional quasi-elastic force of an electromagnetic origin. As a result, new branches of fast and slow ULF electromagnetic (EM) planetary waves are generated in the Earth’s ionosphere. These waves move at a fixed latitude along the parallel around the Earth, and particle oscillation’s occur along the meridian from south to north. The waves are global and can be registered at the worldwide network of ionospheric and magnetic observatories at all latitudes from the pole to the equator. The properties of the studied wave structures agree with those of large-scale EM wave disturbances observed in the midlatitude ionosphere. The effect of the other fundamental factor - the geomagnetic field curvature - on the dynamics of propagation of ULF EM planetary waves is studied. It has been indicated that ionospheric plasma acquires anisotropic elasticity of an electromagnetic origin as a result of the geomagnetic field curvature. As a consequence, ULF EM planetary waves in the ionospheric E and F regions experience additional dispersion and anisotropy in the direction of wave propagation. The general dispersion equations, taking into account the curvature and latitudinal gradients of the geomagnetic field, are obtained for fast and slow planetary waves. The frequency spectra of these waves in the ULF range have been obtained. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 2319 Specific features of atmospheric noise superimposed on variations in the Quasistatic electric field in the Kamchatka Near-Earth Atmosphere Mikhailov Yu.M., Mikhailova G.A., Kapustina O.V. et al. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy 2005 45/5 (649-664) The time and spectral characteristics of atmospheric noise in the band of periods 0.5-3 h, superimposed on the diurnal variations in the strength of the quasistatic electric field in the near-Earth atmosphere, have been studied. It has been indicated that the extreme background noise values under normal meteorological conditions are most probably about 20 V m-1 . If the field strength is anomalous and is accompanied by earthquakes, these noise values reach 200 V m-1 in the absence of precipitation and 1000 V m-1 in the presence of precipitation. The spectral density of the noise power in the field anomaly accompanied by earthquakes exceeds the corresponding background values by one-one and a half orders of magnitude but is an order of magnitude lower than these values in the presence of precipitation. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 2320 Seismo-ionospheric effects of the strong crustal earthquakes in the pacific region Korsunova L.P. and Khegai V.V. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy 2005 45/5 (665-670) Hourly relative deviations of the critical frequencies of the ionospheric layers from the running median values according to the observations at Japan stations of the vertical sounding of the ionosphere during periods of preparation of the strong crustal earthquakes with magnitude M  6.0 and the hypocenter depth h < 50 km are considered. Seventeen earthquakes for 1994-2000 with the epicentral distances to the vertical sounding stations R = 30-900 km were selected. It was obtained that for a few days prior to the earthquake, the positive deviations both in foF2 and in fEs prevail, leading, in particular, to an increase in the mean nighttime values of the electron density at the F region maximum. A triple relation between anomalous variations in the critical frequencies, magnitude of the preparing earthquake, and epicentral distance was found: the closer epicenter and strongly earthquake the earlier possible ionospheric precursors are observed. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 2321 Quantitative analysis of the relationship between polar ionospheric currents and auroral electrojet indices Xu W. and Chen G. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/3 (376-383) The ionospheric currents in the polar region are caused mainly by field-aligned currents. The quiet polar current system consists of a pair of current vertices at dawn and dusk. When substorm occurs, however, intense magnetic disturbances are generated by enhanced polar currents, especially the westward electrojet of a millions Amperes in the auroral oval. The intensity of the auroral electrojet is commonly described by the auroral electrojet indices AL, AU, AE and AO. In this paper the relationship between the polar current system and the auroral electrojet indices is quantitatively studied by means of polar current functions obtained from the data recorded at 71 magnetic stations in the northern polar region during the International Magnetospheric Study (IMS). Fairly well linear correlation of AL (or AU) with AE index has been found, indicating that AE index multiplied by a proper factor can approximately substitute AL and AU indices. The total polar current, JT , and the strengths of the dawn and dusk current vortices, JT1 and J T2 , can be characterized by AE index, an increment of 1nT in AE index corresponding to 1000A in JT . A fairly well direct proportion is found between AE and the maximal westward current density, an increment of 1 nT in AE corresponding to 1 A/km of the maximal westward current density at magnetic midnight. The latitudinal profiles of the current density are similar for different local time in night sector. The maximal density of the westward electrojet usually occurs at geomagnetic latitude 65°-70° around midnight, as for the eastward electrojet, it is around 80°. The analysis shows that for 5-mimute mean values, the saturation values of AE and AL are 700 nT and -500 nT, respectively. Accordingly, a caution should be taken when the indices greater than the saturation values would be used for studying magnetospheric or ionospheric processes. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. 2322 Ionospheric f oF2 anomalies during some intense geomagnetic storms Kane R.P. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/7 (2487-2499) The global evolutions of f oF2 anomalies were examined for three very intense geomagnetic storms, namely the Halloween events of October-November 2003 (Event X, 29-30 October 2003, Dst -401 nT; Event Y, 20-21 November 2003, Dst -472 nT), and the largest Dst storm (Event Z, 13-14 March 1989, Dst -589 nT). For Event X, troughs (negative storms) were clearly seen for high northern and southern latitudes. For northern midlatitudes as well as for low latitudes, there were very strong positive effects on 29 October 2003, followed by negative effects the next day. For Event Y, there were no troughs in NH high latitudes for METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 441 morning and evening hours but there were troughs for night. For midlatitudes and low latitudes, some longitudes showed strong negative effects in the early morning as expected, but some longitudes showed strong positive effects at noon and in the evening hours. Thus, there were many deviations from the model patterns. The deviations were erratic, indicating considerable local effects superposed on general patterns. A disconcerting feature was the presence of strong positive effects during the 24 h before the storm commencement. Such a feature appears only in the 24 h before the geomagnetic storm commencement but not earlier. If genuine, these could imply a prediction potential with a 24-h antecedence. For Event Z (13-14 March 1989, equinox), all stations (all latitudes and longitudes) showed a very strong "negative storm" in the main phase, and no positive storms anywhere. © European Geosciences Union 2005. the echo altitudes clearly went up (down) in harmony with an airglow enhancement (subsidence) that also moved to the east. This fact suggests that the eastward-moving enhanced airglow region included an upward (downward) component of neutral winds to raise (lower) the altitude of the windshear node responsible for the ES formation. The airglow intensity, echo intensity, and Doppler velocity of FAIs at around 96 km altitude fluctuated with periods from 10 min to 1 h, indicating that these parameters were modulated with short-period atmospheric disturbances. Some QP echo regions below 100 km altitude contained small-scale QP structures in which very strong neutral winds exceeding 100 m/s existed. The results are compared with recent observations, theories, and simulations of QP echoes. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2323 Temporal and spatial evolution of discrete auroral arcs as seen by Cluster Figueiredo S., Marklund G.T., Karlsson T. et al. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/7 (2531-2557) Two event studies are presented in this paper where intense convergent electric fields, with mapped intensities up to 1350 mV/m, are measured in the auroral upward current region by the Cluster spacecraft, at altitudes between 3 and 5 Earth radii. Both events are from May 2003, Southern Hemisphere, with equatorward crossings by the Cluster spacecraft of the pre-midnight auroral oval. Event 1 occurs during the end of the recovery phase of a strong substorm. A system of auroral arcs associated with convergent electric field structures, with a maximum perpendicular potential drop of about
10kV, and upflowing field-aligned currents with densities of 3A/m2 (mapped to the ionosphere), was detected at the boundary between the Plasma Sheet Boundary Layer (PSBL) and the Plasma Sheet (PS). The auroral arc structures evolve in shape and in magnitude on a timescale of tens of minutes, merging, broadening and intensifying, until finally fading away after about 50 min. Throughout this time, both the PS region and the auroral arc structure in its poleward part remain relatively fixed in space, reflecting the rather quiet auroral conditions during the end of the substorm. The auroral upward acceleration region is shown for this event to extend beyond 3.9 Earth radii altitude. Event 2 occurs during a more active period associated with the expansion phase of a moderate substorm. Images from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) F13 spacecraft show that the Cluster spacecraft crossed the horn region of a surge-type aurora. Conjugated with the Cluster spacecraft crossing above the surge horn, the South Pole All Sky Imager recorded the motion and the temporal evolution of an east-west aligned auroral arc, 30 to 50 km wide. Intense electric field variations are measured by the Cluster spacecraft when crossing above the auroral arc structure, collocated with the density gradient at the PS poleward boundary, and coupled to intense upflowing field-aligned currents with mapped densities of up to 20 A/m2 . The surge horn consists of multiple arc structures which later merge into one structure and intensify at the PS poleward boundary. The surge horn and the associated PS region moved poleward with a velocity at the ionospheric level of 0.5 km/s, following the large-scale poleward expansion of the auroral oval associated with the substorm expansion phase. © European Geosciences Union 2005. Regional weather patterns 2324 The first coordinated observations of mid-latitude Eregion quasi-periodic radar echoes and lower thermospheric 557.7-nm airglow Ogawa T., Otsuka Y., Onoma F. et al. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/7 (2391-2399) We present the first coordinated observations of quasi-periodic (QP) radar echoes from sporadic-E (ES ,) field-aligned irregularities (FAIs), OI 557.7-nm airglow, and neutral winds in a common volume over Shigaraki, Japan (34.9° N, 136.1° E) on the night of 5 August 2002 during the SEEK-2 campaign. QP echo altitudes of 90-110 km were lower than usual by 10 km, enabling us to make a detailed comparison among QP echoes, airglow intensity, and neutral wind at around 96 km altitude. Eastward movement of the QP echo regions is consistent with the motions of neutral winds, airglow structures, and FAIs, suggesting that the electrodynamics of ES -layers is fundamentally controlled by the neutral atmospheric dynamics. During the QP echo event, 2325 A new FSU winds climatology Bourassa M.A., Romero R., Smith S.R. and O’Brien J.J. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3686-3698) A new objective time series of in situ-based monthly surface winds has been developed as a replacement for the subjective tropical Pacific Florida State University (FSU) winds. The new time series begins in January 1978, and it is ongoing. The objective method distinguishes between observations from volunteer observing ships (VOSs) and buoys, allowing different weights for these different types of observations. An objective method is used to determine these weights and accounts for the differences in error characteristics and in spatial/temporal sampling. A comparison is made between the objective and subjective products, as well as scatterometer winds averaged monthly on the same grid. The scatterometer fields are a good proxy for truth. These three sets of fields have similar magnitudes, directions, and derivative fields. Both in situ wind products underestimate convergence about the intertropical convergence zone; however, the objective FSU product is a much better match to the scatterometer observations. Furthermore, the objective winds have smaller month-tomonth variation than the subjective winds, Composites of ENSO phases are also examined and show minor differences between the subjective and objective wind products. The strengths and weaknesses of the objective and subjective winds are discussed. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2326 Summer climate variability in Taiwan and associated large-scale processes Chen J.- M., Lu F.- C., Kuo S.- L. and Shih C.- F. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (499-516) This study investigates major characteristics of summer (JuneAugust) climate variability in Taiwan during the period of 19502000 and associated regulating processes imposed by large-scale background variations, including the western North Pacific summer monsoon (WNPSM), the Pacific interdecadal climate change (PICC) related to abrupt climate change in the late 1970s, and the western North Pacific (WNP) tropical cyclone (TC) activity. In Taiwan, summer rainfall and temperature anomalies tend to be opposite in sign: anomalous cold summer is often wet, and vice versa. Based upon characteristics of temperature and rainfall anomalies in Taiwan, low-level circulation pattern overlying Taiwan, and the phase of PICC, we categorize Taiwan’s summer climate variability into six major types. The major regulatory mechanism for four of these types is anomalous vertical motion over an east-west elongated low-level circulation anomaly across Taiwan, a feature associated with the WNPSM variability. For the other two types, the primary regulating mechanism is anomalous moisture transport by a southwest-northeast oriented low-level circulation anomaly over the WNP, which is a salient feature of the PICC. Influence of the WNP TC activity on Taiwan’s summer climate is examined in terms of TC rainfall (rainfall in Taiwan induced by TC passages) variability. For the types of summer climate variability with a low-level anomalous high over the WNP, the circulation enhances vertical wind shear to suppress TC genesis and the subsequent TC activity over the WNP, leading to decreased TC rainfall in Taiwan. On the other hand, increased TC rainfall does not necessarily occur in Taiwan for summer climate variability types with a low-level anomalous low over 442 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY the WNP. A favorable condition for TC rainfall in Taiwan is to have more TCs forming in a region southeast of Taiwan, which are then steered by the WNP anomalous low to recurve northward toward Taiwan. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2327 Trends in precipitation amounts and the number of rainy days and heavy rainfall events during summer in China from 1961 to 2000 Endo N., Ailikun B. and Yasunari T. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (621-631) Long-term trends in summer precipitation totals, the number of rainy days, and precipitation intensity were investigated with daily rainfall datasets for China from 1961 to 2000. Total precipitation significantly increased in summer in the Yangtze River basin and northwestern China, while total precipitation decreased in other regions. The number of rainy days increased in the Yangtze River basin, and over northwestern China. In contrast, the number of rainy days decreased over Tibet and over northern and northeastern China. Seasonal mean precipitation intensity became large at most of the stations in China. To investigate trends in heavy rainfall, daily rainfall totals during the whole investigation period were grouped into ten classes, with class width equal to 10% of total number of rainy days from 1961 to 2000, and the number of rainy days, and summer mean rainfall amount for each class, were obtained for each summer. A simple linear fit was made to determine the linear trends in the 10-class precipitation time series. The upper 20 percentile of daily precipitation totals showed a statistically significant increase over the Yangtze River basin, and over northwestern China during the study period. Class average precipitation decreased in almost 10 classes over Tibet and north and northeastern China. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2328 The relation between rainfall and area-time integrals at the transition from an arid to an equatorial climate Kebe C.M.F., Sauvageot H. and Nzeukou A. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3806-3819) The area-time integral (ATI) method has previously been successfully used to estimate the area-averaged rain-rate distribution and the rainfall volume over an area from radar or from satellite infrared (IR) data. In most cases, the method was implemented over regions or test areas with an assumed homogeneous climatic character, that is, without a strong spatial variation of the rain regime throughout the test area. In the present paper, the behavior of the ATI method is discussed for a test area displaying two strong gradients of the cumulative annual rainfall: one meridional, at the transition between regions having, respectively, a desertic and an equatorial climate and the other zonal, at the transition between land and sea. The studied area is divided into four subtest areas (north, south, land, and sea) over which the ATI computation is applied separately. The linear coefficient relating the radar-observed area-averaged rain rate and the fractional area where the rain is higher than a threshold calculated over the four subtest areas is found to be almost constant, in agreement with the ergodic character of the rain-rate distribution observed in this region. Similarly, the linear coefficient relating the rain volume over the subtest areas to the IR satellite-derived ATI, a parameter analogous to the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) Precipitation Index (GPI), is found to be very steady, with a mean value of 3.02 mm h-1 and a coefficient of variation of only 8%. These coefficients, as well as the underlying dynamic and microphysical processes, do not seem significantly influenced by the climatic character, even at a short space scale, in the studied area. The ratio of radar rain areas to cloud areas is, notably, almost constant. For a brightness temperature of 235 K, the ratio of the cloud area to rain area is around 1.68. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2329 Methods for modelling of temporal and spatial distribution of air temperature at landscape scale in the southern Qilian mountains, China Chuanyan Z., Zhongren N. and Guodong C. Ecological Modelling 2005 189/1-2 (209-220) Understanding temporal and spatial distribution of surface air temperature (SAT) at the landscape scale is essential in assessing the potential ecological conditions for ecological restoration and in making decisions for regional management in the Qil- ian mountains, northwest China. Based on the measurement of air temperature, this study developed a linear regression relationship between the monthly mean SAT and elevation and locational/topographic factors. On average over the year, the model had a higher accuracy to predict SAT in the southern Qilian mountainous terrain of the Heihe River Basin. The study also compared the built linear regression model with geostatistical methods (i.e., ordinary kriging, splines and inverse distance weight), generally, the predictions errors obtained by the geostatistical methods were larger than that by regression method. The worst results were produced by spline. It was noteworthy that for several months (i.e. growing seasons) ordinary kriging yielded smaller prediction errors than the linear regression of temperature against elevation and locational/topographic factors did. We selected the OK method to estimate the SAT in the growing seasons, because accurately estimating surface air temperature during the ecologically meaningful time period was very important to model future ecological processes. Modeled SAT increased from northeast to southwest with highest value occurring in the Yinglou gorge, the outlet of Heihe River in the study area. Temporally, highest SAT value, ranging from 9.2 to 18.7°C, appeared in the July, and the lowest SAT value, from 3.3 to 13.3°C, was seen in May. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2330 Climatic features of the water vapor transport around east Asia and rainfall over Japan in June and September Yoshikane T. and Kimura F. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The climatic features of the water vapor transport (WVT), which is closely related to rainfall in the middle latitudes around east Asia, are investigated using reanalysis data in June and September. A large amount of water vapor is intermittently transported in September in association with the movement of typhoons, but continuously transported in June. We defined a typhoon term as that when a typhoon or tropical storm is in Region A (20N40N, 120E-150E) to estimate the effect on the poleward WVT. In September, the poleward WVT through Segment B (25N, 130E150E) in the typhoon term (38.5% of the total term) was about 84% of that in the 20-year-accumulated total term, indicating that the climatic poleward WVT is greatly affected by typhoons and tropical storms. It is concluded that the contribution of typhoons and tropical storms is indispensable for the formation of a climatic atmospheric field around east Asia in September. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2331 Appilcation of the Markov process for daily preciptation occurences in Congo-Brazzaville (French) (Application du processus de Markov sur les occurrences des pr´ecipitations journali`eres au Congo-Brazzaville) Samba G. and Mpounza M. Comptes Rendus - Geoscience 2005 337/15 (1355-1364) This study deals with the daily precipitation occurrence during the rainy season in different locations in Congo-Brazzaville. The Markov-chain probability model has been used for defining probable dry and wet rainy sequences at each station, and transition probabilities between daily precipitations of two successive days. The main results are: in Congo, the dependence on the preceding day of the daily precipitations occurrence; the confirmation of two main climatic region (equatorial climate to the north and tropical wet to the south); the lack of coherence in the distribution of precipitations. © 2005 Acad´emie des sciences. Publi´e par Elsevier SAS. Tous droits r´eserv´es. 2332 Long-term trends in solar radiation and the associated climatic factors over China for 1961-2000 Liang F. and Xia X.A. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/7 (24252432) Long-term trends in downwelling solar irradiance and associated climatic factors over China are studied in the paper. Decreasing trends in global and direct radiation are observed over much of China. The largest decrease occurs in South and East China (east of about 100° E and south of about 40°N). The spatial pattern of observed trends in diffuse irradiance is complex and inhomogeneous. An intriguing aspect of trends in global and direct irradiance is the rather abrupt decrease in annual and seasonal mean values from 1978 onward. The decreasing trends in solar METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY radiation in China did not persist into the 1990s. The spatial and temporal patterns of trends in sunshine duration are consistent with that of global and direct irradiance. A decreasing trend in rainy days is observed over much of China, which is in agreement with the secular trend in cloud amount. The fact that trends in cloud amount and solar radiation are quite similar suggests that the cloud amount is not the primary cause for the decrease in solar radiation. Visibility in the eastern part of China has deteriorated heavily as a result of the rapid increase in aerosol loading. The statistical analysis showed that atmospheric transmission under clear conditions decreased rapidly. These facts suggest that the rapid increase in aerosol loading should be one of the principle causes for the decrease in solar radiation. The observed diurnal temperature range decreases remarkably in China, which is closely related to the increase in aerosols. The effects of anthropogenic air pollutants on climate should be further studied and included in the simulation of climate and projection of climate scenario. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 443 cold season were generated for all three frontal subtypes from NCEP-NCAR reanalysis data. Results show a strong surface anticyclone centered north of the region of frontogenesis for all three composites. However, several features in the synoptic-scale regimes appear to differentiate the three frontal types. For example, cyclogenesis in the Gulf of Mexico and onshore southeasterly low-level flow along the southeast Atlantic coast accompanied by warm advection distinguish onshore fronts from the other two types. The offshore fronts are accompanied by more nearly zonal flow aloft and a surface anticyclone that stalls near the New England coastline. Finally, the diurnal type is associated with much weaker pressure and height fields and an east-west elongated surface anticyclone centered much farther south than in the other cases. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2333 Numerical simulation of the quasi-stationary snowband observed over the southern coastal area of the Sea of Japan on 16 January 2001 Eito H., Kato T., Yoshizaki M. and Adachi A. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (551-576) On 16 January 2001 during the field experiment named WMO01, a meso- -scale snowband extending eastward from Toyama Bay was observed in the coastal area of eastern Hokuriku district, middle part of Japan. This snowband stagnated for about half a day and brought a snowfall of about 50 cm in this region. Numerical simulations of this snowband are performed using a nonhydrostatic cloud resolving model (NHM), with a horizontal grid size of 1 km. The NHM well reproduces many characteristics of the observed snowband. The snowband forms over the convergence zone between a cold southerly land breeze and a northwesterly winter monsoon, to which heat and moisture is supplied from relatively warm sea surface. Convective snow cells with the horizontal scale of a few km successively form at the northern part of the snowband and propagate east-southeastward. Meso- -scale convective snow systems are organized, consisting of developed snow cells in the snowband. A cold pool forms under the snowband. The diabatic cooling due to the sublimation of snow is responsible for the formation of the cold pool. After the land breeze became weak, the cold pool contributes to the maintenance of the horizontal convergence with the northwesterly winter monsoon at the northern edge of the snowband by compensating for the weakened land breeze. Therefore, the formation of the cold pool is significant for the maintenance of the snowband. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2335 Temporal variability of lower stratosphere temperature Casta˜neda M.E. and Compagnucci R.H. Studia Geophysica et Geodaetica 2005 49/4 (573-596) Inter-monthly to inter-decadal global variability of lower stratosphere temperature (LST) is studied in order to improve current knowledge on its variability and trends, as well as natural and anthropogenic influences upon it. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with S-mode Varimax rotated PCA were used. The first seven components, which explain 70% of variance make it possible to determine homogeneous LST behaviour zones with little overlap between areas, and practically no unclassified areas. Composite time series, referred to as reference series, in the core of the subregions defined by each of the PCs, were calculated in order to obtain the temporal patterns. The equatorial-tropical zone and the subtropical area display warmings caused by the eruptions of El Chichon and Mt. Pinatubo volcanoes as well as the strong influence of the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO) which leads to equatorial warming (cooling) in the west (east) phase and cooling (warming) in subtropical latitudes. Only low latitudes show some kind of global teleconnection between hemispheres. Significant correlation with several ocean/atmosphere index time-series like ENSO, Antarctic and Arctic Oscillations (AAO, AO), Arctic Circumpolar Vortex was detected over latitudinally separate regions. Antarctic and Arctic ozone hole values were contrasted with warming and cooling features registered in mid and high latitudes in both hemispheres. The LST reference series exhibit a negative trend, commonly attributed to the increase in greenhouse gases that lead to a warming of the troposphere and a cooling of the stratosphere, in all sub regions. The highest cooling rate of -0.65°C/decade is detected in the Gobi desert, and the lowest values of -0.1 °C/decade over the NE of Canada and Greenland which indicates the great longitudinal variability that the LST trends may present. The difference with other authors is mainly due to the fact that results are based either on latitudinal averages or radiosonde data. © StudiaGeo s.r.o. 2005. 2334 An objective climatology of Carolina coastal fronts Appel K.W., Riordan A.J. and Holley T.A. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (439-455) This study describes a simple objective method to identify cases of coastal frontogenesis offshore of the Carolinas and to characterize the sensible weather associated with frontal passage at measurement sites near the coast. The identification method, based on surface hourly data from offshore and adjacent land stations, was applied to an 11-yr dataset (1984-94). A total of 379 coastal fronts was found, 70 of which eventually made landfall along the North Carolina coast; 112 that remained offshore, and 197 were termed diurnal since they remained offshore but disappeared during daylight hours. Results show that most coastal and offshore sites experience a wind shift of about 40°-70° and a warming of about 2°-3°C during the hour of frontal passage. Exceptions include sites near colder waters where the rates are markedly reduced and frontal passage is often less discernible. Excluding diurnal fronts, just over half the cases were associated with cold-air damming (CAD) during the cold season of 16 October-15 April. Most of these winter cases linked with CAD were onshore fronts. During the warm season, most fronts were diurnal, but the association with CAD was still significant. To explore the synoptic-scale environment, composite maps for the 2336 Polar heating in Saturn’s thermosphere Smith C.G.A., Aylward A.D., Miller S. and M¨uller- Wodarg I.C.F. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/7 (2465-2477) A 3-D numerical global circulation model of the Kronian thermosphere has been used to investigate the influence of polar heating. The distributions of temperature and winds resulting from a general heat source in the polar regions are described. We show that both the total energy input and its vertical distribution are important to the resulting thermal structure. We find that the form of the topside heating profile is particularly important in determining exospheric temperatures. We compare our results to exospheric temperatures from Voyager occultation measurements (Smith et al., 1983; Festou and Atreya, 1982) and auroral H+3 temperatures from ground-based spectroscopic observations (e.g. Miller et al., 2000). We find that a polar heat source is consistent with both the Smith et al. determination of T1
400 K at
30° N and auroral H+3 temperatures. The required heat source is also consistent with recent estimates of the Joule heating rate at Saturn (Cowley et al., 2004). However, our results show that a polar heat source can probably not explain the Festou and Atreya determination of T1
800 K at
4° N and the auroral H3 + temperatures simultaneously. © European Geosciences Union 2005. Synoptic meteorology 444 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY Boundary layer meteorology 2337 Numerical and experimental studies of wind environment in an urban morphology Skote M., Sandberg M., Westerberg U. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6147-6158) The purpose of the paper is to examine the relation between urban morphology (three-dimensional structure) and windiness. We regard a city as a porous obstacle, which is open at the top. We consider the interaction between the atmospheric boundary layer and a city to be both a function of the overall shape (silhouette or skyline) and the internal resistance to the flow caused by the friction when the wind flows over the urban surfaces. We regard the street pattern as an interconnected flow network with the crossings as nodes. Flow along the streets is generated by pressure differences. We here use a highly idealized city model consisting of a circular block divided into two or four equally large sectors. Two types of cases are studied, the first with only one street through the city model with different angles between the street and the oncoming wind. The second case also contains a perpendicularly crossing street (through the center). Both wind tunnel experiments and numerical flow computations (computational fluid dynamics, CFD) are used and compared. The general agreement between the two is good and the CFD method offers new possibilities for quantifying the urban wind environment. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2338 Micromixing modelling of mean and fluctuating scalar fields in the convective boundary layer Luhar A.K. and Sawford B.L. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6673-6685) Coupling the concepts of the Lagrangian marked-particle approach and the interaction-by-exchange-with-the-conditionalmean (IECM) micromixing approach, a Lagrangian micromixing model is developed to calculate the mean and fluctuating scalar fields generated by scalar fluxes emitted into the convective boundary layer (CBL) from continuous area sources located at the top and bottom of the CBL. A continuous area source is simulated as a superposition of a series of instantaneous area sources. The scalar fields due to the continuous area sources are represented as the sum of top-down and bottom-up components with their cross-correlations included, and mixed-layer similarity is used for normalising the scalar quantities. The mixing time scale is parameterised as a linear function of time. The modelderived profile functions of top-down and bottom-up terms can be used to derive scalar concentration moments for any value of the ratio of the entrainment flux to the surface flux, including cases where a scalar material is extracted from the boundary layer (i.e. sinks). Model results on the concentration gradients; topdown and bottom-up profile functions; and scalar (temperature and humidity) variances, skewness and kurtosis are discussed; and compared with large-eddy simulation results and field and laboratory data where available. The comparison shows good performance by the Lagrangian micromixing model, considering the fact that the model used minimal flow information (i.e. the variance and third moment of the vertical turbulent velocity, and the turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate) in the form of parameterised profiles. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2339 Effect of roughness inhomogeneities on the development of the urban boundary layer Schultz M., Schatzmann M. and Leitl B. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (105-117) Wind tunnel measurements over a regular array of cubes were carried out to investigate the influence of surface inhomogeneities on the development of the urban boundary layer. Two idealised cases were investigated. The first one was in terms of a strong step change in roughness from very smooth to very rough with a low turbulent approach flow and a thin approach boundary layer. For this case it was found that a very long fetch was needed until the flow reaches equilibrium with its underlying surface. In the second case the approach boundary flow was turbulent and equilibrium was reached much faster, but the necessary fetch was still significant. The results were compared and conclusions for roughness parameterisations in numerical models were drawn. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2340 Modelling the air flow in symmetric and asymmetric street canyons Santiago J.L. and Martn F. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (145-154) The main objective of this paper is to describe flow features in sequences of two-dimensional street canyons. Several configurations of symmetric and asymmetric canyons are studied by CFD modelling. Streets with different aspect ratios (W/H), where W is the width of street and H is the building height, are investigated. In asymmetric situations, one building (in the central canyon) is taller (30 m) than the others (20 m). The presence of the taller building seems to have a large influence on the wind flow inside the central street canyon and in ones located downstream. These results show that simulations are Reynolds-independent. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2341 Computational modelling of airflow in urban street canyon and comparison with measurements Pospisil J., Jicha M., Niachou K. and Santamouris M. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (191200) The main goal of this study was to predict the airflow in a street canyon surrounded by an urban area using CFD modelling. In the street geometry described in the main part, the actual airflow directly influences air infiltration into buildings. Different models of turbulence were tested as well as specific wind boundary conditions. A correct assignment of boundary conditions (i.e., mainly wind conditions) is a very important step to obtain results that are comparable with measurements. Results of 3D airflow in the street canyon were obtained for different velocities and directions of an undisturbed wind above the roof level. Wind conditions were prescribed in two different ways, as a velocity profile on the incoming side of the solution domain, in the other as a fixed velocity in the layer where the wind velocity was measured. Results of calculations are compared with measurements done in the studied street canyon. Individual models of turbulence were tested to obtain the best agreement between predictions and measurements. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2342 Simple model of the Urban Atmospheric Boundary Layer (UABL) Janour Z., Bezpalcova K. and Sedenkova H. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (217-223) The horizontally homogeneous atmospheric boundary layer over rough surface with a large roughness length z0 has been investigated to model the simplest cases of the Urban Atmospheric Boundary Layer (UABL) over flat plain. It has been demonstrated that the nondimensional profiles of the horizontal Reynolds stresses of eddy viscosity and of velocity defect components are universal and independent on surface characteristics. On one side the results of numerical simulation are compared with radio soundings launched over urban areas. Because of the lack of additional information about experiment data sets, only qualitative comparison has been performed. On the other side wind tunnel experiments in the Institute of Thermomechanics were carried out. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2343 A numerical study of mesoscale airflow and dispersion over coastal complex terrain Monti P. and Leuzzi G. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (239-250) A computational system composed of a three dimensional (3D) mesoscale model and a Lagrangian stochastic model is applied to forecast the boundary layer dynamics and Carbon Oxide (CO) air concentrations from motor vehicle emissions in the Rome urban area over the Lazio region of Italy. The model results show a general good agreement with observations at one location near Rome. The simulation indicates that the regional airflow circulation and the pollutant transport are strongly influenced by the land and sea breeze regimes associated with the Tyrrhenian Sea as well as by the slope flows originating from the elevated mountain ridges that characterise the investigated area. The role METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY played by the Urban Heat Island (UHI) on the CO concentration levels in the Rome area is also investigated. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 445 data, appear to be significantly larger than similar trends computed from ICOADS sextile and variance statistics, when biases due to changes in frequency of observations and observational error statistics have been taken into account. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2344 Nonlocal convective PBL model based on new thirdand fourth-order moments Cheng Y., Canuto V.M. and Howard A.M. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2189-2204) The standard approach to studying the planetary boundary layer (PBL) via turbulence models begins with the first-moment equations for temperature, moisture, and mean velocity. These equations entail second-order moments that are solutions of dynamic equations, which in turn entail third-order moments, and so on. How and where to terminate (close) the moments equations has not been a generally agreed upon procedure and a variety of models differ precisely in the way they terminate the sequence. This can be viewed as a bottom-up approach. In this paper, a top-down procedure is suggested, worked out, and justified, in which a new closure model is proposed for the fourth-order moments (FOMs). The key reason for this consideration is the availability of new aircraft data that provide for the first time the z profile of several FOMs. The new FOM expressions have nonzero cumulants that the model relates to the z integrals of the third-order moments (TOMs), giving rise to a nonlocal model for the FOMs. The new FOM model is based on an analysis of the TOM equations with the aid of large-eddy simulation (LES) data, and is verified by comparison with the aircraft data. Use of the new FOMs in the equations for the TOMs yields a new TOM model, in which the TOMs are damped more realistically than in previous models. Surprisingly, the new FOMs with nonzero cumulants simplify, rather than complicate, the TOM model as compared with the quasi-normal (QN) approximation, since the resulting analytic expressions for the TOMs are considerably simpler than those of previous models and are free of algebraic singularities. The new TOMs are employed in a second-order moment (SOM) model, a numerical simulation of a convective PBL is run, and the resulting mean potential temperature T, the SOMs, and the TOMs are compared with several LES data. As a final consistency check, T, SOMs, and TOMs are substituted from the PBL run back into the FOMs, which are again compared with the aircraft data. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2346 Heat and water balance estimates over the Tibetan Plateau in 1997-1998 Xu J., Haginoya S., Masuda K. and Suzuki R. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (577-593) Seasonal variations of heat and water balances have been estimated by using a multi-layer soil model for the Tibetan Plateau in 1997-1998. Input data was from routine meteorological data, and calculation was carried out for 14 stations in 1997 and 17 stations in 1998. Compared with 1997, annual precipitation was smaller in northwestern and larger in southeastern Tibet in 1998. The variations of latent heat flux from the ground surface, connected with the changes of soil water content that are controlled by change of precipitation. Thus, the latent heat flux of 1998 was larger than that of 1997 in southeast Tibet, but in northwest Tibet, the situation was reversed. The calculation result for Wetness Index (WI), showed that from 1997 to 1998, the climate in northwest Tibet become more dry, and southeast Tibet wetter. The climatic difference became more severe between those two regions. In northeast Tibet, soil water contents were smaller and sensible heat flux was larger in 1998, than in 1997, because the precipitation was relatively small in the springtime of 1998. In southeast Tibet, the amount of the precipitation were almost the same in the springtime of 1997 and 1998, but the rainfall amount became larger, and concentrated in the latter monsoon season in 1998, this led to the increase in soil water contents, and the amount of evaporation. Those increases were not as sharp as the changes of precipitation, and most of the precipitation contributed to sharply increase the run off, and flowed into the rivers. After monsoon seasons, the differences between the amount of precipitation in 1997 and 1998 became very small, and the soil water contents were almost the same in the end of those two years. Soil water contents changed with the precipitation. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2345 Effects of secular changes in frequency of observations and observational errors on monthly mean MSLP summary statistics derived from ICOADS Chang E.K.M. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3623-3633) A Monte Carlo technique has been employed to assess how sextile mean sea level pressure (MSLP) statistics derived from ship observations can be affected by changes in the frequency of observations. The results show that when the number of observations is small (less than 20 per month), the estimates of the first sextile as well as the intersextile range, which is considered to be a resistant estimate of the standard deviation, can contain large biases. The results also suggest that, while changes in the frequency of observations do not have strong impacts on the standard way of estimating the standard deviation, such statistics are strongly affected by secular trends in observational error statistics. The results are applied to examine the increasing tre nd in cool season (December-March) Pacific cyclone activity during the second half of the twentieth century. The results show that the trends in sextile statistics derived from the NCEPNCAR reanalysis data are only consistent with those derived from the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS) summary statistics if biases due to changes in the frequency of observation are not taken into account. When such biases are accounted for, the trends derived from the observations are significantly smaller than those derived from the reanalysis data. As for the increasing trend in MSLP variance, the trends derived from the ICOADS statistics are smaller than those derived from the reanalysis regardless of whether corrections are made to account for the secular trend in MSLP error statistics. In either case, the corrections that have to be applied have the same order of magnitude as the observed trends. The two main conclusions are that climate statistics can be str ongly affected by changes in frequency of observations as well as changes in observational error statistics and 2) the trends in North Pacific winter cyclone activity, as derived from NCEP-NCAR reanalysis 2347 Tip jets and barrier winds: A QuikSCAT climatology of high wind speed events around Greenland Moore G.W.K. and Renfrew I.A. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3713-3725) The high topography of Greenland results in a number of orographically induced high wind speed flows along its coast that are of interest from both a severe weather and climate perspective. Here the surface wind field dataset from the NASAJPL SeaWinds scatterometer on board the Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) satellite is used to develop a wintertime climatology of these flows. The high spatial resolution and the twice-daily sampling of the SeaWinds instrument allows for a much more detailed view of the surface winds around Greenland than has been previously possible. Three phenomena stand out as the most distinctive features of the surface wind field during the winter months: the previously identified tip jets and reverse tip jets, as well as the hitherto unrecognized barrier flows along its southeast coast in the vicinity of the Denmark Strait. Peak surface wind speeds associated with these phenomena can be as large as 50 m s-1 with winds over 25 m s-1 occurring approximately 10%15% of the time at each location. A compositing technique is used to show that each type of flow is the result of an interaction between a synoptic-scale parent cyclone and the high topography of Greenland. In keeping with previous work, it is argued that tip jets are caused by a combination of conservation of the Bernoulli function during orographic descent and acceleration due to flow splitting as stable air passes around Cape Farewell, while barrier winds are a geostrophic response to stable air being forced against high topography. It is proposed that reverse tip jets occur when barrier winds reach the end of the topographic barrier and move from a geostrophic to a gradient wind balance, becoming supergeostrophic as a result of their anticyclonic curvature. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 446 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2348 Convective structures in a cold air outbreak over Lake Michigan during Lake-ICE Zurn- Birkhimer S.M., Agee E.M. and Sorbjan Z. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2414-2432) The Lake-Induced Convection Experiment provided special field data during a westerly flow cold air outbreak (CAO) on 13 January 1998, which has afforded the opportunity to examine in detail an evolving convective boundary layer. Vertical cross sections prepared from these data, extending from upstream over Wisconsin out across Lake Michigan, show the modifying effects of land-water contrast on boundary layer mixing, entrainment, heating, and moisture flux. Through this analysis, an interesting case of lake-effect airmass modification was discovered. The data show atypical differing heights in vertical mixing of heat and moisture, as well as offshore downwelling and subsidence effects in the atmosphere. Analysis shows evidence of a new observational feature, the moisture internal boundary layer (MIBL) that accords well with the often recognized thermal internal boundary layer (TIBL). The "interfacial" layer over the lake is also found to be unusually thick and moist, due in part to the upstream conditions over Wisconsin as well as the effectiveness of vertical mixing of moist plumes over the lake (also seen in the aircraft datasets presented). Results show that the atmosphere can be much more effective in the vertical mixing of moisture than heat or momentum (which mixed the same), and thus represents a significant departure from the classical bottom-up and top-down mixing formulation. Four scales of coherent structures (CSs) with differing spatial and temporal dimensions have been identified. The CSs grow in a building block fashion with buoyancy as the dominating physical mechanism for organizing the convection (even in the presence of substantial wind shear). Characteristic turbulence statistics from aircraft measurements show evidence of these multiple scales of CSs, ranging from the smallest (microscale) in the cloud-free path region near the Wisconsin shore, to the largest (mesoscale) in the snow-filled boundary layer near the Michigan shore. A large eddy simulation (LES) model has also been employed to study the effects of buoyancy and shear on the convective structures in lake-effect boundary layers. The model simulation results have been divided into two parts: 1) the general relationship of surface heat flux versus wind shear, which shows the interplay and dominance of these two competing forcing mechanisms for establishing convection patterns and geometry (i.e., rolls versus cells), and 2) a case study simulation of convection analogous to the CSs seen in the CFP region for the 13 January 1998 CAO event. Model simulations also show, under proper conditions of surface heating and wind shear, the simultaneous occurrence of differing scales of CSs and at different heights, including both cells and rolls and their coexisting patterns (based on the interplay between the effects of buoyancy and shear). © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2349 The effects of stratification on flow separation Ambaum M.H.P. and Marshall D.P. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2618-2625) Separation of stratified flow over a two-dimensional hill is inhibited or facilitated by acceleration or deceleration of the flow just outside the attached boundary layer. In this note, an expression is derived for this acceleration or deceleration in terms of streamline curvature and stratification. The expression is valid for linear as well as nonlinear deformation of the flow. For hills of vanishing aspect ratio a linear theory can be derived and a full regime diagram for separation can be constructed. For hills of finite aspect ratio scaling relationships can be derived that indicate the presence of a critical aspect ratio, proportional to the stratification, above which separation will occur as well as a second critical aspect ratio above which separation will always occur irrespective of stratification. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2350 An integrated system for the study of wind-wave source terms in finite-depth water Young I.R., Banner M.L., Donelan M.A. et al. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (814-831) A field experiment to study the spectral balance of the source terms for wind-generated waves in finite water depth was carried out in Lake George, Australia. The measurements were made from a shore-connected platform at varying water depths from 1.2 m down to 20 cm. Wind conditions and the geometry of the lake were such that fetch-limited conditions with fetches ranging from approximately 10 km down to 1 km prevailed. The resulting waves were intermediate-depth wind waves with inverse wave ages in the range 1 < U10 /Cp <8. The atmospheric input, bottom friction, and whitecap dissipation were measured directly and synchronously by an integrated measurement system, described in the paper. In addition, simultaneous data defining the directional wave spectrum, atmospheric boundary layer profile, and atmospheric turbulence were available. The contribution to the spectral evolution due to nonlinear interactions of various orders is investigated by a combination of bispectral analysis of the data and numerical modeling. The relatively small scale of the lake enabled experimental conditions such as the wind field and bathymetry to be well defined. The observations were conducted over a 3-yr period, from September 1997 to August 2000, with a designated intensive measurement period [the Australian Shallow Water Experiment (AUSWEX)] carried out in August-September 1999. High data return was achieved. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2351 Measurement of wind waves and wave-coherent air pressures on the open sea from a moving SWATH vessel Donelan M.A., Dobson F.W., Graber H.C. et al. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (896-908) The design and implementation on a Small Waterline Area Twin Hull (SWATH) vessel of a complete system for measuring the directional distribution of wind waves and the concomitant fluctuations of air pressure and wind speed immediately above them are described. Data taken with the system on board the Canadian Coast Guard Ship Frederick G. Creed during the 1999 Shoaling Waves Experiment (SHOWEX) are used to calculate the wavesupported fluxes of momentum and energy between the air and the sea. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2352 Air temperature measurement errors in naturally ventilated radiation shields Nakamura R. and Mahrt L. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (1046-1058) Two sources of systematic errors are considered for estimating air temperature. The first source is ambiguity of the definition of the standardized measurement height over vegetated surfaces of varying heights. Without such a standardization, evaluation of the horizontal air temperature gradient is contaminated by the vertical variation of air temperature. This error is generally small in daytime unstable conditions, but increases with increasing stability at night. In an attempt to reduce such error, the use of the zero-plane displacement height for standardizing the measurement height is proposed. The second source of systematic errors is radiative forcing on the sensor-shield systems. A series of experiments is performed over a grass field to investigate the radiatively induced error in the air temperature estimate by the Onset HOBO Pro thermistor in a naturally ventilated multiplate shield. The magnitude of this error is estimated by comparing air temperature measurements by a platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD) sensor in a mechanically aspirated shield. In contrast to the errors resulting from the first source, the radiatively induced error increases with increasing instability. An empirical model is developed for correcting the radiatively induced temperature error using information on wind speed and net or shortwave radiation. The robustness of the model is examined with independent data. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2353 Development of a k-
model for the determination of air exchange rates for street canyons Li X.- X., Liu C.- H. and Leung D.Y.C. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7285-7296) A two-dimensional renormalized-group (RNG) k- turbulence model was developed to calculate the air exchange rate (ACH) of idealized street canyons. This model was validated against other modelling (large-eddy simulation, LES, and k-) and wind tunnel results. It was demonstrated that the current k- model was able to capture the complicated flow structures inside street canyons whose outputs agreed reasonably well with other modelling and wind tunnel results available in literature. This k- model was METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY then applied to calculate the ACH for street canyons of aspect (building-height-to-street-width) ratios 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0. The values of ACH calculated by the current k- model compared favourably with those calculated by LES in which their differences were less than 20%. Moreover, there was a remarkable saving in computer resources and computation time by using the current k- model. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2354 A scheme for drag partition over rough surfaces Shao Y. and Yang Y. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7351-7361) We present a drag partition scheme for surfaces of various roughness densities. The total drag is partitioned into three components: a pressure drag, a skin drag due to momentum transfer to the surfaces of roughness elements and a surface drag due to momentum transfer to the ground surface. We introduce an effective frontal area index to characterize the mutual sheltering effect of roughness elements on drag partition and propose a method for the calculation of the drag components. The drag partition scheme is then applied to the calculation of bulk quantities such as roughness length and zero-plane displacement height. The results are compared with wind-tunnel measurements. Roughness length is found to increase with frontal area index to a maximum at about =0.2, and then decreases with . This finding is in agreement with observations. The drag partition scheme has applications to studying scalar exchange in boundary layers over rough surfaces, such as urban boundary layers. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2355 Measurement and modelling of canopy gas exchange of oilseed rape M¨uller J., Behrens T. and Diepenbrock W. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (181-200) Canopy CO2 and H2 O gas exchange rates (A, E) of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) grown at nitrogen fertilization of 0, 80, 160, and 240 kg ha-1 were investigated. Diurnal courses of A and E were measured continuously from onset of flowering until maturity by means of a canopy chamber system. Measurements were analysed by a model that combines (i) a sub-model of radiation interception (400-700 nm), (ii) a nitrogen-sensitive model of organ-based photosynthesis and transpiration, (iii) model functions for estimating overall plant mitochondrial respiration and soil respiration, and (iv) equations providing seasonal courses of organ area indices and nitrogen-related indices of potential photosynthetic activity of leaves and pods as model inputs. Calculation of transpiration relies on measured leaf-air temperature differences. Observed diurnal and seasonal courses of A and E were explained by the model from underlying physiological features. In particular, this concerns the effect of nitrogen fertilization on magnitude and seasonal pattern of A and E, the depression of canopy net photosynthesis during flowering, as well as the photosynthetic contribution of different organs to plant carbon gain. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2356 Grapevine water use and the crop coefficient are linear functions of the shaded area measured beneath the canopy Williams L.E. and Ayars J.E. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (201-211) The relationships among water use and the crop coefficient of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Thompson Seedless with several measures of canopy development were determined with the aid of a weighing lysimeter in the San Joaquin Valley of California. At various times during two growing seasons, vine leaf area, calculated leaf area index (LAI) and the amount of shade cast on the ground directly beneath the canopy were determined. Leaf area was estimated by measuring the length of all shoots on the vines within the lysimeter and determining the relationship between length and leaf area per shoot and calculating total vine leaf area or by destructive harvests of vines of similar size surrounding the lysimeter. Shaded area was determined in 1998 using a grid (with 50 cm2 individual sections) on the ground beneath the vine at solar noon and estimating the percent shade within each square. Total shade was calculated as the product of the area of all squares and the percent shade within each square. In 1999 shaded area was determined from an image of the shade beneath the canopy that was downloaded to a computer and the shade digitized with the use of a software program. Daily water use 447 ranged from 4 to 60 L per vine across both years. Leaf area per vine ranged from 2 to 34 m 2 per vine during the study. The amount of shade cast on the ground was a linear function of total vine leaf area although there were differences between years. The north and south curtains of the vines’ canopies were raised for a 2-week period in 1999 to simulate an overhead trellis system. The percent shaded area increased from 60 to 75% and vine water use increased from
42 L per vine before the curtains were raised to greater than 60 L per vine after being raised. The crop coefficient (Kc ) increased from 0.9 to 1.3. Vine water use and the crop coefficient were linearly related to leaf area per vine, LAI and the amount of shade cast on the ground. However, the greatest R2 value (0.95) of the relationships with the Kc was that for shaded area compared to a R2 value of 0.87 for leaf area and LAI. The data indicate that due to the structure of a grapevine canopy the interception of light, as measured by the amount of shade cast on the ground, is a more important determinant of vine water use and the Kc than total leaf area or LAI. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2357 Continuous measurements of soil respiration with and without roots in a ponderosa pine plantation in the Sierra Nevada Mountains Tang J., Misson L., Gershenson A. et al. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (212-227) Continuous measurements of soil respiration and its components help us understand diurnal and seasonal variations in soil respiration and its mechanism. We continuously measured CO2 concentration at various depths in the soil and calculated surface CO2 efflux based on CO 2 gradients and diffusivity in a young ponderosa pine plantation in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. We determined soil respiration both in a control plot that included roots and in a trenched plot that had no roots. The difference between these plots was used to partition soil respiration into root respiration and heterotrophic respiration. We found that both CO 2 concentration in the soil and surface CO2 efflux in the control plot were higher than in the trenched plot. The diurnal range of soil respiration in the trenched plot was larger than in the control. We observed dramatic pulses of soil respiration in response to rain events in summer and fall during the dry season. We modeled the seasonal variation in soil respiration without the pulses using soil temperature and moisture as driving variables and simulated soil respiration pulses using an exponential decay function in response to the volume of rain. Daily mean soil respiration peaked at 5.0 mol m-2 s-1 in the control and at 2.7 mol m-2 s-1 in the trenched plot in June before the rain pulses. Soil respiration increased from 4.9 to 8.2 and to 12.1 mol m -2 s-1 after the first and second rain events in the control, and increased from 2.2 to 4.1 and to 6.6 mol m-2 s -1 in the trenched plot. After incorporating the pulse effect, the model simulated measured data well. Annual soil respiration in 2003 was estimated as 1184 g C m-2 y-1 . The average ratio of root over total respiration was 0.56 during the growing season and 0.16 during the non-growing season with an annual average of 0.44. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2358 Sensitivity analysis for two ground heat flux calculation approaches Liebethal C., Huwe B. and Foken T. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (253-262) The ground heat flux (soil heat flux at the surface) can be calculated from in situ soil measurements in several different ways; all these approaches produce results that are affected by errors in the measured input data set. In this study, we analyse the influence of measurement errors on the results of two methods to determine the ground heat flux: a combination of the heat flux plate approach and calorimetry and a combination of the gradient approach and calorimetry. For that purpose, a sensitivity analysis is performed on a soil data set from the LITFASS-2003 experiment: the ground heat flux is calculated from the measured input data set and recalculated after modifying it (10,000 repetitions). Subsequently, the original and the recalculated results are compared and assessed by computing a quality flag. From this analysis, we conclude that the reference depth (the splitting depth between plate and calorimetry or between gradient and calorimetry, respectively) is the most important variable influencing the 448 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY quality of the results data set and that it should be as deep as possible. Furthermore, amongst the variables modified, temperature measurements have the greatest influence on the quality of the results data set. Finally, the combination of plate and calorimetry gave slightly better results than the combination of gradient and calorimetry; nevertheless, using the latter method is recommended because it is based on measurements that are more reliable and less destructive. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2359 Lagrangian dispersion of 222 Rn, H2 O and CO 2 within Amazonian rain forest Simon E., Lehmann B.E., Ammann C. et al. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (286-304) The present study focuses on the description of the vertical dispersion of trace gases within the Amazon rain forest. A Lagrangian approach is parameterised using in-canopy turbulence measurements made at a site in Rondˆonia (Reserva Jaru). In contrast to common scaling schemes that solely depend on friction parameters measured above the canopy, a combined scaling that also includes night-time free convective mixing in the lower part of dense vegetation canopies is proposed here. 222 Rn concentration profiles and soil flux measurements made at a second site near Manaus (Reserva Cuieiras) are used to evaluate the derived parameterisation and the uncertainties of the forward (prediction of concentration profiles) and inverse (prediction of vertical source/sink distributions) solution of the transfer equations. Averaged day- and night-time predictions of the forward solution agree with the observations within their uncertainty range. During night-time, a weak, but effective free convective mixing process in the lower canopy ensures a relatively high flushing rate with residence times of <1 h at half canopy height in contradiction to earlier estimates for Amazon rain forest. The inverse solution for 222 Rn source/sink distributions shows a high sensitivity to small measurement errors, especially for day-time conditions, when there is efficient turbulent mixing in the upper canopy and profile gradients are small. The inverse approach is also applied to CO2 and H2 O profiles. The predicted net fluxes show a reasonable agreement with Eddy Covariance (EC) measurements made above the forest canopy, although the scatter is large and the day-time solutions for CO2 are very sensitive to measurement errors. However, this is not the case for typical night-time conditions, where the CO2 profile gradients in the upper canopy are large. The inverse approach predicts a mean CO2 emission flux of 7.5 mol m-2 s-1 for the investigation period. This value is somewhat larger compared to estimates based on EC measurements, which are quite uncertain at night-time and thus reduces the upper bound of the estimated carbon sink strength for Amazonian rain forest. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2360 Gap-filling measurements of carbon dioxide storage in tropical rainforest canopy airspace Iwata H., Malhi Y. and Von Randow C. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (305-314) For the determination of biotic fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) or other trace gases to or from a forest canopy, it is important to measure the storage of the trace gas within the forest canopy in addition to the net vertical flux above the forest canopy. However, the data continuity of within-canopy storage measurements can be poor because these measurements are subject to frequent equipment breakdowns. We here explore methods for gap-filling within-canopy CO2 storage, using the data derived from an Amazonian rainforest (Caxiuan˜a). Our first approach was to estimate hourly storage from hourly CO2 concentration measured above the canopy at the tower top. This proved unreliable, since at this hourly time scale the variations in above-canopy CO2 are often decoupled from local changes in within-canopy storage. We then explored a second approach based on determination of the total CO2 accumulation over a night. This was found to be adequately correlated with a time-weighted friction velocity (u ∗w ) averaged over a night (R2 = 0.42). The total night-time storage was then used to model daytime depletion of CO2 within the canopy. The gap-filling model was validated against independent data from the same site, and also applied to another tropical forest (Jar´u) with similar results. The modelled storage is in good agreement with the measured storage, and by reducing susceptibility to advection error it is in some ways superior to the direct storage measurements. This suggests at the possibility of a general method for estimating storage in forest canopies, with re-calibration for each site. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2361 Discriminating net ecosystem exchange between different vegetation plots in a heterogeneous forest Aubinet M., Heinesch B., Perrin D. and Moureaux C. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (315-328) A model describing the half-hourly evolution of the net ecosystem exchange of a heterogeneous forest was developed. It viewed the forest as a patchwork of three homogeneous vegetation plots whose contribution varied with wind direction. The model was calibrated on eight (1997-2004) years of measurements made at the Vielsalm experimental site in Belgium. The first 6 years were used for model calibration, the last two for validation. The model predicted the eddy flux measured by the system with a degree of performance comparable with those of other models running on the same time scale on homogeneous canopies. The model also allowed the three ecosystem behaviours to be differentiated: the beech characterised by higher carbon sequestration efficiency during the growth period; but also by a shorter growth period, the Douglas fir and the spruce/silver fir characterised by a longer growth period, with the efficiency of the former higher than the latter. The evolution with wind direction of the beech forest contribution (i.e., the relative contribution of the beech plot to the total measured flux) was also obtained and was found to be in very good agreement with footprint predictions on average. However, on a half-hourly scale the agreement between observed and predicted beech forest contributions was not so good. In particular, it was found that the predictions made by footprint models of the variations due to longitudinal footprint changes were not observed by the experimental system. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2362 Three years of carbon and energy fluxes from Japanese evergreen broad-leaved forest Kosugi Y., Tanaka H., Takanashi S. et al. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (329-343) Carbon dioxide and sensible and latent heat fluxes over a warmtemperate evergreen broad-leaved forest in central Japan observed for 3.5 years using the eddy covariance method were analysed with an extended big-leaf model. Net ecosystem production (NEP) was estimated after correcting for night-time efflux by using chamber observations of soil and leaf respiration and for day-time CO2 flux by using the light-response curve. Peak CO2 uptake occurred during early summer and autumn; a summer depression and winter uptake were also characteristic of this forest. The estimated NEP showed differences among the years, depending on drought and radiation conditions. The midday average of surface conductance was fluctuated between 5 and 10 mm s -1 during normal years and sometimes decreasing in dry summers. In the wet summer, it increased up to 20 mm s-1 . During the severe and long-term drought, the surface conductance was clearly depressed, suggesting that the surface conductance was strongly influenced by drought. The canopy maximum carboxylation rate (big-leaf VCMAX ) was derived from 30 min fluxes using the same inversion procedure as used in leaf-level analysis. V CMAX at the normal period was generally explained with one temperature-dependence curve (VCMAX25 : 58.4 mol m-2 s-1 , Ha : 32,200 J mol-1 ) at this warm-temperate evergreen broadleaved forest. The decline of the normalised VCMAX (VCMAX25 ) was detected during the severe drought and the expanding period. VCMAX25 did not recover after rain during winter of the year of the severe drought, which suggests that leaf function had suffered severe damage. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2363 Application of the band-pass covariance technique to portable flux measurements over the Tibetan Plateau Asanuma J., Ishikawa H., Tamagawa I. et al. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-10) [1] Two versions of the band-pass covariance technique were applied to the turbulence data collected during daytime with a simple and portable measurement system over the sparse grasslands of the Tibetan Plateau. The coherency spectra between the temperature and the specific humidity, which is a spectral METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY counterpart of the correlation coefficient, were used as a dynamic indicator of the energy-containing ranges as well as that of the sensor attenuation at higher frequencies. The comparison with independent measurements by the eddy covariance method showed that the original version of the band-pass covariance technique occasionally fails. This indicates breakdowns of the similarity between the temperature and the water vapor, especially in the lowest-frequency regions. On the other hand, the latent heat flux computed with the advanced version exhibited adequate agreement with the eddy covariance method. This paper demonstrates that the current implementation of the advanced version with the embedded self-calibration procedure provides a robust method of frequency extrapolation in scalar flux measurements under unstable conditions. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2364 Estimating sensible heat flux using surface renewal analysis and the flux variance method: A case study over olive trees at S´astago (NE of Spain) Castellvi F. and Martnez- Cob A. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-10) [1] The eddy covariance technique for measuring surface fluxes is often not affordable outside experimental research institutes. Therefore knowledge of the performance of alternative methods for determining surface fluxes is valuable. The performance of surface renewal (SR) analysis and the flux variance (FV) method for estimating sensible heat flux has been evaluated in an experiment carried out over a heterogeneous canopy (olive orchard, 50% ground cover) at a semiarid climate in a windy area. Measurements were made at a single level close to the canopy top. SR analysis was accurate under both stable and unstable conditions. The FV method also showed a good performance under unstable conditions, but it was uncertain near neutral conditions and was not applicable under stable conditions. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2365 Resistance and heat-transfer laws for stable and neutral planetary boundary layers: Old theory advanced and re-evaluated Zilitinkevich S.S. and Esau I.N. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 2005 131/609 (1863-1892) The planetary boundary layer (PBL) resistance and heat-transfer laws express the surface fluxes of momentum and heat through the PBL governing parameters. Since the late sixties, the dimensionless coefficients (A, B and C) in these laws were considered as single-valued functions of internal stability parameters:  = u/ f Ls in the steady state PBLs, or h/Ls , in the evolving PBLs (u is the friction velocity, f is the Coriolis parameter, Ls is the surface Monin-Obukhov length, and h is the PBL depth). Numerous studies revealed very wide spread of data in empirical plots of A, B and C versus  or h/Ls . It is not surprising that the above laws, although included in all modem textbooks on boundarylayer meteorology, are not practically used. In the present paper the resistance and heat-transfer laws are revised, accounting for the free-flow stability, baroclinicity and the rise of a capping inversion. The coefficients A, B and C become functions not only of  or h/Ls , but also of the external stability parameter N = N/ f (where N is the Brunt-V¨ais¨al¨a frequency in the free atmosphere above the PBL), the parameter of baroclinicity ; = ;/N (or the free-flow Richardson number Ri = (N/;)2 = ; -2 , where ; is the geostrophic wind shear), and the ratio of the actual and equilibrium PBL depths h/hE . Moreover, the coefficient C is redefined to account for the effect of a capping inversion. It follows that A, B and C can be considered as single-valued functions of  only in the steady-state, barotropic, nocturnal (that is short-lived) PBL. On the other hand, the advanced laws cover a wide range of the PBL regimes. They are validated through large-eddy simulations of different types of PBLs: truly neutral, conventionally neutral, nocturnal and long-lived. This new development explains why prior formulations performed so poorly, and promotes advanced resistance and heat-transfer laws as practical tools for use in environmental modelling applications. © Royal Meteorological Society, 2005. 449 2366 Microclimate characters of urban forest in Shenyang City (Chinese) Xu W., He X., Chen W. et al. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1650-1654) This paper analyzed the diurnal changes of the temperature and humidity in Shenyang urban forest during its different growth stages. The results showed that air temperature was the lowest in the morning and the highest at noon. The highest peak point of air temperature lagged behind that of solar radiation about 2 hours, due to the influence of forest environment. The annual air temperature amplitude was in order of stop-growth period (dormancy stage) (DS) > prophase of growth season (PGS) > anaphase of growth season (AGS) > medium-term of growth season (MGS). Soil temperature of PGS, MGS and AGS at daytime was higher than that at night, while that of DS was in reverse. The daily soil temperature amplitude at different growth stages was in order of upper soil layer (20 cm) > medium soil layer (40 cm) > lower soil layer(80 cm), while the diurnal soil temperature amplitude in the same soil layer was in order of PGS>AGS>DS>MGS (20 cm) and PGS>DS>AGS>MGS (80 cm). The diurnal change of relative humidity was reverse to that of air- and soil temperature, which was higher at night than at daytime, and was in order of MGS>AGS>DS>PGS. 2367 Research advances in inverse methods used for modeling plant-atmosphere exchange (Chinese) Diao Y. and Pei T. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 16/9 (1769-1772) To estimate the source/sink and the vertical fluxes of mass and energy within and above plant canopies continues to be a critical research problem in biosphere-atmosphere exchange processes. The underlying approaches in such problem are to exploit the natural properties of turbulence within and above vegetation, such as Lagrangian inverse analysis, high order Eulerian closure model, and hybrid Eulerian-Lagrangian method. This paper introduced the recent development in multilayer turbulent transport methods to compute the distributions of the strengths of scalar sources and sinks within plant-atmosphere continuum, and in particular, focused on the so-called "inverse methods", and described above three methods and their characteristics in detail. The limitation and prospect of these methods were also mentioned. Air-sea interaction 2368 Bora-induced currents corresponding to different synoptic conditions above the Adriatic Paklar G.B., Baji´c A., Dadi´c V. et al. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/4 (1083-1091) The Bora wind field is characterised by strong vorticity and divergence. Several numerical experiments, in which an oceanographic model was forced with northeasterly winds having climatological alongshore variability, were performed in order to study the influence of spatial variability in the bora wind field on the surface currents in the northern Adriatic. Numerical model results showed that during bora episodes with lower speeds and fast offshore decay surface currents along transect Rovinj - Po River are predominantly in the downwind direction. On the other hand, during bora episodes with strong intensity and slow offshore decay, a cyclonic gyre due to the pronounced bora alongshore variability is formed in the northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea and the studied transect is influenced by the counter currents. Moreover, bora having a high speed and a short offshore range produces the same effect in the eastern part of the Rovinj - Po River transect as low-speed bora characterised by slow offshore decay. Eulerian current measurements performed in the northern Adriatic during bora episodes characterised by different synoptic conditions supported the numerical model findings. Surface currents during the bora episode of 8-11 February 1984 were directed downwind, whereas during the episode of 12-19 February 1984 they were directed upwind. The first episode was characterised by a deep bora layer with cyclonic activity over the western Mediterranean and Genoa Bay, whereas the second one was accompanied by temperature inversion and a southwesterly tropospheric wind above a shallow bora layer. According to the hydraulic theory developed by Smith (1985), an observed 450 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY descent of isentropes during the second bora episode led to the stronger acceleration in the bora layer and its larger offshore extent. Different offshore bora decays during studied events were confirmed by a comparison of the wind data originating from the meteorological stations positioned on the opposite Adriatic coasts. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2369 Evaluation of monthly turbulent heat fluxes from WHOI analysis and NCEP reanalysis in the tropical Atlantic Jiang H., Wang H. and Wu D. Acta Oceanologica Sinica 2005 24/5 (14-26) The biases and their sources in monthly turbulent heat fluxes from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) analysis, and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction National Center for Atmospheric Research reanalyses 1 and 2 (NCEP1 and NCEP2) are checked in the climatically representative regions in the tropical Atlantic using the fluxes from the Southampton Oceanographic Centre (SOC) and the pilot research moored array in the tropical Atlantic (PIRATA) as references. For the WHOI analysis, the biases in turbulent heat fluxes mainly exist in equatorial regions which are due to the overestimated sea surface temperature and the underestimated 2 m air humidity. For the NCEP2 reanalysis, the maximum biases, about (40 5) W/m2 , exist in southeast and northeast trade wind regions, which are mainly caused by the flux algorithm used because the biases in wind speed and air-sea humidity difference are relatively small. In the equatorial regions, the flux biases in the NCEP2 derived from both flux-related basic variables and algorithm are equally large. Although the estimations of time series trends and air-sea humidity difference of the NCEP1 are improved greatly in the NCEP2, the biases of latent heat flux in the NCEP2 are about 20 W/m2 greater than those from the NCEP1 in the trade wind regions. The result shows that the climatologies and monthly variabilities of the turbulent heat fluxes from the WHOI are more accurate than those from the NCEP1 and NCEP2 in the tropical Atlantic, especially on outside of the equatorial regions. ˜ phe2370 Variational iteration solving method for El Nino nomenon atmospheric physics of nonlinear model Mo J., Wang H., Lin W. and Lin Y. Acta Oceanologica Sinica 2005 24/5 (35-38) A class of El Ni˜no atmospheric physics oscillation model is considered. The El Ni˜no atmospheric physics oscillation is an abnormal phenomenon involved in the tropical Pacific ocean-atmosphere interactions. The conceptual oscillator model should consider the variations of both the eastern and western Pacific anomaly patterns. An El Ni˜no atmospheric physics model is proposed using a method for the variational iteration theory. Using the variational iteration method, the approximate expansions of the solution of corresponding problem are constructed. That is, firstly, introducing a set of functional and accounting their variationals, the Lagrange multiplicators; are counted, and then the variational iteration is defined, finally, the approximate solution is obtained. From approximate expansions of the solution, the zonal sea surface temperature anomaly in the equatorial eastern Pacific and the thermocline depth anomaly of the sea-air oscillation for El Ni˜no atmospheric physics model can be analyzed. El Ni˜no is a very complicated natural phenomenon. Hence basic models need to be reduced for the sea-air oscillator and are solved. The variational iteration is a simple and valid approximate method. 2371 Sensitivity of tropical Atlantic climate to mixing in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model Hazeleger W. and Haarsma R.J. Climate Dynamics 2005 25/4 (387-399) The sensitivity of tropical Atlantic climate to upper ocean mixing is investigated using an ocean-only model and a coupled ocean - atmosphere model. The upper ocean thermal structure and associated atmospheric circulation prove to be strongly related to the strength of upper ocean mixing. Using the heat balance in the mixed layer it is shown that an excessively cold equatorial cold tongue can be attributed to entrainment flux at the base of the oceanic mixed layer, that is too large. Enhanced entrainment efficiency acts to deepen the mixed layer and causes strong reduction in the upper ocean divergence in the central equatorial Atlantic. As a result, the simulated sea surface temperature, thermocline structure, and upwelling velocities are close to the observed estimates. In the coupled model, the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) reduces when the entrainment efficiency in the oceanic mixed layer is enhanced. The precipitation rates decrease in the equatorial region and increase along 10°N, resulting in a more realistic Atlantic Marine ITCZ. The reduced meridional surface temperature gradient in the eastern tropical Atlantic prohibits the development of convective precipitation in the southeastern part of the tropical Atlantic. Also, the simulation of tropical Atlantic variability as expressed in the meridional gradient mode and the eastern cold tongue mode improves when the entrainment efficiency is enhanced. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2372 On the response of the oceanic wind-driven circulation to atmospheric CO2 increase Saenko O.A., Fyfe J.C. and England M.H. Climate Dynamics 2005 25/4 (415-426) A global, flux-corrected climate model is employed to predict the surface wind stress and associated wind-driven oceanic circulation for climate states corresponding to a doubling and quadrupling of the atmospheric CO2 concentration in a simple 1% per year CO2 increase scenario. The model indicates that in response to CO2 increase, the position of zero wind stress curl in the mid-latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere shifts poleward. In addition, the wind stress intensifies significantly in the midlatitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. As a result, the rate of water circulation in the subpolar meridional overturning cell in the Southern Ocean increases by about 6 Sv (1 Sv = 106 m3 s-1 ) for doubled CO2 and by 12 Sv for quadrupled CO2 , implying an increase of deep water upwelling south of the circumpolar flow and an increase of Ekman pumping north of it. In addition, the changes in the wind stress and wind stress curl translate into changes in the horizontal mass transport, leading to a poleward expansion of the subtropical gyres in both hemispheres, and to strengthening of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Finally, the intensified near-surface winds over the Southern Ocean result in a substantial increase of mechanical energy supply to the ocean general circulation. © Her Majesty The Queen in right of Canada herein represented by the Minister of the Environment 2005. 2373 Evolution of ENSO-related rainfall anomalies in Southeast Asia region and its relationship with atmosphere Ocean variations in Indo-Pacific sector Juneng L. and Tangang F.T. Climate Dynamics 2005 25/4 (337350) The Southeast Asia rainfall (SEAR) anomalies depend strongly on phases of El Ni˜no (La Ni˜na). Using an extended empirical orthogonal function (EEOF) analysis, it is shown that the dominant EEOF mode of SEAR anomalies evolves northeastward throughout a period from the summer when El Ni˜no develops to spring the following year when the event weakens. This evolution is consistent with northeastward migration of the ENSO-related anomalous out going radiation field. During boreal summer (winter), the strong ENSO-related anomaly tends to reside in regions south (north) of the equator. The evolution of dominant mode of SEAR anomalies is in tandem with the evolution of ENSO-related sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies. The strengthening and weakening of "boomerang-shaped" SST in western Pacific, the changing sign of anomalous SST in Java Sea and the warming in Indian Ocean and South China Sea are all part of ENSO-related changes and all are linked to SEAR anomaly. The anomalous low-level circulation associated with ENSO-related SEAR anomaly indicates the strengthening and weakening of two off-equatorial anticyclones, one over the Southern Indian Ocean and the other over the western North Pacific. Together with patterns of El Ni˜no minus La Ni˜na composites of various fields, it is proposed that the northeastward evolution of SEAR anomaly is basically part of the large-scale eastward evolution of ENSO-related signal in the Indo-Pacific sector. The atmosphere - ocean interaction plays an important role in this evolution. © Springer-Verlag 2005. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2374 The influence of North Atlantic surface temperature on the snow cover duration in Poland (Polish) (Wpływ zmian temperatury powierzchni Atlantyku p´ołnocnego na czas zalegania pokrywy s´ nie˙znej w Polsce) Falarz M. and Marsz A.A. Przeglad Geofizyczny 2005 50/1-2 (13-29) The aim of this paper is to find an answer to the question whether there are statistically significant relationships between the snow cover duration in Poland and the sea surface temperature of different regions in the North Atlantic Ocean. Connections of the number of days with snow cover in the winter season at 66 meteorological stations located in Poland with anomalies of mean monthly sea surface temperature of the North Atlantic in so called "control grids" and with a few of the indices describing, in a complex way, some of the features of the changes in the heat distribution in the North Atlantic were examined using the methods of correlation and simple and multiple regressions. The correlations between the thermal conditions of the North Atlantic and the snow cover duration are synchronically - the observed changes in the duration of the period with snow cover are delayed by 4-5 months when referred to the year in which the changes in sea surface temperature took place. These correlations are relatively weak and changeable over time. They become stronger in periods in which zonal circulation prevails and at the time of stronger influence of meridional circulation they weaken. The sea areas whose changeability in thermal conditions indicates strongest correlations with the snow cover duration in Poland are located in the west part of the Atlantic Ocean. The snow cover duration in Poland is significantly influenced by the changes in thermal conditions of the Sargasso Sea over the period from January to May preceding the winter season and by the changes in currents regimes: 1) the cold Labrador Current in spring preceding the winter season and 2) the warm Florida Current in the period of winter preceding a winter season in Poland. The larger are heat resources in waters of the Sargasso Sea, the greater is the transport of warm waters carried with the Gulfstream and the stronger the influence of the cooled waters of the Labrador Current becomes, the shorter is the duration of snow cover in Poland in the following winter. The complex influence of the selected features of the sea surface temperature of the Atlantic Ocean illustrated with the help of three combined indices enables to explain 53% of the many year changeability in the mean duration of the snow cover in Poland and 63% of changeability in the number of days with snow cover in the north east part of Poland. However, the standard estimation error remains at quite high level (20% or more of the mean many year value of the snow cover duration). 2375 Internal atmospheric dynamics and tropical indo-Pacific climate variability Kirtman B.P., Pegion K. and Kinter S.M. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2220-2233) One possible explanation for tropical sea surface temperature (SST) interannual variability is that it can be accurately described by a linear autoregressive model with damped coupled feedbacks and stochastic forcing. This autoregressive model can be viewed as a "null hypothesis" for tropical SST variability. This paper advances a new coupled general circulation model (CGCM) coupling strategy, called an interactive ensemble, as a method to test this null hypothesis. The design of the interactive ensemble procedure is to reduce the stochastic variability in the air-sea fluxes applied to the ocean component while retaining the deterministic component of the coupled feedbacks. The interactive ensemble procedure uses multiple realizations of the atmospheric GCM coupled to a single realization of the ocean GCM. The ensemble mean of the atmospheric GCM fluxes are applied to the ocean model thereby significantly reducing the variability due to internal atmospheric dynamics in the air-sea fluxes. If the null hypothesis is correct, the SST variability is reduced, and the autoregressive model defines how much the variability should be reduced. To test the null hypothesis, the interactive ensemble procedure is applied to a heuristic coupled model. Then the heuristic coupled model is used to interpret the CGCM interactive ensemble results with respect to (i) SST variance and (ii) how the amplitude of atmospheric internal dynamics depends on the evolving background SST anomaly. There are significant regions where the heuristic model fails to reproduce the CGCM 451 results, suggesting that aspects of tropical Indo-Pacific variability in the CGCM cannot be explained by damped coupled feedbacks and stochastic forcing. These regions are largely coincident with regions of large convective anomalies. Surprisingly, significant regions were found in the tropical eastern Pacific where the variability due to internal ocean dynamics cannot be neglected. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2376 Two independent triggers for the Indian Ocean dipole/zonal mode in a coupled GCM Fischer A.S., Terray P., Guilyardi E. et al. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3428-3449) The question of whether and how tropical Indian Ocean dipole or zonal mode (IOZM) interannual variability is independent of El Ni˜no-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability in the Pacific is addressed in a comparison of twin 200-yr runs of a coupled climate model. The first is a reference simulation, and the second has ENSO-scale variability suppressed with a constraint on the tropical Pacific wind stress. The IOZM can exist in the model without ENSO, and the composite evolution of the main anomalies in the Indian Ocean in the two simulations is virtually identical. Its growth depends on a positive feedback between anomalous equatorial easterly winds, upwelling equatorial and coastal Kelvin waves reducing the thermocline depth and sea surface temperature off the coast of Sumatra, and the atmospheric dynamical response to the subsequently reduced convection. Two IOZM triggers in the boreal spring are found. The first is an anomalous Hadley circulation over the eastern tropical Indian Ocean and Maritime Continent, with an early northward penetration of the Southern Hemisphere southeasterly trades. This situation grows out of cooler sea surface temperatures in the southeastern tropical Indian Ocean left behind by a reinforcement of the late austral summer winds. The second trigger is a consequence of a zonal shift in the center of convection associated with a developing El Ni˜no, a Walker cell anomaly. The first trigger is the only one present in the constrained simulation and is similar to the evolution of anomalies in 1994, when the IOZM occurred in the absence of a Pacific El Ni˜no state. The presence of these two triggers - the first independent of ENSO and the second phase locking the IOZM to El Ni˜no - allows an understanding of both the existence of IOZM events when Pacific conditions are neutral and the significant correlation between the IOZM and El Ni˜no. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2377 Effect of preconditioning on the extreme climate events in the tropical Indian Ocean Annamalai H., Potemra J., Murtugudde R. and McCreary J.P. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3450-3469) Sea surface temperature observations in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (EEIO) during the period 1950-2003 indicate that Indian Ocean dipole/zonal mode (IODZM) events are strong in two decades, namely, the 1960s and 1990s. Atmospheric reanalysis products in conjunction with output from an ocean model are examined to investigate the possible reason for the occurrence of strong IODZM events in these two decades. Specifically, the hypothesis that the mean thermocline in the EEIO is raised or lowered depending on the phase of Pacific decadal variability (PDV), preconditioning the EEIO to favor stronger or weaker IODZM activity, is examined. Diagnostics reveal that the EEIO is preconditioned by the traditional PDV signal (SVD1 of SST), deepening or shoaling the thermocline off south Java through its influence on the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF; oceanic teleconnection), and by residual decadal variability in the western and central Pacific (SVD2 of SST) that changes the equatorial winds over the Indian Ocean (atmospheric teleconnection). Both effects produce a background state that is either favorable or unfavorable for the thermocline-mixed layer interactions, and hence for the excitation of strong IODZM events. Collectively, SVD1 and SVD2 are referred to as PDV here. This hypothesis is tested with a suite of ocean model experiments. First, two runs are carried out, forced by climatological winds to which idealized easterly or westerly winds are added only over the equatorial Indian Ocean. As might be expected, in the easterly (westerly) run a shallower (deeper) thermocline is obtained over the EEIO. Then, observed winds from individual years are used to force the model. In these runs, anomalously cool SST in the EEIO develops only during 452 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY decades when the thermocline is anomalously shallow, allowing entrainment of colder waters into the mixed layer. Since 1999 the PDV phase has changed, and consistent with this hypothesis the depth of the mean thermocline in the EEIO has been increasing. As a consequence, no IODZM developed during the El Ni˜no of 2002, and only a weak cooling event occurred during the summer of 2003. This hypothesis likely also explains why some strong IODZM events occur in the absence of ENSO forcing, provided that PDV has preconditioned the EEIO thermocline to be anomalously shallow. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2378 SST-induced surface wind variations over the BrazilMalvinas confluence: Satellite and in situ observations Tokinaga H., Tanimoto Y. and Xie S.- P. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3470-3482) The confluence of the Brazil-Malvinas Currents maintains strong sea surface temperature (SST) fronts in the midlatitude southwestern Atlantic year-round. SST effects on near-surface stability and surface wind variations are examined in this region using satellite and in situ datasets. Satellite observations show strong (weak) surface wind speeds over the warm Brazil (cold Malvinas) Current. A novel feature of this study is the construction of a high-resolution surface meteorological dataset that is based on historical ship observations. Analysis of this new in situ dataset reveals an increased (reduced) sea-air temperature difference over the Brazil (Malvinas) Current, indicating destabilization (stabilization) in the atmospheric boundary layer. These results are consistent with the SST-induced vertical mixing mechanism for wind adjustment. The SST effect on the nearsurface atmosphere is observed both in the climatology and on interannual time scales in the Brazil-Malvinas confluence. Along a zonal SST front at 49°S northeast of the Malvinas/Falkland Islands, there is a collocated line of surface wind divergence, with moderate convergence to the north. Vertical mixing does not explain this divergence pattern because the prevailing surface winds are westerly, blowing in parallel with the front. An additional mechanism is proposed for boundary layer wind adjustment. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2379 Circumglobal teleconnection in the Northern Hemisphere summer Ding Q. and Wang B. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3483-3505) Analysis of the 56-yr NCEP-NCAR reanalysis data reveals a recurrent circumglobal teleconnection (CGT) pattern in the summertime midlatitude circulation of the Northern Hemisphere. This pattern represents the second leading empirical orthogonal function of interannual variability of the upper-tropospheric circulation. The CGT, having a zonal wavenumber-5 structure, is primarily positioned within a waveguide that is associated with the westerly jet stream. The spatial phases of CGT tend to lock to preferred longitudes. The geographically phase-locked patterns bear close similarity during June, August, and September, but the pattern in July shows shorter wavelengths in the North PacificNorth America sector. The CGT is accompanied by significant rainfall and surface air temperature anomalies in the continental regions of western Europe, European Russia, India, east Asia, and North America. This implies that the CGT may be a source of climate variability and predictability in the above-mentioned midlatitude regions. The CGT has significant correlations with the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) and El Ni˜no-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). However, in normal ISM years the CGT-ENSO correlation disappears; on the other hand, in the absence of El Ni˜no or La Ni˜na, the CGT-ISM correlation remains significant. It is suggested that the ISM acts as a "conductor" connecting the CGT and ENSO. When the interaction between the ISM and ENSO is active, ENSO may influence northern China via the ISM and the CGT. Additionally, the variability of the CGT has no significant association with the Arctic Oscillation and the variability of the western North Pacific summer monsoon. The circulation of the wave train shows a barotropic structure everywhere except the cell located to the northwest of India, where a baroclinic circulation structure dominates. Two possible scenarios are proposed. The abnormal ISM may excite an anomalous west-central Asian high and downstream Rossby wave train extending to the North Pacific and North America. On the other hand, a wave train that is excited in the jet exit region of the North Atlantic may affect the west-central Asian high and, thus, the intensity of the ISM. It is hypothesized that the interaction between the global wave train and the ISM heat source may be instrumental in maintaining the boreal summer CGT. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2380 Indian Ocean variability and its association with ENSO in a global coupled model Zhong A., Hendon H.H. and Alves O. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3634-3649) The evolution of the Indian Ocean during El Ni˜no-Southern Oscillation is investigated in a 100-yr integration of an Australian Bureau of Meteorology coupled seasonal forecast model. During El Ni˜no, easterly anomalies are induced across the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean. These act to suppress the equatorial thermocline to the west and elevate it to the east and initially cool (warm) the sea surface temperature (SST) in the east (west). Subsequently, the entire Indian Ocean basin warms, mainly in response to the reduced latent heat flux and enhanced shortwave radiation that is associated with suppressed rainfall. This evolution can be partially explained by the excitation of an intrinsic coupled mode that involves a feedback between anomalous equatorial easterlies and zonal gradients in SST and rainfall. This positive feedback develops in the boreal summer and autumn seasons when the mean thermocline is shallow in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean in response to trade southeasterlies. This positive feedback diminishes once the climatological surface winds become westerly at the onset of the Australian summer monsoon. ENSO is the leading mechanism that excit es this coupled mode, but not all ENSO events are efficient at exciting it. During the typical El Ni˜no (La Ni˜na) event, easterly (westerly) anomalies are not induced until after boreal autumn, which is too late in the annual cycle to instigate strong dynamical coupling. Only those ENSO events that develop early (i.e., before boreal summer) instigate a strong coupled response in the Indian Ocean. The coupled mode can also be initiated in early boreal summer by an equatorward shift of the subtropical ridge in the southern Indian Ocean, which stems from uncoupled extratropical variability. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2381 Reinitiation of the boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation in the Tropical Indian Ocean Jiang X.- A. and Li T. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3777-3795) The characteristic features of the boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation (BSISO) during its reinitiation period are studied using NCEP-NCAR reanalysis. Based on these observations and with the aid of an anomalous atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM), a possible mechanism responsible for the BSISO reinitiation is elucidated. The western equatorial Indian Ocean along the eastern African coast tends to be a key region for the phase transition of the BSISO from an enhanced to suppressed convective phase, or vise versa. The major precursory feature associated with reinitiation of suppressed convection is found in the divergence and reduced specific humidity in the boundary layer. Numerical experiments indicate that the low-level divergence is caused by the cold horizontal temperature advection and associated adiabatic warming (descending motion) in situ. The summer mean state is found to be important for the cold horizontal temperature advection through the modulation of a Gill-type response to an intraseasonal oscillation (ISO) heating in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean. The results in this study suggest a self-sustained paradigm in the Indian Ocean for the BSISO; that is, the BSISO could be a basinwide phenomenon instead of a global circumstance system as hypothesized for the boreal winter ISO (i.e., the Madden-Julian oscillation). © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2382 Dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model: Ridging and its application to climate study and navigation Shoutilin S.V., Makshtas A.P., Ikeda M. et al. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3840-3855) A dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model with the ocean mixed layer forced by atmospheric data is used to investigate spatial and long-term variability of the sea ice cover in the Arctic basin. The model satisfactorily reproduces the averaged main characteristics of the sea ice and its extent in the Arctic Basin, as well as its decrease in the early 1990s. Employment of the average ridge METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY shape for describing the ridging allows the authors to suggest that it occurs in winter and varies from year to year by a factor of 2, depending on an atmospheric circulation pattern. Production and horizontal movement of ridges are the focus in this paper, as they show the importance of interannual variability of the Arctic ice cover. The observed thinning in the 1990s is a result of reduction in ridge formation on the Pacific side during the cyclonic phase of the Arctic Oscillation. The model yields a partial recovery of sea ice cover in the last few years of the twentieth century. In addition to the sea ice cover and average thickness compared with satellite data, the ridge amount is verified with observations taken in the vicinity of the Russian coast. The model results are useful to estimate long-term variability of the probability of ridge-free navigation in different parts of the Arctic Ocean, including the Northern Sea Route area. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2383 Effects of Central American Mountains on the Eastern Pacific Winter ITCZ and moisture transport Xu H., Xie S.- P., Wang Y. and Small R.J. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3856-3873) The intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) is displaced to the south edge of the eastern Pacific warm pool in boreal winter, instead of being collocated. A high-resolution regional climate model is used to investigate the mechanism for this displaced ITCZ. Under the observed sea surface temperature (SST) and lateral boundary forcing, the model reproduces the salient features of eastern Pacific climate in winter, including the southward displaced ITCZ and gap wind jets off the Central American coast. As the northeast trades impinge on the mountains of Central America, subsidence prevails off the Pacific coast, pushing the ITCZ southward. Cold SST patches induced by three gap wind jets have additional effects of keeping the ITCZ away from the coast. In an experiment in which both the Central American mountains and their effect on SST are removed, the ITCZ shifts considerably northward to cover much of the eastern Pacific warm pool. The Central American mountains are co nsidered important to freshwater transport from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, which in turn plays a key role in global ocean thermohaline circulation. The results of this study show that this transport across Central America is not very sensitive to the fine structure of the orography because the increased flow in the mountain gaps in a detailed topography run tends to be compensated for by broader flow in a smoothed topography run. Implications for global climate modeling are discussed. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2384 Air-sea interactions in the tropical Atlantic: A view based on lagged rotated maximum covariance analysis Frankignoul C. and Kestenare E. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3874-3890) The dominant air-sea feedbacks that are at play in the tropical Atlantic are revisited, using the 1958-2002 NCEP reanalysis. To separate between different modes of variability and distinguish between cause and effect, a lagged rotated maximum covariance analysis (MCA) of monthly sea surface temperature (SST), wind, and surface heat flux anomalies is performed. The dominant mode is the ENSO-like zonal equatorial SST mode, which has its maximum amplitude in boreal summer and is a strongly coupled ocean-atmosphere mode sustained by a positive feedback between wind and SST. The turbulent heat flux feedback is negative, except west of 25°W where it is positive, but countered by a negative radiative feedback associated with the meridional displacement of the ITCZ. As the maximum covariance patterns change little between lead and lag conditions, the in-phase covariability between SST and the atmosphere can be used to infer the atmospheric response to the SST anomaly. The second climate mode involves an SST anomaly in the tropical North Atlantic, which is primarily generated by the surface heat flux and, in boreal winter, wind changes off the coast of Africa. After it has been generated, the SST anomaly is sustained in the deep Tropics by the positive wind-evaporation-SST feedback linked to the wind response to the SST. However, north of about 10°N where the SST anomaly is largest, the wind response is weak and the heat flux feedback is negative, thus damping the SST anomaly. As the in-phase maximum covariance patterns primarily reflect the atmospheric forcing of the SST, simultaneous 453 correlations cannot be used to describe the atmospheric response to the SST anomaly, except in the deep Tropics. Using instead the maximum covariance patterns when SST leads the atmosphere reconciles the results of recent atmospheric general circulation model experiments with the observations. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2385 Influence of the Indian Ocean dipole on atmospheric subseasonal variability Shinoda T. and Han W. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (38913909) The relationship between atmospheric subseasonal variability and interannual variation of SST over the tropical Indian Ocean is examined using winds and humidity from the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis, outgoing longwave radiation (OLR), and the monthly SST analysis. The primary focus is on whether and how the subseasonal variability is related to the zonal dipole structure of SST, which peaks during boreal fall. The level of subseasonal wind activity is measured by standard deviation of bandpassfiltered zonal wind fields on the 6-30- and 30-90-day time scales. During boreal fall (September-November), the interannual variat ion of 6-30-day (submonthly) near-surface zonal wind activity in the central and eastern equatorial Indian Ocean is highly correlated with the large-scale zonal SST gradient. The intensity of submonthly variability is largely reduced during positive dipole years. A significant reduction of intraseasonal (30-90-day) wind activity is also evident during large dipole events. However, the correlation with the zonal SST gradient is much weaker than that of submonthly variability. The mechanism by which the Indian Ocean dipole influences equatorial submonthly winds is investigated based on a cross-correlation analysis of OLR and winds. During negative dipole years, submonthly convection is active in the southeast Indian Ocean where the anomalous convergence of surface moisture associated with dipole events is at its maximum. The submonthly convection in this region is often associated with a cyclonic circulation, and these disturbances propagate westward. Consequently, equatorial westerlies and northwesterly winds near the coast of Sumatra are generated. During positive dipole years, submonthly convective activity is highly reduced in the southeast Indian Ocean, and thus no equatorial westerly is generated. Ocean response to submonthly disturba nces is examined using OGCM experiments forced with winds from the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis. Results suggest that submonthly winds can generate significant upper-ocean response, including strong eastward surface currents near the equator and sea surface height anomalies along the coast of Sumatra where the large SST anomalies associated with dipole events are observed. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2386 Moist teleconnection mechanisms for the tropical South American and atlantic sector Neelin J.D. and Su H. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3928-3950) Teleconnections have traditionally been studied for the case of dry dynamical response to a given diabatic heat source. Important anomalies often occur within convective zones, for instance, in the observed remote response to El Ni˜no. The reduction of rainfall and teleconnection propagation in deep convective regions poses theoretical challenges because feedbacks involving convective heating and cloud radiative effects come into play. Land surface feedbacks, including variations of land surface temperature, and ocean surface layer temperature response must be taken into account. During El Ni˜no, descent and negative precipitation anomalies often extend across equatorial South America and the Atlantic intertropical convergence zone. Analysis of simulated mechanisms in a case study of the 1997/98 El Ni˜no is used to illustrate the general principals of teleconnections occurring in deep convective zones, contrasting land and ocean regions. Comparison to other simulated events shows similar behavior. Tropospheric temperature and wind anomalies are spread eastward by wave dynamics modified by interaction with the moist convection zones. The traditional picture would have gradual descent balanced by radiative damping, but this scenario misses the most important balances in the moist static energy (MSE) budget. A small "zoo" of mechanisms is active in producing strong regional descent anomalies and associated drought. Factors common to several mechanisms include the 454 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY role of convective quasi equilibrium (QE) in linking low-level moisture anomalies to free tropospheric temperature anomalies in a two-way interaction referred to as QE mediation. Convective heating feedbacks change the net static stability to a gross moist stability (GMS) M. The large cloud radiative feedback terms may be manipulated to appear as a modified static stability Meff , under approximations that are quantified for the quasi-equilibrium tropical circulation model used here. The relevant measure of Meff differs between land, where surface energy flux balance applies, and short time scales over ocean. For the time scale of an onsetting El Ni˜no, a mixed layer ocean response is similar to a fixed sea surface temperature (SST) case, with surface fluxes lost into the ocean and Meff substantially reduced over oceanenhancing descent anomalies. Use of Meff aids analysis of terms that act as the initiators of descent anomalies. Apparently modest terms in the MSE budget can be acted on by the GMS multiplier effect, which yields substantial precipitation anomalies due to the large ratio of the moisture convergence to the MSE divergence. Advection terms enter in several mechanisms, with the leading effects here due to advection by mean winds in both MSE and momentum balances. A Kelvinoid solution is presented as a prototype for how easterly flow enhances moist wave decay mechanisms, permitting relatively small damping terms by surface drag and radiative damping to produce the substantial eastward temperature gradients seen in observations and simulations and contributing to precipitation anomalies. The leading mechanism for drought in eastern equatorial South America is the upped-ante mechanism in which QE mediation of teleconnected tropospheric temperature anomalies tends to produce moisture gradients between the convection zone, where low-level moisture increases toward QE, and the neighboring nonconvective region. Over the Atlantic ITCZ, the upped-ante mechanism is a substantial contributor, but on short time scales several mechanisms referred to jointly as troposphere/SST disequilibrium mechanisms are important. While SST is adjusting during passive SST (coupled ocean mixed layer) experiments, or for fixed SST, heat flux to the ocean is lost to the atmosphere, and these mechanisms can induce descent and precipitation anomalies, although they disappear when SST equilibrates. In simulations here, cloud radiative feedbacks, surface heat fluxes induced by teleconnected wind anomalies, and surface fluxes induced by QE-mediated temperature anomalies are significant disequilibrium contributors. At time scales of several months or longer, remaining Atlantic ITCZ rainfall reductions are maintained by the upped-ante mechanism. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2388 Stability-dependent exchange coefficients for air-sea fluxes Kara A.B., Hurlburt H.E. and Wallcraft A.J. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (1080-1094) This study introduces exchange coefficients for wind stress (CD ), latent heat flux (CL ), and sensible heat flux (CS ) over the global ocean. They are obtained from the state-of-the-art Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment (COARE) bulk algorithm (version 3.0). Using the exchange coefficients from this bulk scheme, CD , CL , and CS are then expressed as simple polynomial functions of air-sea temperature difference (Ta - Ts ) - where air temperature (Ta .) is at 10 m, wind speed (Va ,) is at 10 m, and relative humidity (RH) is at the air-sea interface - to parameterize stability. The advantage of using polynomial-based exchange coefficients is that they do not require any iterations for stability. In addition, they agree with results from the COARE algorithm but at 5 times lower computation cost, an advantage that is particularly needed for ocean general circulation models (OGCMs) and climate models running at high horizontal resolution and short time steps. The effects of any water vapor flux in calculating the exchange coefficients are taken into account in the polynomial functions, a feature that is especially important at low wind speeds (e.g., Va < 5 m s-1 )because air-sea mixing ratio difference can have a major effect on the stability, particularly in tropical regions. Analyses of exchange coefficients demonstrate the fact that water vapor can have substantial impact on air-sea exchange coefficients at low wind speeds. An example application of the exchange coefficients from the polynomial approach is the recalculation of climatological mean wind stress magnitude from 40-yr European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) Re-Analysis (ERA-40) data in the North Pacific Ocean over 1979-2002. Using ECMWF 10-m winds and the authors’ methodology provides accurate surface stresses while largely eliminating the orographically induced Gibb’s waves found in the original ERA-40 surface wind stresses. These can have a large amplitude near mountainous regions and can extend far into the ocean interior. This study introduces exchange coefficients of air-sea fluxes, which are applicable to the wide range of conditions occurring over the global ocean, including the air-sea stability differences across the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio, regions which have been the subject of many climate model studies. This versatility results because CD , CL , and CS are determined for Va values of 1 to 40 m S-1 , (Ta - Ts ), intervals of -8° to 7°C, and RH values of 0% to 100%. Exchange coefficients presented here are called the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Air-Sea Exchange Coefficients (NASEC) and they are suitable for a wide range of air-sea interaction studies and model applications. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2387 Moisture balance for bidecadal variability of wintertime precipitation in the North Pacific using NCEP/NCAR reanalysis Nakanowatari T. and Minobe S. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (453-469) Moisture budgets are analyzed using National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis data over the North Pacific for a BiDecadal Oscillation (BDO) in precipitation that was reported by Minobe and Nakanowatari (2002). BDO in wintertime precipitation is mostly associated with moisture flux convergence, with a minor contribution from evaporation. The moisture convergence is mainly due to anomalies of wind and moisture on time scales longer than a month, except at high-latitudes where transient eddy (time scales shorter than a month) contributions are greater. When the Aleutian low strengthens (weakens), the anomalous moisture flux convergence is due to a cyclonic (anticyclonic) wind circulation over 30°-60°N and anti-cyclonic (cyclonic) wind circulation over 0°-30°N. This pair of anomalous circulations is also observed on interannual time scales, but they appear independent of El Ni˜no/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The anomalous circulation over 0°-30°N is associated with sealevel pressure anomalies in the tropics (20°S-20°N) and this result is confirmed with the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS) and the NCEP real-time marine data. This low-latitude anomalous circulation plays a dominant role in precipitation variability in Hawaii on the bi-decadal and interannual time scales. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2389 Correlation characteristics of wind, sea currents, and ice drift Ivanov N.E. Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 2004 -/8 (3544) Wind, sea current, and ice drift velocities are considered as dependent vector random variables in Euclidean space. A system of simplified indices of vector correlation in invariant form is used for express analysis. Regularities of the wind ice drift, underice boundary layer dynamics, and vertical distribution of current velocities and teleconnections in climatic fields of wind velocity are analyzed from measurements in the Baltic, Laptev, Greenland, and Barents seas and in the atmosphere of the Northern Hemisphere Atlantic sector at 500 hPa. 2390 Indian Ocean sea surface temperature variability and winter rainfall: Eastern Australia Verdon D.C. and Franks S.W. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-10) [1] This study investigates the relationship between sea surface temperature (SST) variability occurring over the Indian Ocean and winter rainfall variability in eastern Australia. Six indices of SST variability are compared and their relationship to rainfall over eastern Australia is determined. An analysis of historical rainfall data for Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria reveals that a strong relationship exists between a number of these indices and winter rainfall. In particular, anomalous SSTs over the Indonesian region provide a good indication of winter rainfall variability in eastern Australia. Additionally, this relationship is METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY shown to hold true irrespective of potential impacts on rainfall by the El Ni˜no-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). A possible physical process by which the Indian Ocean SST anomalies may influence winter rainfall is proposed, involving their impact on the nature of the northwest Australian cloud band. This study demonstrates marked controls on winter climate variability comparable to that induced in summer by the better known ENSO processes and hence offers improved understanding of year-round seasonal climates. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2391 Improvement of ENSO prediction using a linear regression model with a southern Indian Ocean sea surface temperature predictor Dominiak S. and Terray P. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) This study presents a detailed comparison between three ENSO precursors which can predict across the spring persistence barrier: the anomalous equatorial Pacific upper ocean heat content, the zonal equatorial wind stress anomaly in the far-western Pacific and SST anomalies in the South-East Indian Ocean (SEIO) during the late boreal winter. A new correlation analysis confirms that El Ni˜no (La Ni˜na) onsets are preceded by significant cold (warm) SST anomalies in the SEIO during the late boreal winter after the 1976-77 climate regime shift. Thus, the objective is to examine the respective potential of these three ENSO precursors to predict ENSO events across the boreal spring barrier during recent decades. Surprisingly, in this focus, cross-validated hindcasts of the linear regression models based on the lagged relationship between Ni˜no 3.4 SST and the predictors suggest that SEIO SST anomalies during the late boreal winter is the more robust ENSO predictor. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 455 2394 Yangtze floods and droughts (China) and teleconnections with ENSO activities (1470-2003) Tong J., Qiang Z., Deming Z. and Yijin W. Quaternary International 2005 144/1 (29-37) Climatic indicators based on proxy historical flood/drought index series (1470-2003) in the Yangtze river (China) and ENSO (El Ni˜no/La Ni˜na) index series (1868-2003) are statistically analyzed to detect a long-term variability of the floods/droughts and ENSO events and to identify the teleconnections between ENSO and flood/drought series in the upper, middle and lower Yangtze River valley. In the lower and middle Yangtze catchments, El Ni˜no shows a close relation with flood events and La Ni˜na correlates with drought events. However, the relationships are reversed for the upper Yangtze catchment. These relations are significant at > 90% confidence level based on 2 test. Spectral analysis shows that main flood/drought variation cycle is longer than that of ENSO events. The latter shows periods of 3-4 year, 5.67 years,
10-12 years while the flood/drought cycle has periods of 16.69, 5.09 and 10.47 years (confidence level of 99%). Cross-spectral analysis results indicate the ENSO changes and flood/drought variation are significantly correlated at 5.04 year and
10-12 years periods. Therefore, from the viewpoint of periodicity, ENSO episodes (El Ni˜no and La Ni˜na) are in good teleconnection with floods/ droughts in the Yangtze catchment. Eastern Asian summer and winter monsoons are influenced by ENSO through the strength of the subtropical high in the western Pacific region, which can possibly serve as the physical mechanism of the phenomenon mentioned above. The results tentatively suggest that the Chinese climatic index based on documentary records can be helpful for investigating the reconstruction of long-term ENSO activities. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. Dynamic meteorology 2392 The relative roles of tropical and extratropical forcing on atmospheric variability Sterl A. and Hazeleger W. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) A fast atmospheric General Circulation Model is used to generate three ensembles of atmospheric circulation. While the first ensemble is forced by global sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies, the forcing is confined to the tropics and extratropics, respectively, in the other two ensembles. The tropical SST anomalies have the largest impact on atmospheric variability. However, also the extratropical SST has a systematic effect on the atmosphere. In the Southern Hemisphere the extratropically forced signal reaches the strength of the tropically forced one on decadal time scales. The atmospheric response to global SST anomalies can be understood as a nearly linear superposition of the reactions to tropical and extratropical forcing, respectively, or, in a different view, as a superposition of a thermodynamic response to the globalmean SST anomaly and a dynamic response to local SST anomalies, the most important being El Ni˜no. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2393 ENSO control on the south Asian monsoon through the length of the rainy season Goswami B.N. and Xavier P.K. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Being an integral effect of sub-seasonal rain spells over the season, the seasonal mean south Asian monsoon (SAM) rainfall could be affected by change in the length of the rainy season (LRS). An objective definition of the duration of the SAM season has, however, been lacking. Here we show that the meridional gradient of tropospheric temperature ( TT) over the SAM region controls the LRS and defines the SAM season. It is further shown that ENSO induces decreased SAM rainfall by regulating the LRS. The atmospheric response to tropical sea surface temperature (SST) over the tropical Pacific during an evolving El Ni˜no, reduces TT over the SAM region and shortens LRS by delaying the onset and advancing the withdrawal. The strong negative correlation between LRS and ENSO related SST has remained steady and provides basis for improved prediction of seasonal mean SAM rainfall variability. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2395 Spatial and temporal variations of small-scale plasma turbulence parameters in the equatorial electrojet: HF and VHF radar observational results Manju G., Viswanathan K.S. and Ravindran S. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/4 (1165-1173) The spatial and temporal variations of various parameters associated with plasma wave turbulence in the equatorial electrojet (EEJ) at the magnetic equatorial location of Trivandrum (8.5° N, 77° E; dip 0.5° N) are studied for the first time, using co-located HF (18 MHz) and VHF (54.95 MHz) coherent backscatter radar observations (daytime) in the altitude region of 95-110 km, mostly on magnetically quiet days. The derived turbulence parameters are the mean electron density irregularity strength ( n/n), anomalous electron collision frequency (ve ) and the corrected east-west electron drift velocity (Vey ). The validity of the derived parameters is confirmed using radar data at two different frequencies and comparing with in-situ measurements. The behaviour of n/n in relation to the backscattered power during weak and strong EEJ conditions is also examined to understand the growth and evolution of turbulence in the electrojet. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2396 Intraseasonal dynamical evolution of the Northern Annular mode McDaniel B.A. and Black R.X. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3820-3839) The Northern Hemisphere annular mode (NAM) accounts for a significant fraction of the extratropical wintertime atmospheric variability. The dynamics of NAM events have been studied on monthly time scales, but little is known about the physical mechanisms that give rise to NAM variability on shorter time scales. Composite diagnostic analyses based on daily NAM indices are performed with a goal of identifying the dominant processes responsible for the growth and decay of large-amplitude positive and negative NAM events on short intraseasonal time scales. Transformed Eulerian mean, piecewise potential vorticity inversions, and regional Plumb flux diagnoses are employed to deduce the proximate forcings of the zonal-mean wind tendency during maturing and declining NAM stages. A remarkable degree of reverse symmetry is observed between the 456 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY zonal-mean dynamical evolution of positive and negative NAM events. Anomalous equatorward and downward (poleward and upward) Eliassen-Palm fluxes are observed during the maturation of positive (negative) NAM events, consistent with index of refraction considerations and an indirect downward stratospheric influence. The associated patterns of anomalous wave driving provide the primary forcing of the zonal wind tendency field. Spectral analyses reveal that both the stratospheric and tropospheric patterns of wave driving are primarily due to lowfrequency planetary-scale eddies. Regional wave activity flux diagnoses further illustrate that this wave-driving pattern represents the zonal-mean manifestation of planetary-scale anomalies over the North Atlantic that are linked to local anomalies in stationary wave forcing. The decay of NAM events coincides with the collapse in the pattern of anomalous stationary wave forcing over the North Atlantic region. Our diagnostic results indicate that both (i) synoptic eddies and (ii) direct downward stratospheric forcing provide second-order reinforcing contributions to the intraseasonal dynamical evolution of NAM events. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2397 The GCM response to current parameterizations of nonorographic gravity wave drag McLandress C. and Scinocca J.F. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2394-2413) A comparison is undertaken of the response of a general circulation model (GCM) to the nonorographic gravity wave drag parameterizations of Hines, Warner and McIntyre, and Alexander and Dunkerton. The analysis is restricted to a comparison of each parameterization’s nonlinear dissipation mechanism since, in principle, this is the only component that differs between the schemes. This is achieved by developing a new, more general parameterization that can represent each of these dissipation mechanisms, while keeping all other aspects of the problem identical. The GCM simulations reveal differences in the climatological response to the three dissipation mechanisms. These differences are documented for both tropopause and surface launch elevations of the parameterized waves. The simulations also reveal systematic differences in the height at which momentum is deposited. This behavior is investigated further in a set of experiments designed to reduce these systematic differences, while leaving the details of the dissipation mechanisms unaltered. These sensitivity experiments demonstrate that it is possible to obtain nearly identical responses from all three mechanisms, which indicates that the GCM response is largely insensitive to the precise details of the dissipation mechanisms. This finding is supported by an additional experiment in which the nonlinear dissipation mechanisms are turned off and critical-level filtering is left to act as the only source of dissipation. In this experiment, critical-level filtering effectively replaces the nonlinear dissipation mechanism, producing a nearly identical response. The results of this study suggest that climate modeling efforts would potentially benefit more from the refinement of other aspects of the parameterization problem, such as the properties of the launch spectrum, than they have benefited from the refinement of dissipation mechanisms. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2398 Baroclinic multiple zonal jets on the sphere Lee S. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (24842498) Multiple zonal jets are investigated with a two-level primitive equation model on the sphere in which both baroclinicity and planetary radius are varied. As in the case for a two-layer quasigeostrophic model on a  -plane channel, it is found both that the Rhines scale successfully predicts the meridional scale of the multiple zonal jets, and that these jets are maintained in part by an eddy momentum flux divergence associated with slow baroclinic waves at the interjet minimum. A scalin g analysis suggests that njets  (a/ m )1/2 , with the constraints  e  8 sin2 f ( m /
) > 1 and njets  1, where njets is the number of the jets, a the planetary radius, m one-half of the pole-to-equator potential temperature difference,  e the supercriticality of the two-layer Phillips model,
 the potential temperature difference between the two levels, and  the latitude. The number of jets simulated by the model agrees with this scaling, provided that Ljet  a, where Ljet is the jet scale. In model runs with a large planet where multiple zonal jets exist, the time-mean eddy heat flux is found to be consistent with the diffusive picture of Held and Larichev. In contrast, for the model runs with the planetary size equal to that of Earth, baroclinic adjustment is found to be more relevant. These results are consistent with the finding that in the large-planet (Earth-like) model runs, the jet/eddy scale is smaller than (comparable to) the corresponding planetary radius. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2399 Shear instability in a shallow water model with implications for the Venus atmosphere Iga S.- I. and Matsuda Y. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2514-2527) The shear instability problem in the spherical shallow water system is investigated for three types of wind profiles that are observed at the upper cloud level in Venus. Destabilized Kelvin modes are obtained for all profiles, even when the wind profile is barotropically and inertially stable. The eigenfunctions of these unstable modes are a hybrid of Kelvin modes and continuous modes, which have singularity at the critical latitude. Destabilized Rossby-Kelvin modes are also obtained for the barotropically unstable profile with strong jets. When Lamb parameter  = (2a)2 /gH is large, together with other destabilized gravity modes, these modes have the property of inertial instability modes, which are described by preceding studies on the tropical inertial instability. The destabilizing mechanism of unstable modes is described using resonance theory. It is found that the angular -momentum flux is equatorward for almost all growing modes obtained in this study; this result is consistent with what the resonance theory predicts. This momentum transport may contribute to the mechanism of producing the superrotation of the Venus atmosphere based on the meridional circulation. The destabilized Kelvin modes may be considered as a source of the 4-day waves observed in the equatorial region at the cloud top of Venus. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. Dynamic meteorology: large scale 2400 Intra-seasonal oscillations (ISO) of zonal-mean meridional winds and temperatures as measured by UARS Huang F.T., Mayr H.G. and Reber C.A. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/4 (1131-1137) Based on an empirical analysis of measurements with the High Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI) on the UARS spacecraft in the upper mesosphere (95 km), persistent and regular intra-seasonal oscillations (ISO) with periods of about 2 to 4 months have recently been reported in the zonal-mean meridional winds. Similar oscillations have also been discussed independently in a modeling study, and they were attributed to wave-mean-flow interactions. The observed and modeled meridional wind ISOs were largely confined to low latitudes. We report here on an analysis of concurrent UARS temperature measurements, which produces oscillations similar to those seen in the meridional winds. Although the temperature oscillations are observed at lower altitudes (55 km), their phase variations with latitude are qualitatively consistent with the inferred properties seen in the meridional winds and thus provide independent evidence for the existence of ISOs in the mesosphere. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2401 The dynamical background of polar mesosphere winter echoes from simultaneous EISCAT and ESRAD observations Belova E., Kirkwood S., Ekeberg J. et al. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/4 (1239-1247) On 30 October 2004 during a strong solar proton event, layers of enhanced backscatter from altitudes between 55 and 75 km have been observed by both ESRAD (52 MHz) and the EISCAT VHF (224 MHz) radars. These echoes have earlier been termed Polar Mesosphere Winter Echoes, PMWE. After considering the morphology of the layers and their relation to observed atmospheric waves, we conclude that the radars have likely seen the same phenomenon even though the radars’ scattering volumes are located about 220 km apart and that the most long-lasting METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY layer is likely associated with wind-shear in an inertio-gravity wave. An ion-chemistry model is used to determine parameters necessary to relate wind-shear induced turbulent energy dissipation rates to radar backscatter. The model is verified by comparison with electron density profiles measured by the EISCAT VHF radar. Observed radar signal strengths are found to be 2-3 orders of magnitude stronger than the maximum which can be expected from neutral turbulence alone, assuming that previously published results relating radar signal scatter to turbulence parameters, and turbulence parameters to wind shear, are correct. The possibility remains that some additional or alternative mechanism may be involved in producing PMWE, such as layers of charged dust/smoke particles or large cluster ions. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2402 Extratropical case study of stratosphere-troposphere exchange using multivariate analyses from mozaic aircraft data Borchi F., Oikonomou E. and Marenco A. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6537-6549) A multivariate analysis methodology, applied to ozone, water vapour and potential temperature data collected from MOZAIC aircraft allowed to identify and to quantify three types of air masses directly linked to stratosphere-troposphere exchanges (STE). These air masses occurred in February 1997 over the North Atlantic during the development of a Rossby wave, which is manifested in the form of four different structures, namely trough, ridge, streamer and cut-off low (COL). Here a study is conducted on 20 isobaric (i.e. at 230 hPa) flights crossing all these upper-level structures. It is shown that the first type of air mass corresponds to a mixed zone between the stratosphere and the troposphere when the tropopause is poorly defined and when there exist medium values and weak gradients of ozone, potential temperature and humidity. The second type of air mass reveals an irreversible transport from the troposphere to the stratosphere for all these structures leading to a "wet" stratosphere with high values of water vapour. The third type of air mass corresponds to the classical stratosphere with high values of ozone and low values of water vapour. The comparison with the model results of Kowol-Santen et al. (2000) shows that these first two air masses are directly linked to either diabatic processes or turbulent diffusion depending on the orientation and the type of the structure. The western side of the trough (with no mixing zone on the eastern side) and the ridge are dominated by clear air turbulence (CAT). On the other hand, the decay of the COL seems to be the result of strong convection on its northern and eastern flanks. Concerning the decay of the streamer, it is found to be due to both diabatic and turbulent processes. The above results suggest that the existence of a mixing zone during STE seems to be a more realistic concept instead of that where the tropopause is considered as a surface. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2403 The objective method of vector fields classification presented on the example of uppertropospheric jet streams (Polish) (Obiektywna metoda klasyfikacji p´ol wektorowych na przykładzie g´ornotroposferycznych prad´ow strumieniowych) Degirmendˇzi´c J. Przeglad Geofizyczny 2005 50/1-2 (59-72) In the paper there is presented the method designed for vector fields classification. It is based on the algorithm proposed by Lund (1963). The replacement of Pearson correlation coefficient with vector correlation coefficient defined by Crosby (1993) is the essential change that makes this technique suitable for treatment of vector fields. The correlation threshold, set a priori in scalar analyses, is calculated objectively, with the help of PVCR index introduced by Huth (1996). PVCR index expresses the proportion of average similarity between objects classified into different categories to objects grouped in the same classes. PVCR is computed for selected range of threshold values and minimum value indicates the "best" correlation threshold. The classification was carried out for wind fields at the 250 hPa surface over Europe for winter season during 1958-2003 period. 20 classes of jet stream patterns were distinguished, which constitute 60.7% of the sample. Basic statistics, i.e. average and maximum frequency and duration time, were calculated for the first six key jet types. The main features of upper circulation field as well as 457 temperature and pressure distribution in the lower troposphere associated with the jet types were also described. 2404 The Indian summer monsoon rainfall: Interplay of coupled dynamics, radiation and cloud microphysics Patra P.K., Behera S.K., Herman J.R. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2181-2188) The Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR), which has a strong connection to agricultural food production, has been less predictable by conventional models in recent times. Two distinct years 2002 and 2003 with lower and higher July rainfall, respectively, are selected to help understand the natural and anthropogenic influences on ISMR. We show that heating gradients along the meridional monsoon circulation are reduced due to aerosol radiative forcing and the Indian Ocean Dipole in 2002. An increase in the dust and biomass-burning component of the aerosols through the zonal monsoon circulation resulted in reduction of cloud droplet growth in July 2002. These conditions were opposite to those in July 2003 which led to an above average ISMR. In this study, we have utilized NCEP/NCAR reanalyses for meteorological data (e.g. sea-surface temperature, horizontal winds, and precipitable water), NOAA interpolated outgoing long-wave radiation, IITM constructed all-India rainfall amounts, aerosol parameters as observed from the TOMS and MODIS satellites, and ATSR fire count maps. Based on this analysis, we suggest that monsoon rainfall prediction models should include synoptic as well as interannual variability in both atmospheric dynamics and chemical composition. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2405 Explicit filtering and reconstruction turbulence modeling for large-eddy simulation of neutral boundary layer flow Chow F.K., Street R.L., Xue M. and Ferziger J.H. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2058-2077) Standard turbulence closures for large-eddy simulations of atmospheric flow based on finite-difference or finite-volume codes use eddy-viscosity models and hence ignore the contribution of the resolved subfilter-scale stresses. These eddy-viscosity closures are unable to produce the expected logarithmic region near the surface in neutral boundary layer flows. Here, explicit filtering and reconstruction are used to improve the representation of the resolvable subfilter-scale (RSFS) stresses, and a dynamic eddyviscosity model is used for the subgrid-scale (SGS) stresses. Combining reconstruction and eddy-viscosity models yields a sophisticated (and higher order) version of the well-known mixed model of Bardina et al.; the explicit filtering and reconstruction procedures clearly delineate the contribution of the RSFS and SGS motions. A near-wall stress model is implemented to supplement the turbulence models and account for the stress induced by filtering near a solid boundary as well as the effect of the large grid aspect ratio. Results for neutral boundary layer flow over a rough wall using the combined dynamic reconstruction model and the near-wall stress model show excellent agreement with similarity theory logarithmic velocity profiles, a significant improvement over standard eddy-viscosity closures. Stress profiles also exhibit the expected pattern with increased reconstruction level. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2406 The influence of idealized heterogeneity on wet and dry planetary boundary layers coupled to the land surface Patton E.G., Sullivan P.P. and Moeng C.- H. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2078-2097) This manuscript describes numerical experiments investigating the influence of 2-30-km striplike heterogeneity on wet and dry convective boundary layers coupled to the land surface. The striplike heterogeneity is shown to dramatically alter the structure of the convective boundary layer by inducing significant organized circulations that modify turbulent statistics. The impact, strength, and extent of the organized motions depend critically on the scale of the heterogeneity relative to the boundary layer height zi . The coupling with the land surface modifies the surface fluxes and hence the circulations resulting in some differences compared to previous studies using fixed surface forcing. Because of the coupling, surface fluxes in the middle of the patches are small compared to the patch edges. At large heterogeneity scales ( /zi
18) horizontal surface-flux gradients within each 458 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY patch are strong enough to counter the surface-flux gradients between wet and dry patches allowing the formation of small cells within the patch coexisting with the large-scale patch-induced circulations. The strongest patch-induced motions occur in cases with 4 < /zi < 9 because of strong horizontal pressure gradients across the wet and dry patches. Total boundary layer turbulence kinetic energy increases significantly for surface heterogeneity at scales between /zi = 4 and 9; however, entrainment rates for all cases are largely unaffected by the striplike heterogeneity. Velocity and scalar fields respond differently to variations of heterogeneity scale. The patch-induced motions have little influence on total vertical scalar flux, but the relative contribution to the flux from organized motions compared to background turbulence varies with heterogeneity scale. Patch-induced motions are shown to dramatically impact point measurements in a free-convective boundary layer. The magnitude and sign of this impact depends on the location of the measurement within the region of heterogeneity. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2407 Linking nonlinearity and non-Gaussianity of planetary wave behavior by the Fokker-Planck equation Berner J. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (20982117) To link prominent nonlinearities in the dynamics of 500-hPa geopotential heights to non-Gaussian features in their probability density, a nonlinear stochastic model of atmospheric planetary wave behavior is developed. An analysis of geopotential heights generated by extended integrations of a GCM suggests that a stochastic model and its associated Fokker-Planck equation call for a nonlinear drift and multiplicative noise. All calculations are carried out in the reduced phase space spanned by the leading EOFs. It is demonstrated that this nonlinear stochastic model of planetary wave behavior captures the non-Gaussian features in the probability density function of atmospheric states to a remarkable degree. Moreover, it not only predicts global temporal characteristics, but also the nonlinear, state-dependent divergence of state trajectories. In the context of this empirical modeling, it is discussed on which time scale a stochastic model is expected to approximate the behavior of a continuous deterministic process. The reduced model is then used to determine the importance of the nonlinearities in the drift and the role of the multiplicative noise. While the nonlinearities in the drift are crucial for a good representation of planetary wave behavior, multiplicative (i.e., state dependent) noise is not absolutely essential. It is found that a major contributor to the stochastic component is the BranstatorKushnir oscillation, which acts as a fluctuating force for physical processes with even longer time scales, like those that project on the Arctic Oscillation pattern. In this model, the oscillation is represented by strongly correlated noise. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2408 Simulations of the atmospheric general circulation using a cloud-resolving model as a superparameterization of physical processes Khairoutdinov M., Randall D. and DeMott C. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2136-2154) Traditionally, the effects of clouds in GCMs have been represented by semiempirical parameterizations. Recently, a cloudresolving model (CRM) was embedded into each grid column of a realistic GCM, the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM), to serve as a superparameterization (SP) of clouds. Results of the standard CAM and the SP-CAM are contrasted, both using T42 resolution (2.8°  2.8° grid), 26 vertical levels, and up to a 500-day-long simulation. The SP was based on a two-dimensional (2D) CRM with 64 grid columns and 24 levels collocated with the 24 lowest levels of CAM. In terms of the mean state, the SP-CAM produces quite reasonable geographical distributions of precipitation, precipitable water, top-of-the-atmosphere radiative fluxes, cloud radiative forcing, and high-cloud fraction for both December-January-February and June-July-August. The most notable and persistent precipitation bias in the western Pacific, during the Northern Hemisphere summer of all the SP-CAM runs with 2D SP, seems to go away through the use of a small-domain three-dimensional (3D) SP with the same number of grid columns as the 2D SP, but arranged in an 8  8 square with identical horizontal resolution of 4 km. Two runs with the 3D SP have been carried out, with and without explicit large-scale momentum transport by convection. Interestingly, the double ITCZ feature seems to go away in the run that includes momentum transport. The SP im proves the diurnal variability of nondrizzle precipitation frequency over the standard model by precipitating most frequently during late afternoon hours over the land, as observed, while the standard model maximizes its precipitation frequency around local solar noon. Over the ocean, both models precipitate most frequently in the early morning hours as observed. The SP model also reproduces the observed global distribution of the percentage of days with nondrizzle precipitation rather well. In contrast, the standard model tends to precipitate more frequently, on average by about 20%-30%. The SP model seems to improve the convective intraseasonal variability over the standard model. Preliminary results suggest that the SP produces more realistic variability of such fields as 200-mb wind and OLR, relative to the control, including the often poorly simulated Madden-Julian oscillation (MJO). © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2409 Zonal momentum budget of the Madden-Julian oscillation: The source and strength of equivalent linear damping Lin J.- L., Zhang M. and Mapes B. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2172-2188) Linear, dissipative models with resting base states are sometimes used in theoretical studies of the Madden-Julian oscillation (MJO). Linear mechanical damping in such models ranges from nonexistent to strong, since an observational basis for its source and strength has been lacking. This study examines the zonal momentum budget of a composite MJO over the equatorial western Pacific region, constructed using filtering and regression techniques from 15 yr (1979-93) of daily global reanalysis data. Two different reanalyses (NCEP-NCAR and ERA-15) give qualitatively similar results for all major terms, including the budget residual, whose structure is consistent with its interpretation as eddy momentum flux convergence (EMFC) in convection. The results show that the MJO is a highly viscous oscillation, with a 3-5-day equivalent linear damping time scale, in the upper as well as lower troposphere. Upper-level damping is mainly in the form of large-scale advection terms, which are linear in MJO amplitude but involve horizontal and vertical background flow. Specifically, the leading terms are the advection of time-mean zonal shear by MJO vertical motion anomalies and advection of MJO wind anomalies by time-mean ascent. This upper-level damping in the western Pacific is mostly confined between 10°N and 10°S. In contrast, zonal wind damping in the lower troposphere involves EMFC (budget residual) and zonal mean linear meridional advection. Stated another way, the strong upper-level damping necessitates upper-level geopotential height gradients to maintain the observed zonal wind anomalies over the time scales implied by the MJO’s low frequency. The existence of the background flow thus tends to shift MJO temperature perturbations westward so that the warm anomaly ahead (east) of the convective center is shifted back into the convection. This shifting effect is fully realized only for anomalies with a period much longer than the 3-5-day damping time. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2410 The impact of zonal propagation and seeding on the eddy-mean flow equilibrium of a zonally varying two-layer model Zurita- Gotor P. and Chang E.K.M. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2261-2273) This paper investigates the role of zonal propagation for the equilibration of zonally varying flow. It is hypothesized that there exist two ideal limits, for very small or very large group speed. In the first limit the eddies equilibrate locally with the forcing, while in the second limit the equilibration can only be understood in a global sense. To understand these two limits and to assess which is more relevant for the extratropical troposphere, a series of idealized experiments that involves changing the magnitude of the uniform zonal wind is performed. The results of the idealized model experiments suggest that the actual troposphere is likely to be in a transition regime between the two limits, but perhaps closer to the global than the local limit. Near the global limit, both the eddy amplitude and local baroclinicity over the baroclinic zone are strongly affected by the amount of upstream seeding. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY When the propagation speed is reduced relative to the control run, the zonal mean eddy activity decreases because the residence time increases more over the stable part of the channel than along the baroclinic zone. With the decrease in upstream seeding, the local supercriticality along the baroclinic zone increases, although the increase is moderate. The decrease in seeding and increase in baroclinicity partially offset the effects of each other, leading to only small changes in the maximum eddy amplitude downstream of the baroclinic zone. Changes in upstream seeding can also be achieved by enhanced damping. When the eddies are locally damped, the baroclinicity is also enhanced downstream of the damping region due to reduced eddy fluxes. For typical parameters, the recovery of the eddy amplitude occurs over very long distances. Based on these idealized results, it is argued that the coexistence of enhanced baroclinicity and weaker eddy amplitude over the Pacific storm track, as compared to the Atlantic storm track, is consistent with the effects of strong eddy damping over Asia. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2411 The vorticity-velocity gradient cofactor tensor and the material invariant of the semigeostrophic theory ´ Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I Vi´udez A. (2294-2301) A new derivation and interpretation of the semigeostrophic (SG) material invariant in the theory of geophysical flows is introduced. First, a generalized three-dimensional equation of the SG dynamics is established and the generalized equations for the rate of change of vorticity and for the rate of change of the velocity gradient cofactor tensor are obtained. Next, a conservation equation for the vorticity-velocity gradient cofactor tensor (denoted) is derived. The specific potential, that is, in the reference configuration per unit of mass, is defined and an expression for its rate of change is obtained. The SG invariant is interpreted as the vertical component of the specific potential. Under the SG assumptions (advection of the geostrophic velocity, hydrostatic, and f-plane approximations) this vertical component is materially conserved in the SG flow. The generalized SG invariant (i.e., the specific potential) differs conceptually from the Beltrami-Rossby-Ertel specific potential vorticity. Its conservation in the SG flow seems to be highly dependent on the SG assumptions, especially on the f-plane approximation and on the horizontal nature of the geostrophic velocity. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2412 Optimizing parameters in an atmospheric general circulation model Severijns C.A. and Hazeleger W. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3527-3535) An efficient method to optimize the parameter values of the subgrid parameterizations of an atmospheric general circulation model is described. The method is based on the downhill simplex minimization of a cost function computed from the difference between simulated and observed fields. It is used to find optimal values of the radiation and cloud-related parameters. The model error is reduced significantly within a limited number of iterations (about 250) of short integrations (5 yr). The method appears to be robust and finds the global minimum of the cost function. The radiation budget of the model improves considerably without violating the already well simulated general circulation. Different aspects of the general circulation, such as the Hadley and Walker cells improve, although they are not incorporated into the cost function. It is concluded that the method can be used to efficiently determine optimal parameters for general circulation models even when the model behavior has a strong nonlinear dependence on these parameters. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2413 The response of tropospheric circulation to perturbations in lower-stratospheric temperature Haigh J.D., Blackburn M. and Day R. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3672-3685) A multiple regression analysis of the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis dataset shows a response to increased solar activity of a weakening and poleward shift of the subtropical jets. This signal is separable from other influences, such as those of El Ni˜no-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and is very similar to that seen in previous studies using global circula- 459 tion models (GCMs) of the effects of an increase in solar spectral irradiance. The response to increased stratospheric (volcanic) aerosol is found in the data to be a weakening and equatorward shift of the jets. The GCM studies of the solar influen ce also showed an impact on tropospheric mean meridional circulation with a weakening and expansion of the tropical Hadley cells and a poleward shift of the Ferrel cells. To understand the mechanisms whereby the changes in solar irradiance affect tropospheric winds and circulation, experiments have been carried out with a simplified global circulation model. The results show that generic heating of the lower stratosphere tends to weaken the subtropical jets and the tropospheric mean meridional circulations. The positions of the jets, and the extent of the Hadley cells, respond to the distribution of the stratospheric heating, with low-latitude heating forcing them to move poleward, and high-latitude or latitudinally uniform heating forcing them equatorward. The patterns of response are similar to those that are found to be a result of the solar or volcanic influences, respectively, in the data analysis. This demonstrates that perturbations to the heat balance of the lower stratosphere, such as those brought about by solar or volcanic activity, can produce changes in the mean tropospheric circulation, even without any direct forcing below the tropopause. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2414 Roles of Rossby and gravity waves on circulation associated with tropical and subtropical heating Kosaka Y. and Matsuda Y. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (481-498) In order to resolve the contradiction between the theories proposed by Rodwell and Hoskins (1996) and Chen et al. (2001), a linear response of global/hemispherical atmosphere to a subtropical heat source is studied, using two different numerical models. The first model treats the response as a linear combination of wave components (Hough functions), which are eigenmodes of the homogeneous equations. The second model is based on quasi-geostrophic approximation. First, the response to zonally uniform heat source is investigated. In the case of the heat source centered at the equator, geopotential and zonal wind perturbation fields are expressed by Rossby and Kelvin modes, while vertical and meridional flows are represented by gravity modes. On the other hand, the case of the heat source centered off the equator reveals that the cell reaching winter hemisphere is dominant due to mixed Rossby-gravity mode. Second, the response to zonally localized heat source centered at 25°N is investigated. The validity of quasi-geostrophic approximation in the subtropics is verified. It is found that the geopotential and horizontal wind perturbation fields can be expressed only by Rossby modes, while the contribution of gravity modes is stronger for the vertical flow. On the basis of these results we calculate the response in the observed basic wind, but the wavetrain shown in Chen et al. (2001) cannot be reproduced. On the other hand, the descent west or northwest of the heat source, which is examined in Rodwell Hoskins (1996), appears in the resting basic field as well as in the basic zonal flow. The mechanism producing this descent is discussed in detail. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2415 EOF and SVD analyses of the low-frequency variability of the barotropic component of the atmosphere Matsueda M. and Tanaka H.L. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (517-529) In this study, we have investigated the dominant horizontal patterns of the barotropic component of the atmosphere, the external forcing to it, and the nonlinear scale interactions, using the EOF and SVD analyses for 50 years of DJF mean NCEP/NCAR reanalysis. According to the EOF analysis, the horizontal pattern of the EOF-1 of the atmosphere represents the Arctic Oscillation (AO), and the EOF-2 represents the PNA teleconnection pattern. The SVD-1 for the barotropic component and the external forcing represents the structure of AO with the external forcing characterized by topographic forcing. The energy balance for the SVD patterns, however, shows that the external forcing of the SVD-1 damps the AO-like anomaly of the barotropic component. The SVD-2 represents the PNA, and the time series of the coefficient indicates a link with El Ni˜no/La Ni˜na. The external forcing of the SVD-2 appears also to damp the PNA-like anomaly. Furthermore, the SVD-1 for the barotropic component and the nonlinear scale interactions represents the AO-like anomaly with 460 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY the large nonlinear scale interactions over half of the Northern Hemisphere. The energy balance for this SVD pattern shows that the nonlinear scale interactions excite the AO-like anomaly. Similarly, the SVD-2 shows the energy increase by the nonlinear scale interactions the same as SVD-1. The nonlinear scale interactions are further decomposed in linear interactions with the climate basic state and the reminder. We find by the energetics analysis that the AO-like anomaly is mostly excited by the interactions with the basic state. It is concluded from the SVD analyses that the extreme events associated with low-frequency variabilities are not induced by the low-frequency forcing, but mostly by the energy supply from the climate basic state. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2416 Arctic oscillation analyzed as a singular eigenmode of the global atmosphere Tanaka H.L. and Matsueda M. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (611-619) In this study, eigenmodes and singular modes are analyzed for a dynamical system of the atmosphere, linearized about a winter basic state in order to understand the dynamics of the Arctic Oscillation (AO). Since the fluctuations of the sea-level pressure are dynamically linked with the barotropic component of the atmosphere, the AO is investigated in the framework of a barotropic model. As a result of the analysis, we find multiple eigenmodes which are similar to the AO, with a negative pole in the Arctic, and positive poles in the Pacific and Atlantic sectors. Since some of the eigenmodes are unstable, a linear drag is introduced to shift the eigenvalues in order to pick up different eigenmodes as a singular mode with resonant behavior. It is demonstrated that the singular eigenmode of the dynamical system emerges resonantly as the AO, in response to the arbitrary forcing. The resonant growth is allowed for multiple eigenmodes, including the unstable modes, and therefore the AO described by the neutral mode under the strong friction is recognized as the least damping mode excited by the tail of the resonant response curve of the singular eigenmode. In reference to the result of the nonlinear simulation of the AO, using the same barotropic model, we may conclude that the AO is a physical mode of a dynamical system for the global atmosphere. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2417 A topographic drag closure built on an analytical base flux Garner S.T. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2302-2315) Topographic drag schemes depend on grid-scale representations of the average height, width, and orientation of the subgrid topography. Until now, these representations have been based on a combination of statistics and dimensional analysis. However, under certain physical assumptions, linear analysis provides the exact amplitude and orientation of the drag for arbitrary topography. The author proposes a computationally practical closure based on this analysis. Also proposed is a nonlinear correction for nonpropagating base flux. This is patterned after existing schemes but is better constrained to match the linear solution because it assumes a correlation between mountain height and width. When the correction is interpreted as a formula for the transition to saturation in the wave train, it also provides a way of estimating the vertical distribution of the momentum forcing. The explicit subgrid height distribution causes a natural broadening of the layers experiencing the forcing. Linear drag due to simple oscillating flow over topography, which is relevant to ocean tides, has almost the same form as for the stationary atmospheric problem. However, dimensional analysis suggests that the nonpropagating drag in this situation is mostly due to topographic length scales that are small enough to keep the steadystate assumption satisfied. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2418 On physical realizability and uncertainty of numerical solutions D¨ombrack A., Doyle J.D., Lane T.P. et al. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/2 (118-122) Numerical experiments of the stratified flow past a bell-shaped mountain with a shallow shear layer aloft are performed. Two different approximations of the entropy equation (explicit vs im- plicit numerical treatment of gravity waves) lead to a substantial discrepancy of the numerical results. As the flow is metastable, it turns out that both solutions are physically realizable and the quality of the solution changes in response to small variations in the accuracy of the numerical approximation. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2419 Idealized modelling of the northern annular mode: Orographic and thermal impacts Sempf M., Dethloff K., Handorf D. and Kurgansky M.V. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/2 (140-144) In an idealized model of northern hemisphere’s wintertime atmospheric circulation, it is shown that the Northern Annular Mode arises from an annular pattern on a rotating aqua-planet and is modified to a zonally asymmetric pattern by land-sea contrasts and orography, connected with the localization of transient baroclinic activity. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2420 Influence of major stratospheric warming on the Antarctic ozone hole in 2002 Vargin P.N. and Zhadin E.A. Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 2004 -/8 (27-34) Analysis of daily variations of the total ozone, zonal wind, and eddy ozone fluxes in the Southern Hemisphere was conducted for August-October 1998 and 2002 in order to explain the unusual large increase of the total ozone over the Antarctic in 2002. It is shown that the unprecedented stratospheric warming at the end of September 2002 resulted in the disappearance of the dynamical polar barrier and in strong eddy ozone transport into the polar vortex from midlatitudes. These results and high correlations between the interannual variations of the total ozone and stratospheric circulation give evidence of the large role of long-term natural changes of the stratospheric dynamics in the observed ozone layer depletion together with anthropogenic impacts. Possible mechanisms of the generation of long-term atmospheric wave changes are discussed. 2421 Gravity waves excited by jets: Propagation versus generation Plougonven R. and Snyder C. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Atmospheric jets are known to be an important source of inertiagravity waves, yet remain poorly understood as such. Previous studies on the subject have concentrated on the generation mechanisms for the gravity waves, with the underlying assumption that the characteristics of the waves were imposed by the generation mechanism. In proceeding so, effects due to the propagation of the waves through a complex three-dimensional flow have been overlooked. Using numerical simulations of idealized baroclinic instability in a periodic channel, we show that propagation effects can determine several characteristics of the gravity waves emitted into the middle atmosphere from tropospheric jets. Specifically, the numerical simulations demonstrate that the propagation of inertia-gravity waves through horizontal deformation and vertical shear strongly influences the spatial organization of the waves and imposes the 3D orientation of their wave-vector. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2422 A new pathway for communicating the 11-year solar cycle signal to the QBO Cordero E.C. and Nathan T.R. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) The response of the equatorial quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) to zonal-mean ozone perturbations consistent with the 11-year solar cycle is examined using a 2 1/2 dimensional model of the tropical stratosphere. Unique to this model are wave-ozone feedbacks, which provide a new, nonlinear pathway for communicating solar variability effects to the QBO. Model simulations show that for zonal-mean ozone perturbations representative of solar maximum (minimum), the diabatic heating due to the waveozone feedbacks is primarily responsible for driving a slightly stronger (weaker) QBO circulation and producing a slightly shorter (longer) QBO period. These results, which are explained via an analytical analysis of the divergence of Eliassenpalm flux, are in general agreement with observations of quasi- METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY decadal variability of the QBO. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2423 Energetics of lower tropospheric planetary waves over mid latitudes: Precursor for Indian summer monsoon Bawiskar S.M., Chipade M.D., Puranik P.V. and Bhide U.V. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth and Planetary Sciences 2005 114/5 (557-564) Based on NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data, kinetic energy and momentum transport of waves 0 to 10 at 850 hPa level are computed from monthly mean zonal (u) and meridional (v) components of wind from equator to 90°N. Fourier technique is used to resolve the wind field into a spectrum of waves: Correlation analysis between All India Seasonal Monsoon Rainfall (AISMR) and energetics of the waves indicates that effective kinetic energy of waves 1, 3 and 4 around 37.5°N in February has significant correlation (99.9%) with the subsequent AISMR. A simple linear regression equation between the effective kinetic energy of these three waves and AISMR is developed. Out of 47 years’ (19582004) data, 32 years (1958-1989) are utilized for developing the regression model and the remaining 15 years (1990-2004) are considered for its verification. Predicted AISMR is in close agreement with observed AISMR. The regression equation based on the dynamics of the planetary waves is thus useful for Long Range Forecasting (LRF) of AISMR. Apart from the regression equation, the study provides qualitative predictors. The scatter diagram between AISMR and effective kinetic energy of waves 1, 3 and 4 around 37.5°N indicates that if the kinetic energy is more (less) than 5 m2 s-2 , the subsequent monsoon will be good (weak). Stream function fields indicate that high latitude trough axis along 40°E (70°E) leads to a good (weak) monsoon over India. © Printed in India. Dynamic meteorology: mesoscale 2424 Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years Emanuel K. Nature 2005 436/7051 (686-688) Theory and modelling predict that hurricane intensity should increase with increasing global mean temperatures, but work on the detection of trends in hurricane activity has focused mostly on their frequency and shows no trend. Here I define an index of the potential destructiveness of hurricanes based on the total dissipation of power, integrated over the lifetime of the cyclone, and show that this index has increased markedly since the mid1970s. This trend is due to both longer storm lifetimes and greater storm intensities. I find that the record of net hurricane power dissipation is highly correlated with tropical sea surface temperature, reflecting well-documented climate signals, including multi-decadal oscillations in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, and global warming. My results suggest that future warming may lead to an upward trend in tropical cyclone destructive potential, and-taking into account an increasing coastal population-a substantial increase in hurricane-related losses in the twenty-first century. 2425 Evolution of a typhoon-like subtropical low causing severe weather over the Kanto area on 13 October 2003 Ogura Y., Niino H., Kumabe R. and Nisimura S. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (531-550) The purpose of this article is to document genesis, development and dissipation of a subsynoptic-scale typhoon-like cyclone, that caused severe weather on 13 October 2003, over the eastern part of the Kanto area. In this documentation, practically all available data obtained operationally by the Japan Meteorological Agency are used. The subtropical low of interest formed initially as a mesoscale vortex at 0000UTC 8 October over the ocean near Okinawa Island (
26°N, 128°E), where the western end of a quasi-stationary polar front was located. The genesis region is characterized by a weak barochnicity, and nearly saturated low-level atmosphere, with a negative Showalter Stability Index. Several mesoscale convective systems developed prior to the formation of the subtropical low in the genesis region. It is inferred that diabatic heating, by the release of latent heat in deep convection helped spin up pre-existing relative vorticity associated 461 with the quasi-stationary polar front. In addition, an upper-level short wave trough spawned a cut-off low over the region, helping the vortex to develop into the subtropical low. When matured
50 h later, the subtropical low exhibited remarkable axisymmetry in the wind and thermal structures, with the diameter of 100
200 km. The cloud pattern also displayed a cloud-free eyelike structure. After it traveled slowly northwards for four days, the subtropical low was overtaken by a synoptic scale trough, and underwent the processes known as the extratropical transition of a typhoon, while it moved towards the east. Finally, briefly discussed are similarities and dissimilarities between the present subtropical low, and hurricane-like subtropical cyclones that develop in other regions of the globe, such as the Mediterranean Sea and the central/eastern Pacific Ocean. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2426 Diagnosed three-dimensional axisymmetric structure of the Mulhall tornado on 3 May 1999 Lee W.- C. and Wurman J. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2373-2393) On 3 May 1999, an unusually large tornado that caused F4-level damage and killed several people was intercepted by the Doppler on Wheels (DOW) mobile radar near Mulhall, Oklahoma, from a range of 4 to 9 km, resulting in high-resolution volumetric data every 55 s up to 1.5-km altitude over a period of 14 min. For the first time, the evolution and three-dimensional structure of a tornado were deduced using the ground-based velocity track display (GBVTD) technique. After the circulation center was determined, the tangential wind and radial wind were derived from the GBVTD technique at each radius and height. In addition, the axisymmetric vertical velocity, angular momentum, vorticity, and perturbation pressure were deduced from the tangential and radial wind fields. This study focuses on the axisymmetric aspects of this tornado. The primary circulation of the Mulhall tornado consisted of an 84 m s-1 peak axisymmetric tangential wind with the radius of maximum wind (RMW) ranging from 500 to 1000 m. The secondary circulation exhibited a two-cell structure characterized by a central downdraft surrounded by an annular updraft near the RMW. The calculated maximum pressure deficit from a 3-km radius to the tornado center at 50-m altitude was -80 hPa. The maximum vorticity during the first 8 min of observation was located inside the RMW away from the tornado center. This vorticity profile satisfied the necessary condition of barotropic instability. As the tornado weakened afterward, the vorticity monotonically increased toward the center. The computed swirl ratios were between 2 and 6, consistent with the observed multiple vortex radar signatures and the vorticity pattern. Swirl ratios were generally smaller during the weakening phase. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2427 Tropical zonal momentum balance in the NCEP reanalyses Dima I.M., Wallace J.M. and Kraucunas I. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2499-2513) The seasonal cycle of the zonal-mean zonal momentum balance in the Tropics is investigated using NCEP reanalysis data. It is found that the climatological stationary waves in the tropical upper troposphere, which are dominated by the equatorial Rossby wave response to tropical heating, produce an equatorward eddy flux of westerly momentum in the equatorial belt. The resulting westerly acceleration in the tropical upper troposphere is balanced by the advection of easterly momentum associated with the cross-equatorial mean meridional circulation. The eddy momentum fluxes and the cross-equatorial flow both tend to be strongest during the monsoon seasons, when the maximum diabatic heating is off the equator, and weakest during April-May, the season of strongest equatorial symmetry of the heating. The upper-level Rossby wave pattern exhibits a surprising degree of equatorial symmetry and follows a similar seasonal progression. Solutions of the nonlinear shallow water wave equation also show a predominantly equatorially symmetric response to a heat source centered off the equator. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 462 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2428 The heavy rain event of 29 October 2000 in Hana, Maui Lyman R.E., Schroeder T.A. and Barnes G.M. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (397-414) On 29 October 2000, the Hana region of Maui received 700 mm of rain in 7 h. Radar analyses revealed that the storm consisted of seven cells that were initiated along the southeast slope of Haleakala volcano. One of these cells survived for nearly 4 h and was responsible for 80% of the volumetric rainout from the storm. The interaction of low-level flow distorted by the island of Hawaii located farther east, the passage of a trough, and the topographic forcing caused by Haleakala volcano were major factors responsible for the evolution of the storm. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2429 A multiscale examination of the 31 May 1998 Mechanicville, New York, Tornado LaPenta K.D., Bosart L.F., Galarneau Jr. T.J. and Dickinson M.J. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (494-516) On 31 May 1998, an F3 tornado struck Mechanicville, New York, injuring 68 people and causing $71 million in damage. The tornado was part of a widespread, severe weather outbreak across the northeast United States. The synoptic conditions that caused the outbreak and the mesoscale and storm-scale environments that produced the tornado are discussed. The coupling of two strong upper-level jets and a very strong low-level jet, in association with an unseasonably strong surface cyclone, created a synoptic-scale environment favorable for severe weather. As the result of these jet interactions, a very warm, moist air mass was transported into the Northeast with an associated increase in the wind shear in the lower troposphere. A terrain-channeled low-level southerly flow up the Hudson Valley may have created a mesoscale environment that was especially favorable for tornadic supercell development by increasing storm-relative helicity in the low levels of the atmosphere and by transporting warm, moist air northward up the valley, leading to increased instability. A broken line of locally severe thunderstorms mo ved eastward across New York several hours prior to the tornado. The storm that produced the Mechanicville tornado developed over central New York ahead of this line of storms. As the line of storms moved east, it intensified into a solid line and bowed forward down the Mohawk Valley of New York. These storms were moving faster than the isolated supercell to the east and overtook the supercell where the eastern end of the Mohawk Valley opens into the Hudson Valley. Based on limited observational evidence and the results of simulations of idealized quasi-linear convective systems reported elsewhere in the literature, it is hypothesized that backed low-level flow ahead of a bookend vortex at the northern end of the bowing line of storms over the Mohawk Valley may have contributed to the tornadogenesis process as the squall line overtook and interacted with the intensifying supercell. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2430 Climatological estimates of daily local nontornadic severe thunderstorm probability for the United States Doswell III C.A., Brooks H.E. and Kay M.P. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (577-595) The probability of nontornadic severe weather event reports near any location in the United States for any day of the year has been estimated. Gaussian smoothers in space and time have been applied to the observed record of severe thunderstorm occurrence from 1980 to 1994 to produce daily maps and annual cycles at any point. Many aspects of this climatology have been identified in previous work, but the method allows for the consideration of the record in several new ways. A review of the raw data, broken down in various ways, reveals that numerous nonmeteorological artifacts are present in the raw data. These are predominantly associated with the marginal nontornadic severe thunderstorm events, including an enormous growth in the number of severe weather reports since the mid-1950s. Much of this growth may be associated with a drive to improve warning verification scores. The smoothed spatial and temporal distributions of the probability of nontornadic severe thunderstorm events are presented in several ways. The distribution of significant nontornadic severe thunderstorm reports (wind speeds  65 kt and/or hailstone diameters  2 in.) is consistent with the hypothesis that supercells are responsible for the majority of such reports. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2431 A reassessment of the percentage of tornadic mesocyclones Trapp R.J., Stumpf G.J. and Manross K.L. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (680-687) A large set of data collected by numerous Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) units around the United States was analyzed to reassess the percentage of tornadic mesocyclones. Out of the 5322 individual mesocyclone detections that satisfied the relatively stringent WSR-88D Mesocyclone Detection Algorithm objective criteria, only 26% were associated with tornadoes. In terms of height or altitude of mesocyclone base, 15% of midaltitude mesocyclone detections were tornadic, and more than 40% of low-altitude mesocyclone detections (e.g., those with bases  1000 m above radar level) were tornadic. These results confirm that a low-altitude mesocyclone is much more likely to be associated with a tornado than is a midaltitude mesocyclone, and more generally, that the percentage of tornadic mesocyclones is indeed lower than previously thought. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2432 Enhanced vertical propagation of storm-induced nearinertial energy in an eddying ocean channel model Zhai X., Greatbatch R.J. and Zhao J. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The interaction between inertial oscillations generated by a storm and a mesoscale eddy field is studied using a Southern Ocean channel model. It is shown that the leakage of near-inertial energy out of the surface layer is strongly enhanced by the presence of the eddies, with the anticyclonic eddies acting as a conduit to the deep ocean. Given the ubiquity of the atmospheric storm tracks (a source of near-inertial energy for the ocean) and regions of strong ocean mesoscale variability, we argue that this effect could be important for understanding pathways by which nearinertial energy enters the ocean and is ultimately available for mixing. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2433 Hurricane-forced upwelling and chlorophyll a enhancement within cold-core cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico Walker N.D., Leben R.R. and Balasubramanian S. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) Clear skies, subsequent to Hurricane Ivan’s passage across the Gulf of Mexico in September 2004, provided a unique opportunity to investigate upper ocean responses to a major hurricane. Oceanic cyclonic circulation was rapidly intensified by the hurricane’s wind field (59-62 m s-1 ), maximizing upwelling and surface cooling (3-7°C) in two large areas along Ivan’s track. Upward isothermal displacements of 50-65 m, computed from wind stress and sea surface height changes, caused rapid ventilation of thermoclines and nutriclines, leading to phytoplankton blooms with peak concentrations 3-4 days later. Wind speed changes along Ivan’s track demonstrated that the cool waters (20-26°C) provided immediate negative feedback to the hurricane’s intensity. Although our study focused on a relatively small ocean area, it revealed that mesoscale cyclones, in addition to warm anticyclones, may play an important role in producing along-track hurricane intensity changes. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2434 Turbulence parameter estimations from high-resolution balloon temperature measurements of the MUTSI-2000 campaign Gavrilov N.M., Luce H., Crochet M. et al. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/7 (2401-2413) Turbulence parameters in the tropo-stratosphere are analyzed using high-resolution balloon temperature measurements collected during the MUTSI (MU radar, Temperature sheets and Interferometry) campaign which took place near the Middle and Upper atmosphere (MU) radar (Japan, 35° N, 136° E) in May 2000. Vertical profiles of the specific dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy, , and turbulent diffusivity, K, are estimated from the Thorpe lengthscale, LT . The last is obtained by using two methods. The first one consists of measuring directly LT by reordering the potential temperature profiles. The second method is based on estimates of the temperature structure constant, C2T . A relationship between LT and C2T can be found by assuming either METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY adiabatic vertical displacements or a model based on turbulent energy balance consideration. Analysis shows that the adiabatic assumption gives indirect estimates of LT more consistent with direct measurements. We also found that vertical profiles of analyzed turbulence characteristics show substantial intermittency, leading to substantial scatter of the local, median and average values. General trends correspond to a decrease in  and K from the boundary layer up to altitudes 20-25 km. Layers of increased turbulence are systematically observed in the tropo-stratosphere, which may be produced by instabilities of temperature and wind profiles. These maxima may substantially increase local values of turbulence diffusivity. © European Geosciences Union 2005. Convection and cloud microphysics 2435 Mean diurnal variations of noctilucent clouds during 7 years of lidar observations at ALOMAR Fiedler J., Baumgarten G. and von Cossart G. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/4 (1175-1181) From 1997 to 2003, noctilucent clouds (NLC) were observed by lidar above the ALOMAR observatory in Northern Norway (69° N) during a total of 1880 measurement hours. This data set contains NLC signatures for 640 h, covering all local times, even during the highest solar background conditions. After data limitation imposing a threshold value of 4  10-10 m-1 sr-1 for the volume backscatter coefficient of the NLC particles, a measure for the cloud brightness, local time dependencies of the NLC occurrence frequency, altitude, and brightness were determined. On average, over the 7 years NLC occurred during the whole day and preferably in the early morning hours, with a maximum occurrence frequency of
40% between 4 and 7 LT. Splitting the data into weak and strong clouds yields almost identical amplitudes of diurnal and semidiurnal variations for the occurrence of weak clouds, whereas the strong clouds are dominated by the diurnal variation. NLC occurrence, altitude, as well as brightness, show a remarkable persistence concerning diurnal and semidiurnal variations from 1997 to 2003, suggesting that NLC above ALOMAR are significantly controlled by atmospheric tides. The observed mean anti-phase behavior between cloud altitude and brightness is attributed to a phase shift between the semidiurnal components by
6 h. Investigation of data for each individual year regarding the prevailing oscillation periods of the NLC parameters showed different phase relationships, leading to a complex variability in the cloud parameters. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2436 Nucleation and scattering properties of ice cloud due to seeding of sodium chloride as aqueous solution and dust Paul S., Biswas L.N., De U.K. and Goswami K. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6213-6222) Sodium chloride in three forms, as aqueous solution and as dust of two size ranges are seeded in a cold room for heterogeneous ice nucleation in the temperature range between -24°C and 0°C. Maximum nucleation for all the three seeding agents occurs at 21.2°C, which is the eutectic temperature of sodium chloride and water mixture. However, the number density of ice nucleation at the eutectic temperature is highest for the finer variety of dust and lowest for the solution. On the other hand, largest size crystals are produced by the solution and smallest size crystals are produced by the finer variety of dust, at the same temperature. It is observed that the optical properties of ice cloud depends more on the crystal size. The variation of scattering co-efficient, extinction co-efficient and optical depth with temperature are noted for the scattering angles of 30°, 36°, 144° and 150°. The duration of growth of crystals and the same for the subsequent falling down of crystals can be estimated from the time variation of scattering intensity. It is observed that ice crystals due to the solution take maximum time to grow and minimum time to fall down. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2437 Chemical characteristics of ice residual nuclei in anvil cirrus clouds: Evidence for homogeneous and heterogeneous ice formation Twohy C.H. and Poellot M.R. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2289-2297) 463 A counterflow virtual impactor was used to collect residual particles larger than about 0.1 m diameter from anvil cirrus clouds generated over Florida in the southern United States. A wide variety of particle types were found. About one-third of the nuclei were salts, with varying amounts of crustal material, industrial metals, carbonaceous particles, and sulfates. Ambient aerosol particles near the anvils were found to have similar compositions, indicating that anvils act to redistribute particles over large regions of the atmosphere. Sampling occurred at a range of altitudes spanning temperatures from -21 to -56°C. More insoluble (crustal and metallic) particles typical of heterogeneous ice nuclei were found in ice crystals at warmer temperatures, while more soluble salts and sulfates were present at cold temperatures. At temperatures below about -35 to -40°C, soluble nuclei outnumbered insoluble nuclei, evidently reflecting the transition from primarily heterogeneous to primarily homogeneous freezing as a source of anvil ice. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2438 Freezing drizzle formation in stably stratified layer clouds. Part II: The role of giant nuclei and aerosol particle size distribution and solubility Geresdi I. and Rasmussen R. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2037-2057) This paper investigates how the characteristics of aerosol particles (size distribution and solubility) as well as the presence of giant nuclei affect drizzle formation in stably stratified layer clouds. A new technique was developed to simulate the evolution of water drops from wet aerosol particles and implemented into a detailed microphysical model. The detailed microphysical model was incorporated into a one-dimensional parcel model and a two-dimensional version of the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University-National Center for Atmospheric Research (PSU-NCAR) Mesoscale Model (MM5). Sensitivity experiments were performed with the parcel model using a constant updraft speed and with the two-dimensional model by simulating flow over a bell-shaped mountain. The results showed that 1) stably stratified clouds with weak updrafts (<10 cm s-1 ) can form drizzle relatively rapidly for maritime size distributions with any aerosol particle solubility, and for continental size distributions with highly insoluble particles due to the low number of activated cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) (<100 cm-3 ), 2) drizzle is suppressed in stably stratified clouds with weak updrafts (<10 cm s-1 ) for highly soluble urban and extreme urban size distributions, and 3) the presence of giant nuclei only has an effect on drizzle formation for the highly soluble continental aerosol size distributions. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2439 A large-eddy simulation study of anisotropy in fairweather cumulus cloud fields Hinkelman L.M., Stevens B. and Evans K.F. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2155-2171) Causes of anisotropy in fair-weather cumulus cloud fields were investigated using quantitative measures of anisotropy and a large-eddy simulation (LES) model. Case six of the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) Cloud System Study Working Group 1 was used as the standard model scenario. This case represents radiatively forced development of cumulus clouds over the southern Great Plains. Cloud formation under a variety of environmental conditions was simulated and the degree of anisotropy in the output fields was calculated as a function of spatial scale. Wind shear was found to be the single greatest factor in the development of both vertically tilted and horizontally stretched cloud structures. Other factors included mean wind speed, initial water vapor mixing ratio, and the magnitude of the surface forcing. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2440 Parameterizing the difference in cloud fraction defined by area and by volume as observed with radar and lidar Brooks M.E., Hogan R.J. and Illingworth A.J. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2248-2260) Most current general circulation models (GCMs) calculate radiative fluxes through partially cloudy grid boxes by weighting clear and cloudy fluxes by the fractional area of cloud cover (Ca ), but most GCM cloud schemes calculate cloud fraction as the volume of the grid box that is filled with cloud (Cv ). In this paper, 1 yr of cloud radar and lidar observations from Chilbolton 464 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY in southern England, are used to examine this discrepancy. With a vertical resolution of 300 m it is found that, on average, Ca is 20% greater than Cv , and with a vertical resolution of 1 km, Ca is greater than Cv by a factor of 2. The difference is around a factor 2 larger for liquid water clouds than for ice clouds, and also increases with wind shear. Using Ca rather than Cv , calculated on an operational model grid, increases the mean total cloud cover from 53% to 63%, and so is of similar importance to the cloud overlap assumption. A simple parameterization, Ca = [1 + e(-f) (Cv -1 - 1)]-1 , is proposed to correct for this underestimate based on the observation that the observed relationship between the mean Ca and Cv is symmetric about the line Ca = 1 - Cv . The parameter f is a simple function of the horizontal (H) and vertical (V) gridbox dimensions, where for ice clouds f = 0.0880 V0.7696 H-0.2254 and for liquid clouds f = 0.1635 V0.6694 H-0.1882 . Implementing this simple parame terization, which excludes the effect of wind shear, on an independent 6-month dataset of cloud radar and lidar observations, accounts for the mean underestimate of Ca for all horizontal and vertical resolutions considered to within 3% of the observed Ca , and reduces the rms error for each individual box from typically 100% to approximately 30%. Small biases remain for both weakly and strongly sheared cases, but this is significantly reduced by incorporating a simple shear dependence in the calculation of the parameter f, which also slightly improves the overall performance of the parameterization for all of the resolutions considered. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2441 The impact of ice crystal shapes, size distributions, and spatial structures of cirrus clouds on solar radiative fluxes Schlimme I., Macke A. and Reichardt J. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2274-2283) The solar radiative properties of cirrus clouds depend on ice particle shape, size, and orientation, as well as on the spatial cloud structure. Radiation schemes in atmospheric circulation models rely on estimates of cloud optical thickness only. In the present work, a Monte Carlo radiative transfer code is applied to various cirrus cloud scenarios to obtain the radiative response of uncertainties in the above-mentioned microphysical and spatial cloud properties (except orientation). First, planeparallel homogeneous (0D) clouds with different crystal shapes (hexagonal columns, irregular polycrystals) and 114 different size distributions have been considered. The resulting variabilities in the solar radiative fluxes are in the order of a few percent for the reflected and about 1% for the diffusely transmitted fluxes. Largest variabilities in the order of 10% to 30% are found for the solar broadband absorptance. However, these variabilities are smaller than the flux differences caused by the choice of ice particle geometries. The influence of cloud inhomogeneities on the radiative fluxes has been examined with the help of time series of Raman lidar extinction coefficient profiles as input for the radiative transfer calculations. Significant differences between results for inhomogeneous and plane-parallel clouds were found. These differences are in the same order of magnitude as those arising from using extremely different crystal shapes for the radiative transfer calculations. From this sensitivity study, the ranking of cirrus cloud properties according to their importance in solar broadband radiative transfer is optical thickness, ice crystal shape, ice particle size, and spatial structure. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2442 The accuracy of determining three-dimensional radiative transfer effects in cumulus clouds using ground-based profiling instruments Pincus R., Hannay C. and Evans K.F. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2284-2293) Three-dimensional radiative transfer calculations are accurate, though computationally expensive, if the spatial distribution of cloud properties is known. The difference between these calculations and those using the much less expensive independent column approximation is called the 3D radiative transfer effect. Assessing the magnitude of this effect in the real atmosphere requires that many realistic cloud fields be obtained, and profiling instruments such as ground-based radars may provide the best long-term observations of cloud structure. Cloud morphology can be inferred from a time series of vertical profiles obtained from profilers by converting time to horizontal distance with an advection velocity, although this restricts variability to two dimensions. This paper assesses the accuracy of estimates of the 3D effect in shallow cumulus clouds when cloud structure is inferred in this way. Large-eddy simulations provide full three-dimensional, time-evolving cloud fields, which are sampled every 10 s to provide a "radar’s eye view" of the same cloud fields. The 3D effect for shortwave surface fluxes is computed for both sets of fields using a broadband Monte Carlo radiative transfer model, and intermediate calculations are made to identify reasons why estimates of the 3D effect differ in these fields. The magnitude of the 3D effect is systematically underestimated in the two-dimensional cloud fields because there are fewer cloud edges that cause the effect, while the random error in hourly estimates is driven by the limited sample observed by the profiling instrument. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2443 A statistical model of cloud vertical structure based on reconciling cloud layer amounts inferred from satellites and radiosonde humidity profiles Rossow W.B., Zhang Y. and Wang J. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3587-3605) To diagnose how cloud processes feed back on weather- and climate-scale variations of the atmosphere requires determining the changes that clouds produce in the atmospheric diabatic heating by radiation and precipitation at the same scales of variation. In particular, not only the magnitude of these changes must be quantified but also their correlation with atmospheric temperature variations; hence, the space-time resolution of the cloud perturbations must be sufficient to account for the majority of these variations. Although extensive new global cloud and radiative flux datasets have recently become available, the vertical profiles of clouds and consequent radiative flux divergence have not been systematically measured covering weather-scale variations from about 100 km, 3 h up to climate-scale variations of 10 000 km, decadal inclusive. By combining the statistics of cloud layer occurrence from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) and an analysis of radiosonde humidity profiles, a statistical model has been developed that associates each cloud type, recognizable from satellite measurements, with a particular cloud vertical structure. Application of this model to the ISCCP cloud layer amounts produces estimates of lowlevel cloud amounts and average cloud-base pressures that are quantitatively closer to observations based on surface weather observations, capturing the variations with latitude and season and land and ocean (results are less good in the polar regions). The main advantage of this statistical model is that the correlations of cloud vertical structure with meteorology are qualitatively similar to "classical" information relating cloud properties to weather. These results can be evaluated and improved with the advent of satellites that can directly probe cloud vertical structures over the globe, providing statistics with changing meteorological conditions. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2444 Effects of the vertical profiles of cloud droplets and ice particles on the visible and near-infrared radiative properties of mixed-phase stratocumulus clouds Yoshida Y. and Asano S. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (471-480) Such cloud radiative properties as reflectance, transmittance, and absorptance of mixed-phase clouds have been simulated for the stratocumulus cloud observed on 30 January 1999 within the Japanese Cloud and Climate Study (JACCS) program, in which simultaneous observations of the cloud microphysical and radiative properties were conducted. The stratocumulus cloud was in mixed-phased condition, and highly heterogeneous vertically and horizontally with different mixing ratios of liquid water droplets and ice particles. A vertically-homogeneous, plane-parallel mixed-phase cloud model could reproduce the observed visible (VIS; wavelength < 0.7 m) band radiative properties, but it could not reproduce the near-infrared (NIR; > 0.7 m) band radiative properties. A multi-layered, plane-parallel mixed-phase cloud model could consistently reproduce the observed VISband and NIR-band radiative properties within the measurement accuracy. It is found that the vertical profiles of water droplets and ice particles are an important factor to determine the radiative properties of mixed-phase clouds. The simulated results METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY suggested that the NIR-band reflectance and absorptance could vary by more than 0.1 due to different vertical distributions of the cloud microphysical properties even the model clouds had constant liquid-water-path and ice-water-path. The visible and near-infrared solar reflection can be also affected by the vertical profiles of cloud microphysical properties; it is suggested that the conventional passive remote sensing under the assumption of vertical-homogeneity, may bring large errors in estimation of the microphysical properties of mixed-phase clouds. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2445 Characteristics of raindrop size distribution dependent on the life stage of a convective precipitation cloud in the Baiu season Hashimoto A. and Harimaya T. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (641-649) A convective cloud varies considerably in physical structure from development to dissipation. This variation results in changes in the Raindrop Size Distribution (RSD) in the precipitation from a convective cloud. The characteristics of RSD in the life stages of a convective cloud are compared, based on the data measured by an optical raindrop spectrometer during the field projects; TREX (1996), X-BAIU-98 (1998), and X-BAIU-99 (1999), performed on the southern and western coasts of Kyushu Island in the Baiu season. The convective clouds that passed over the observational site were classified as being in the mature, or the dissipation stage. The relationship between the shape of the RSD, and the convective activity of the convective clouds, varied according to the stage of development. When clouds are in the mature stage, the raindrop number concentration in every size range increases as the convective activity increases. On the other hand, when clouds are in the dissipation stage, the raindrop number concentration with larger sizes tends to increase as the convective activity in the mature stage increases. On the basis of these new findings obtained from observations, the major precipitation mechanism is expected to change in the life stages of convective cloud. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2446 Radiative impacts on the growth of drops within simulated marine stratocumulus. Part I: Maximum solar heating Hartman C.M. and Harrington J.Y. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2323-2338) The effects of solar heating and infrared cooling on the vapor depositional growth of cloud drops, and hence the potential for collection enhancement, is investigated. Large eddy simulation (LES) of marine stratocumulus is used to generate 600 parcel trajectories that follow the mean motions of the cloud. Thermodynamic, dynamic, and radiative cloud properties are stored for each trajectory. An offline trajectory ensemble model (TEM) coupled to a bin microphysical model that includes the influences of radiation on drop growth is driven by the 600-parcel dataset. In line with previous results, including infrared cooling causes a reduction in the time for collection onset. This collection enhancement increases with drop concentration. Larger concentrations (400 cm-3 ) show a reduction in collection onset time of as much as 45 min. Including infrared cooling as well as solar heating in the LES and microphysical bin models has a number of effects on the growth of cloud drops. First, shortwave (SW) heating partially offsets cloud-top longwave (LW) cooling, which naturally reduces the influence of LW cooling on drop growth. Second, SW heating dominates over LW cooling at larger drop radii (200 m), which causes moderately sized drops to evaporate. Third, unlike LW cooling, SW heating occurs throughout the cloud deck, which suppresses drop growth. All three of these effects tend to narrow the drop size spectrum. For intermediate drop concentrations (100-200 cm-3 ), it is shown that SW heating primarily suppresses collection initiation whereas at larger drop concentrations (250 cm-3 ) LW cooling dominates causing enhancements in collection. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2447 Radiative impacts on the growth of drops within simulated marine stratocumulus. Part II: Solar zenith angle variations Hartman C.M. and Harrington J.Y. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2339-2351) The effects of solar heating at a variety of solar zenith angles 465 (o ) on the vapor depositional growth of cloud drops, and hence the potential for collection enhancement, is investigated. A large eddy simulation (LES) model is used to predict the evolution of marine stratocumulus clouds subject to changes in o . During the course of each simulation, LES output is stored for 600 parcel trajectories and is used to drive an offline microphysical model that includes the influence of radiation on drop growth. Smaller o , such as when the sun is overhead, provide strong solar heating, which tends to confine circulations to the cloud layer and leads to long in-cloud residence times for cloud drops. At larger o , when solar heating is weak, circulations are stronger and penetrate through the depth of the boundary layer, which causes much shorter in-cloud residence times for cloud drops. Simulations show that this leads to a more rapid collection process in strongly, as compared to weakly solar-heated clouds provided that the liquid water contents of each cloud are similar. When drop vapor growth includes radiative effects, three main results emerge: 1) Solar heating at smaller o (0° to 45°) dominates over longwave cooling effects causing a suppression of collection for lower drop concentrations (100 to 200 cm-3 ). 2) At larger drop concentrations (300 cm-3 ) longwave cooling dominates over solar heating and collection is enhanced. 3) At large o . (60° to 90°), solar heating is ineffective at modifying the drop size spectrum thus allowing longwave cooling to significantly enhance collection at all drop concentrations above approximately 100 cm-3 . © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2448 Evolution of a Florida cirrus anvil Garrett T.J., Navarro B.C., Twohy C.H. et al. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2352-2372) This paper presents a detailed study of a single thunderstorm anvil cirrus cloud measured on 21 July 2002 near southern Florida during the Cirrus Regional Study of Tropical Anvils and Cirrus Layers-Florida Area Cirrus Experiment (CRYSTAL-FACE). NASA WB-57F and University of North Dakota Citation aircraft tracked the microphysical and radiative development of the anvil for 3 h. Measurements showed that the cloud mass that was advected downwind from the thunderstorm was separated vertically into two layers: a cirrus anvil with cloud-top temperatures of -45°C lay below a second, thin tropopause cirrus (TTC) layer with the same horizontal dimensions as the anvil and temperatures near 70°C. In both cloud layers, ice crystals smaller than 50 m across dominated the size distributions and cloud radiative properties. In the anvil, ice crystals larger than 50 m aggregated and precipitated while small ice crystals increasingly dominated the size distributions; as a consequence, measured ice water contents and ice crystal effective radii decreased with time. Meanwhile, the anvil thinned vertically and maintained a stratification similar to its environment. Because effective radii were small, radiative heating and cooling were concentrated in layers approximately 100 m thick at the anvil top and base. A simple analysis suggests that the anvil cirrus spread laterally because mixing in these radiatively driven layers created horizontal pressure gradients between the cloud and its stratified environment. The TTC layer also spread but, unlike the anvil, did not dissipate - perhaps because the anvil shielded the TTC from terrestrial infrared heating. Calculations of top-of-troposphere radiative forcing above the anvil and TTC showed strong cooling that tapered as the anvil evolved. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2449 Theoretical formulation of collision rate and collision efficiency of hydrodynamically interacting cloud droplets in turbulent atmosphere Wang L.- P., Ayala O., Kasprzak S.E. and Grabowski W.W. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2433-2450) A methodology for conducting direct numerical simulations (DNSs) of hydrodynamically interacting droplets in the context of cloud microphysics has been developed and used to validate a new kinematic formulation capable of describing the collision rate and collision efficiency of cloud droplets in turbulent air. The theoretical formulation is formally the same as the formulation recently developed for geometrical collision rate of finite-inertia, nonsettling particles. It is shown that its application to hydrodynamically interacting droplets requires corrections because of a nonoverlap requirement. An approximate method for correcting the kinematic properties has been developed and validated 466 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY against DNS data. The formulation presented here is more general and accurate than previously published formulations that, in most cases, are some extension to the description of hydrodynamic-gravitational collision. General dynamic and kinematic representations of the properly defined collision efficiency in a turbulent flow have been discussed. In addition to augmenting the geometric collision rate, air turbulence has been found to enhance the collision efficiency because, in a turbulent flow, hydrodynamic interactions become less effective in reducing the average relative radial velocity. The level of increase in the collision efficiency depends on the flow dissipation rate. For example, the collision efficiency between droplets of 20 and 25 m in radii is increased by 59% and 10% by air turbulence at dissipation rates of 400 and 100 cm2 s-3 , respectively. It is also shown that hydrodynamic interactions lead to higher droplet concentration fluctuations. The formulation presented here separates the effect of turbulence on collision efficiency from the previously observed effect of turbulence on the geometric collision rate. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2450 Collision rates of cloud droplets in turbulent flow Franklin C.N., Vaillancourt P.A., Yau M.K. and Bartello P. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2451-2466) Direct numerical simulations of an evolving turbulent flow field have been performed to explore how turbulence affects the motion and collisions of cloud droplets. Large numbers of droplets are tracked through the flow field and their positions, velocities, and collision rates have been found to depend on the eddy dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy. The radial distribution function, which is a measure of the preferential concentration of droplets, increases with eddy dissipation rate. When droplets are clustered there is an increased probability of finding two droplets closely separated; thus, there is an increase in the collision kernel. For the flow fields explored in this study, the clustering effect accounts for an increase in the collision kernel of 8%-42%, as compared to the gravitational collision kernel. The spherical collision kernel is also a function of the radial relative velocities among droplets and these velocities increase from 1.008 to 1.488 times the corresponding gravitational value. For an eddy dissipation rate of about 100 cm2 s-3 , the turbulent collision kernel is 1.06 times the magnitude of the gravitational value, while for an eddy dissipation rate of 1500 cm2 s-3 , this increases to 2.08 times. Therefore, these results demonstrate that turbulence could play an important role in the broadening and evolution of the droplet size distribution and the onset of precipitation. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2451 Small-scale drop size variability: Impact on estimation of cloud optical properties Knyazikhin Y., Marshak A., Larsen M.L. et al. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2555-2567) Most cloud radiation models and conventional data processing techniques assume that the mean number of drops of a given radius is proportional to volume. The analysis of microphysical data on liquid water drop sizes shows that, for sufficiently small volumes, this proportionality breaks down; the number of cloud drops of a given radius is instead proportional to the volume raised to a drop size-dependent nonunit power. The coefficient of proportionality, a generalized drop concentration, is a function of the drop size. For abundant small drops the power is unity as assumed in the conventional approach. However, for rarer large drops, it falls increasingly below unity. This empirical fact leads to drop clustering, with the larger drops exhibiting a greater degree of clustering. The generalized drop concentration shows the mean number of drops per cluster, while the power characterizes the occurrence frequency of clusters. With a fixed total number of drops in a cloud, a decrease in frequency of clusters is accompanied by a corresponding increase in the generalized concentration. This initiates a competing process missed in the conventional models: an increase in the number of drops per cluster enhances the impact of rarer large drops on cloud radiation while a decrease in the frequency suppresses it. Because of the nonlinear relationship between the number of clustered drops and the volume, these two opposite tendencies do not necessarily compensate each other. The data analysis suggests that clustered drops likely have a stronger radiative impact compared to their unclustered counterpart; ignoring it results in underestimation of the contribution from large drops to cloud horizontal optical path. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2452 The origin of high ice crystal number densities in cirrus clouds Hoyle C.R., Luo B.P. and Peter T. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2568-2579) Recent measurements with four independent particle instruments in cirrus clouds, which formed without convective or orographic influence, report high number densities of ice particles (as high as nice = 50 cm-3 ) embedded in broad density distributions (nice = 0.1-50 cm-3 ). It is shown here that small-scale temperature fluctuations related to gravity waves, mechanical turbulence, or other small-scale air motions are required to explain these observations. These waves have typical peak-to-peak amplitudes of 1-2 K and frequencies of up to 10 h-1 , corresponding to instantaneous cooling rates of up to 60 K h-1 . Such waves remain unresolved in even the most advanced state-of-the-art global atmospheric models. Given the ubiquitous nature of these fluctuations, it is suggested that the character of young in situ forming cirrus clouds is mostly determined by homogeneous freezing of ice in solution droplets, driven by a broad range of small-scale fluctuations (period
a few minutes) with moderate to high cooling rates (1-100 K h-1 ). © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2453 A conceptual model for entrainment in cumulus clouds Agrawal A. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2602-2606) Cumulus clouds are generally modeled as a plume, and the model works well up until the cloud base is encountered, beyond which the continuously entraining model does not appear appropriate. Although it has been known for a long time that cumulus clouds have very little lateral entrainment, the reason for it is not evident. An expression for the mean streamwise velocity profile as a Gaussian multiplied by a fourth-order polynomial factor is hereby proposed such that the mass and momentum fluxes are decoupled. This model suggests that cumulus clouds differ from other shear flows in that the former need not interact with the ambient for some downstream distance. The proposed model replicates a number of characteristics of cumulus clouds like a conserved mass flux with varying momentum flux, and may therefore be employed to describe them, in a time-averaged sense, beyond the cloud base. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2454 A simulation of a supercell thunderstorm with emulated radiative cooling beneath the anvil Markowski P.M. and Harrington J.Y. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2607-2617) This note reports the preliminary results of an ongoing numerical study designed to investigate what effects, if any, radiative transfer processes can have on the evolution of convective storms. A pair of idealized three-dimensional simulations are conducted to demonstrate the potential dynamical importance of shortwave radiation reductions within the large shadows cast by storms. One of the simulations (the control) is run without surface physics and radiation. In the other simulation, radiative cooling due to cloud shading is emulated by prescribing a cooling rate to the skin temperature at any grid point at which cloud water was present overhead. The imposed skin cooling rate is consistent with past observations. Low-level air temperatures are coupled to the skin cooling in this second simulation by the inclusion of surface sensible heat fluxes using simple bulk aerodynamic drag laws (latent and soil heat fluxes are not included). Significant differences are observed between the two simulated storms, particularly in the evolution of the vertical vorticity field and gust fronts. The storm simulated with emulated cloud shading develops substantially weaker low-level rotation than the storm in the control simulation. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2455 Where is the interface of the stratocumulus-topped PBL? Moeng C.- H., Stevens B. and Sullivan P.P. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2626-2631) Various locally defined (not horizontal mean) interfaces between the stratocumulus-topped PBL and the free atmosphere are in- METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY vestigated using a fine-resolution large-eddy simulation with a vertical grid spacing of about 4 m. The local cloud-top height is found to be always below the height where the maximum gradient of the local sounding occurs, and the maximum-gradient height is always below the interface where PBL air can reach via turbulent motions. The distances between these local interfaces are of significant amount, a few tens of meters on average. Air between the cloud-top and maximum-gradient interfaces is fully turbulent, unsaturated, but rather moist. Air between the maximum-gradient and turbulent-mixing interfaces consists of turbulent motions that are intermittent in space and time. The simulated flow shows no clearly defined interface that separates cloudy, turbulent air mass from clear, nonturbulent air above, even locally. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2456 Orographic effects on convective precipitation and space-time rainfall variability: Preliminary results Cerlini P.B., Emanuel K.A. and Todini E. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (285-299) In the EFFS Project, an attempt has been made to develop a general framework to study the predictability of severe convective rainfall events in the presence of orography. Convective activity is embedded in orographic rainfall and can be thought as the result of several physical mechanisms. Quantifying its variability on selected area and time scales requires choosing the best physical representation of the rainfall variability on these scales. The main goal was (i) to formulate a meaningful set of experiments to compute the oscillation of variance due to convection inside model forecasts in the presence of orography and (ii) to give a statistical measure of it that might be of value in the operational use of atmospheric data. The study has been limited to atmospheric scales that span the atmosphere from 2 to 200 km and has been focused on extreme events with deep convection. Suitable measures of the changing of convection in the presence of orography have been related to the physical properties of the rainfall environment. Preliminary results for the statistical variability of the convective field are presented. © EGU. 2457 Possible roles of ice nucleation mode and ice nuclei depletion in the extended lifetime of Arctic mixed-phase clouds Morrison H., Shupe M.D., Pinto J.O. and Curry J.A. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) The sensitivity of Arctic mixed phase clouds to the mode of ice particle nucleation is examined using a 1-D cloud model. It is shown that the lifetime of a simulated low-level Arctic mixedphase stratus is highly sensitive to the number concentration of deposition/ condensation-freezing nuclei, and much less sensitive to the number of contact nuclei. Simulations with prognostic ice nuclei concentration exhibit rapid depletion of deposition/condensation-freezing nuclei due to nucleation scavenging which significantly extends the mixed-phase cloud lifetime. In contrast, scavenging has little impact on the number of contact nuclei. Thus, contact mode nucleation generally dominates in the cloud layer when both modes are simultaneously considered. The dominance of contact nucleation in Arctic mixedphase clouds is consistent with a number of in situ observations, remote retrievals, and laboratory experiments. A conceptual model of long-lived Arctic mixed-phase clouds is developed that explains their persistence through the rapid depletion of deposition/condensation-freezing ice nuclei and a self-regulating dropcontact freezing feedback. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2458 A possible mechanism of the effect of cosmic rays on the formation of cloudiness at Low altitudes Kudryavtsev I.V. and Jungner H. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy 2005 45/5 (641-648) A possible mechanism of the effect of cosmic ray protons on the formation of cloudiness at low altitudes, based on changes in the atmospheric transparency and vertical temperature distribution, is considered. It has been indicated that a change in the atmospheric transparency, which can take place during precipitation of cosmic ray particles into the Earth’s atmosphere, will result in an acceleration of a condensed growth of drops in the troposphere as a result of tropospheric heating. A change in the condensed growth rate of drops reaches several percent, which can explain 467 the observed correlation between the intensity of galactic cosmic rays and cloudiness anomalies at low altitudes. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. Rainfall processes 2459 Drag-induced transfer of horizontal momentum between air and raindrops Shapiro A. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2205-2219) A theoretical model for unsteady drag-induced transfer of horizontal momentum between air and raindrops in moderate to heavy rainfall is presented. The model accounts for a two-way coupling in which the relative horizontal motion between air and raindrops appears as a drag forcing in both the air and raindrop equations of motion. Analytical solutions of these coupled equations are obtained for the case of rain falling through (i) an initial step change in environmental wind, (ii) a uniform shear profile, and (iii) periodically varying vertical shears of various wavenumbers (a crude proxy for turbulent eddies). Formulas for the propagation (descent) speeds of the shear zones are obtained for (ii), (iii), and for the later stage of (i). However, these speeds are generally quite small - on the order of a few centimeters per second even for heavy rainfall. More importantly, the solutions of (i) and (iii) indicate that the drag interaction leads to a decay of the velocity gradients. A formula for the e-folding decay time of the periodically varying shear profiles indicates that at small wavelengths, the smallest decay times are found for the smaller drops, but at large wavelengths, the smallest decay times are found for the larger drops. The decay times decrease with decreasing wavelength, and approach a value equal to the reciprocal of the product of the rainwater mixing ratio and a drag parameter in the limit of vanishing wavelength. For parameters typical of moderate to heavy rainfall, the small-scale decay times are on the order of a few minutes. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2460 Characteristics of the 14 April 1999 Sydney hailstorm based on ground observations, weather radar, insurance data and emergency calls Schuster S.S., Blong R.J., Leigh R.J. and McAneney K.J. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 2005 5/5 (613-620) Hailstorms occur frequently in metropolitan Sydney, in the eastern Australian State of New South Wales, which is especially vulnerable due to its building exposure and geographical location. Hailstorms challenge disaster response agencies and pose a great risk for insurance companies. This study focuses on the Sydney hailstorm of 14 April 1999 - Australia’s most expensive insured natural disaster, with supporting information from two other storms. Comparisons are drawn between observed hailstone sizes, radar-derived reflectivity and damage data in the form of insurance claims and emergency calls. The "emergency respo nse intensity" (defined by the number of emergency calls as a proportion of the total number of dwellings in a Census Collection District) is a useful new measure of the storm intensity or severity experienced. The area defined by a radar reflectivity 55 dBZ appears to be a good approximation of the damage swath on ground. A preferred area for hail damage is located to the left side of storm paths and corresponds well with larger hailstone sizes. Merging hail cells appear to cause a substantially higher emergency response intensity, which also corresponds well to maximum hailstone sizes. A damage threshold could be identified for hailstone sizes around 2.5 cm (1 cm), based on the emergency response intensity (insurance claims). Emergency response intensity and claims costs both correlate positively with hailstone sizes. Higher claim costs also occurred in areas that experienced higher emergency response intensities © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 468 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY Weather and climate forecasting between magnitudes of maximum anomaly in one regime, for example, the active spell, and duration of the subsequent break spell. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2461 Cyclogenetic perturbations and analysis errors decomposed into singular vectors Snyder C. and Hakim G.J. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2234-2247) Singular vectors (SVs) have been applied to cyclogenesis, to initializing ensemble forecasts, and in predictability studies. Ideally, the calculation of the SVs would employ the analysis error covariance norm at the initial time or, in the case of cyclogenesis, a norm based on the statistics of initial perturbations, but the energy norm is often used as a more practical substitute. To illustrate the roles of the choice of norm and the vertical structure of initial perturbations, an upper-level wave with no potential vorticity perturbation in the troposphere is considered as a typical cyclogenetic perturbation or analysis error, and this perturbation is then decomposed by its projection onto each energy SV. All calculations are made, for simplicity, in the context of the quasigeostrophic Eady model (i.e., for a background flow with constant vertical shear and horizontal temperature gradient). Viewed in terms of the energy SVs, the smooth vertical structure of the typical perturbation, as well as its evolution, results from strong cancellation between the growing and decaying SVs, most of which are highly structured and tilted in the vertical. A simpler picture, involving less cancellation, follows from decomposition of the typical perturbation into SVs using an alternative initial norm, which is based on the relation between initial norms and the statistics of initial perturbations together with the empirical assumption that the initial perturbations are not dominated by interior potential vorticity. Differences between the energy SVs and those based on the alternative initial norm can be understood by noting that the energy norm implicitly assumes initial perturbations with second-order statistics given by the covariance matrix whose inverse defines the energy norm. Unlike the "typical" perturbation, perturbations with those statistics have large variance of potential vorticity in the troposphere and fine vertical structure. Finally, a brief assessment is presented of the extent to which the upper wave, and more generally the alternative initial norm, is representative of cyclogenetic perturbations and analysis errors. There is substantial evidence supporting deep perturbations with little vertical structure as frequent precursors to cyclogenesis, but surrogates for analysis errors are less conclusive: operational midlatitude analysis differences have vertical structure similar to that of the perturbations implied by the energy norm, while short-range forecast errors and analysis errors from assimilation experiments with simulated observations are more consistent with the alternative norm. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2463 Impact of model resolution on the prediction of summer precipitation over the United States and Mexico Mo K.C., Schemm J.- K., Juang H.M.H. et al. Journal of Climate 2005 18/18 (3910-3927) Summmer seasonal simulations for selected years were performed using the NCEP Global Forecast System (GFS) at high (T126L28) and low (T62L28) resolutions, and the NCEP 80-km regional spectral model (RSM) nested in the T62 model outputs (RSM80/T62). All models have 28 levels in the vertical. All experiments were performed with prescribed observed sea surface temperatures to ensure that simulation errors came from model deficiencies. While the T126L28 model does not have a statistically significant advantage in simulating 500-hPa height anomalies over the Pacific-North American domain, it yields better monsoon precipitation forecasts and interannual variability. The T62L28 model simulations are too dry over the Southwest and northwestern Mexico when compared to observations and do not properly capture interannual variations of monsoon rainfall. The RSM80/T62 nesting improves the overall rainfall simulations somewhat but is not able to overcome deficiencies of the T62L28 global model to capture interannual variations in monsoon precipitation. Results indicate that a high-resolution version of the global model is needed for seasonal forecasts of monsoon precipitation. Both models capture the low-level jet from the Great Plains (GPLLJ) and rainfall anomalies associated with the 1993 summer floods and the 1988 summer drought, although the simulated rainfall maxima are often weaker and shifted spatially when compared to observations. The impact of horizontal resolution is largely local and is limited to areas over the western region of North America. The T126 model is able to capture the low-level jet from the Gulf of California (GCLLJ), while the T62 model is too coarse to resolve the Gulf of California (GOC). Moisture surges along the GOC are not properly simulated by the T62 model. Overall, the T62 model simulates a very dry Southwest and a weaker monsoon. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2462 Prediction rules for regime changes and length in a new regime for the Lorenz model Yadav R.S., Dwivedi S. and Mittal A.K. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2316-2321) Despite the widespread use of the Lorenz model as a conceptual model for predictability studies in meteorology, only Evans et al. seem to have studied the prediction of occurrence of regime changes and their duration. In this paper, simpler rules are presented for forecasting regime changes and their lengths, with near-perfect forecasting accuracy. It is found that when x(t) is greater than a critical value xc , the current regime will end after it completes the current orbit. Moreover, the length n of the new regime increases monotonically with the maximum value xm of x(t) in the previous regime. A best-fit cubic expression provides a very good estimate of n for the next regime, given xm for the previous regime. Similar forecasting rules are also obtained for regime changes in the forced Lorenz model. This model was introduced by Palmer and used as a conceptual model to explore the effects of sea surface temperature on seasonal mean rainfall. It was found that for the forced Lorenz model, the critical value xc changed linearly with the forcing parameter providing bias to one of the regimes. Similar regime prediction rules have been found in some other two-regime attractors. It seems these forecasting rules are a generic property of a large class of two-regime attractors. Although as a conceptual model, the Lorenz model cannot be taken very literally, these results suggest a relationship 2464 The role of wave packets in wave-mean flow interactions during Southern Hemisphere summer Chang E.K.M. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 II (2467-2483) In this study, reanalysis data produced by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts for 14 Southern Hemisphere (SH) summer seasons have been analyzed. All cases of hemispheric transient eddy kinetic energy (TEKE) maxima have been identified, and the evolution of the local energetics and planetaryscale flow anomalies accompanying these TEKE growth/decay episodes are composited. The longitude-time evo lution of the composite energetics shows the clear signature of a wave packet propagating eastward at a group velocity of about 27° longitude per day and undergoing a life cycle of growth and decay, with the energetics within a volume close to the wave packet center dominating the hemispheric mean energetics. When individual cases are examined, 52% are found to resemble the composite and have the energetics life cycle dominated by the evolution of a single wave packet, and an additional 21% are found to be dominated by the evolution of two wave packets having similar amplitudes. Only the remaining 27% can be regarded as having experienced TEKE growth and decay throughout much of the hemisphere. The zonal mean flow and eddy f eedback anomalies (i.e., reduction in the meridional temperature gradient due to the effects of the eddy heat fluxes, as well as increase in the barotropic shear due to a narrowing of the midlatitude jet through the effects of the eddy momentum fluxes) associated with the cases dominated by the evolution of a single wave packet are also found to be dominated by anomalies close to the wave packet center. The fact that hemispheric wave growth/decay is often dominated by the evolution of a single wave packet has interesting dynamical consequences when the climatological basic flow is not zonally symmetric. When a wave packet propagates over regions of enhanced baroclinicity, it can extract more energy from the mean flow via baroclinic conversion, leading to its preferential growth. On the other hand, when a wave packet propagates over regions METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY of weak baroclinicity, baroclinic conversion is suppressed; hence any packet growth must be due to other processes. By examining the location of wave packet peaks when hemispheric TEKE is at a maximum, it is observed that hemispheric mean TEKE peaks much more frequently when the dominant wave packet is located downstream of the region with strongest baroclinicity. In addition, the growth in TEKE for these cases is usually dominated by an increase in baroclinic conversion. In contrast, for the small number of cases in which the hemispheric mean TEKE maximum occurs when the dominant wave packet is located downstream of the region with weakest baroclinicity, the growth of the hemispheric TEKE is instead dominated by a reduction in barotropic dissipation. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2465 Evaluation of potential benefit of assimilation of SEVIRI water vapour radiance data from Meteosat-8 into global numerical weather prediction analyses Szyndel M.D.E., Kelly G. and Th´epaut J.N. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/2 (105-111) The clear sky radiance product from the SEVIRI instrument is described. The characteristics of the data derived from water vapour-sensitive channels are discussed. A trial of the assimilation of these data from Meteosat-8 into the ECMWF NWP model is described and results of this trial presented and discussed. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2466 Some aspects of systematic error in the ECMWF model Jung T., Tompkins A.M. and Rodwell M.J. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/2 (133-139) First, systematic errors of short-range and medium-range Z500 forecasts are described along with their changes since the early 1980s. Then systematic cloud error will be described. Finally, the capability of the ECMWF model to simulate the Maddenand-Julian Oscillation is assessed. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2467 Very short period quantitative precipitation forecasting Fox N.I. and Wilson J.W. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (7-11) This article presents an overview of the state of the art of very short period quantitative precipitation forecasting. The authors draw primarily on work presented during the sessions on ‘Nowcasting’ held at the 6th Symposium on the Hydrological Applications of Weather Radar, in Melbourne, Australia, from 2nd to 4th February 2004, and also include some other work in order to give a more complete picture of the field. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2468 Providing distributed forecasts of precipitation using a Bayesian nowcast scheme Fox N.I. and Wikle C.K. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (59-65) This article presents examples of the nowcast products that can be generated using a stochastic Bayesian precipitation nowcast scheme. Using this scheme, one can view QPF distributions, variance (uncertainty) fields and cumulative probability distributions by point/pixel and, by simulating small catchments as a collection of pixels, the uncertainty characteristics at different spatial scales. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2469 The tropical rainfall potential (TRaP) technique. Part I: Description and examples Kidder S.Q., Kusselson S.J., Knaff J.A. et al. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (456-464) Inland flooding caused by heavy rainfall from landfalling tropical cyclones is a significant threat to life and property. The tropical rainfall potential (TRaP) technique, which couples satellite estimates of rain rate in tropical cyclones with track forecasts to produce a forecast of 24-h rainfall from a storm, was developed to better estimate the magnitude of this threat. This paper outlines the history of the TRaP technique, details its current algorithms, and offers examples of its use in forecasting. Part II of this paper covers verification of the technique. 469 2470 The tropical rainfall potential (TRaP) technique. Part II: Validation Ferraro R., Pellegrino P., Turk M. et al. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (465-475) Satellite analysts at the Satellite Services Division (SSD) of the National Environmental, Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) routinely generate 24-h rainfall potential for all tropical systems that are expected to make landfall within 24 to at most 36 h and are of tropical storm or greater strength (>65 km h-1 ). These estimates, known as the tropical rainfall potential (TRaP), are generated in an objective manner by taking instantaneous rainfall estimates from passive microwave sensors, advecting this rainfall pattern along the predicted storm track, and accumulating rainfall over the next 24 h. In this study, the TRaPs generated by SSD during the 200 2 Atlantic hurricane season have been validated using National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) stage IV hourly rainfall estimates. An objective validation package was used to generate common statistics such as correlation, bias, root-mean-square error, etc. It was found that by changing the minimum rain-rate threshold, the results could be drastically different. It was determined that a minimum threshold of 25.4 mm day-1 was appropriate for use with TRaP. By stratifying the data by different criteria, it was discovered that the TRaPs generated using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI) rain rates, with its optimal set of measurement frequencies, improved spatial resolution, and advanced retrieval algorithm, produced the best results. In addition, the best results were found for TRaPs generated for storms that were between 12 and 18 h from landfall. Since the TRaP is highly dependent on the forecast track of the storm, selected TRaPs were rerun using the observed track contained in the NOAA/Tropical Prediction Center (TPC) "best track." Although some TRaPs were not significantly improved by using this best track, significant improvements were realized in some instances. Finally, as a benchmark for the usefulness of TRaP, comparisons were made to Eta Model 24-h precipitation forecasts as well as three climatological maximum rainfall methods. It was apparent that the satellite-based TRaP outperforms the Eta Model in virtually every statistical category, while the climatological methods produced maximum rainfall totals closer to the stage IV maximum amounts when compared with TRaP, although these methods are for storm totals while TRaP is for a 24-h period. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2471 Further improvements to the Statistical Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme (SHIPS) DeMaria M., Mainelli M., Shay L.K. et al. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (531-543) Modifications to the Atlantic and east Pacific versions of the operational Statistical Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme (SHIPS) for each year from 1997 to 2003 are described. Major changes include the addition of a method to account for the storm decay over land in 2000, the extension of the forecasts from 3 to 5 days in 2001, and the use of an operational global model for the evaluation of the atmospheric predictors instead of a simple dry-adiabatic model beginning in 2001. A verification of the SHIPS operational intensity forecasts is presented. Results show that the 1997-2003 SHIPS forecasts had statistically significant skill (relative to climatology and persistence) out to 72 h in the Atlantic, and at 48 and 72 h in the east Pacific. The inclusion of the land effects reduced the intensity errors by up to 15% in the Atlantic, and up to 3% in the east Pacific, primarily for the shorter-range forecasts. The inclusion of land effects did not significantly degrade the forecasts at any time period. Results also showed that the 4-5-day forecasts that began in 2001 did not have skill in the Atlantic, but had some skill in the east Pacific. An experimental version of SHIPS that included satellite observations was tested during the 2002 and 2003 seasons. New predictors included brightness temperature information from Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) channel 4 (10.7 m) imagery, and oceanic heat content (OHC) estimates inferred from satellite altimetry observations. The OHC estimates were only available for the Atlantic basin. The GOES data significantly improved the east Pacific forecasts by up to 7% at 12-72 h. The combination of GOES and satellite altimetry improved the Atlantic forecasts by up to 3.5% through 72 h for 470 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY those storms west of 50°W. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2472 Operational forecasting of wind-generated waves by hurricane Isabel at NCEP Tolman H.L., Alves J.- H.G.M. and Chao Y.Y. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (544-557) The accuracy of the operational wave models at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) for sea states generated by Hurricane Isabel is assessed. The western North Atlantic (WNA) and the North Atlantic hurricane (NAH) wave models are validated using analyzed wind fields, and wave observations from the Jason-1 altimeter and from 15 moored buoys. Both models provided excellent guidance for Isabel in the days preceding landfall of the hurricane along the east coast of the United States. However, the NAH model outperforms the WNA model in the initial stages of Isabel, when she was a category 5 hurricane. The NAH model was also more accurate in providing guidance for the swell systems arriving at the U.S. coast well before landfall of Isabel. Although major model deficiencies can be attributed to shortcomings in the driving wind fields, several areas of potential wave model improvement have been identified. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2473 Model forecast improvements with decreased horizontal grid spacing over finescale intermountain orography during the 2002 Olympic Winter Games Hart K.A., Steenburgh W.J. and Onton D.J. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (558-576) Forecasts produced for the 2002 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games (23 January-25 March 2002) by a multiply nested version of the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State UniversityNational Center for Atmospheric Research (PSU-NCAR) Mesoscale Model (MM5) are examined to determine if decreasing horizontal grid spacing to 4 km improves forecast accuracy over the finescale topography of the Intermountain West. The verification is based on high-density observations collected by the Meso West cooperative networks, including approximately 200 wind and temperature sites and 100 precipitation sites across northern Utah. Wind and precipitation forecasts produced by the 4-km MM5 domain were m ore accurate (based on traditional measures) than those of its parent 12-km domain. The most significant improvements in wind speed forecasts occurred at night in valleys and lowland locations where the topography of the 4-km domain produced more accurate nocturnal flows. Wind direction forecast improvements were most substantial at mountain sites where the better topographic resolution of the 4-km domain more accurately reflected the exposure of these locations to the free atmosphere. The 4-km domain also produced quantitative precipitation forecasts that were either equally (small events) or more (large events) accurate than the 12-km domain. Precipitation bias errors varied substantially between the two domains since the representation of the region’s narrow, steeply sloped, basin-and-range topography improved dramatically at 4-kM grid spacing. Curiously, the overall accuracy of t emperature forecasts by the 4-km domain was not significantly better than that of the 12-km domain. This was due to an inability of the MM5 to properly simulate nocturnal and persistent cold pools within mountain valleys and the lowlands upstream of the Wasatch Mountains. Paradoxically, the added resolution of the 4-km domain, coupled with the failure of this version of the MM5 to fully capture the nocturnal and persistent cold pools, resulted in poorer skill scores. At upper elevations, which are typically above the cold pools, the 4-km domain was substantially more accurate. These results illustrate that decreasing horizontal grid spacing to less than 10 km does improve wind and precipitation forecasts over finescale Intermountain West topography. It is hypothesized that model improvements will ultimately enable the advantages of added model resolution to be fully realized for temperature forecasts over the Intermountain West. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2474 Short-range ensemble forecasts of precipitation type Wandishin M.S., Baldwin M.E., Mullen S.L. and Cortinas Jr. J.V. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (609-626) Short-range ensemble forecasting is extended to a critical winter weather problem: forecasting precipitation type. Forecast soundings from the operational NCEP Short-Range Ensemble Forecast system are combined with five precipitation-type algorithms to produce probabilistic forecasts from January through March 2002. Thus the ensemble combines model diversity, initial condition diversity, and postprocessing algorithm diversity. All verification numbers are conditioned on both the ensemble and observations recording some form of precipitation. This separates the forecast of type from the yes-no precipitation forecast. The ensemble is very skillful in forecasting rain and snow but it is only moderately skillful for freezing rain and unskillful for ice pellets. However, even for the unskillful forecasts the ensemble shows some ability to discriminate between the different precipitation types and thus provides some positive value to forecast users. Algorithm diversity is shown to be as important as initial condition diversity in terms of forecast quality, although neither has as big an impact as model diversity. The algorithms have their individual strengths and weaknesses, but no algorithm is clearly better or worse than the others overall. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2475 Improved site-specific numerical prediction of fog and low clouds: A feasibility study Bergot T., Carrer D., Noilhan J. and Bougeault P. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (627-646) Accurate short-term forecasts of low ceiling and visibility are vital to air traffic operation, in order to maximize the use of an airport. The research presented here uses specific local observations and a detailed numerical 1D model in an integrated approach. The goal of the proposed methodology is to improve the local prediction of poor visibility and low clouds at Paris’s Charles de Gaulle International Airport. In addition to the development of an integrated observations and model-based forecasting system, this study will try to assess whether or not the increased local observing network yields improvements in short-term forecasts of low ceiling and poor visibility. Tests have been performed in a systematic manner during 5 months (the 2002/03 winter season). Encouraging results show that the inclusion of dedicated observations into the local 1D forecast system provides significant improvement to the forecast. Inspection of events indicates that the improvement in very short-term forecasts is a consequence of the ability of the forecast system to more accurately characterize the boundary layer processes, especially during night. Accurate forecast of low cloud seems more difficult since it strongly depends on the 3D mesoscale flow. This study also demonstrates that the use of a 1D model to forecast fogs and low clouds could only be beneficial if it is associated with local measurements and with a local assimilation scheme. The assimilation procedure used in this study is based on different steps: in the first step the atmospheric profiles are estimated in a one-dimensional variational data assimilation (1DVAR) framework, in the second step these atmospheric profiles are modified when fog and/or low clouds are detected, and in the third step the soil profiles are estimated in order to keep the consistency between the soil state and atmospheric measurements. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2476 An operational system for predicting hurricane-generated wind waves in the North Atlantic Ocean Chao Y.Y., Alves J.- H.G.M. and Tolman H.L. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (652-671) A new wind-wave prediction model, referred to as the North Atlantic hurricane (NAH) wave model, has been developed at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) to produce forecasts of hurricane-generated waves during the Atlantic hurricane season. A detailed description of this model and a comparison of its performance against the operational western North Atlantic (WNA) wave model during Hurricanes Isidore and Lili, in 2002, are presented. The NAH and WNA models are identical in their physics and numerics. The NAH model uses a wind field obtained by blending data from NCEP’s operational Global Forecast System (GFS) with those from a higher-resolution hurricane prediction model, whereas the WNA wave model uses winds provided exclusively by the GFS. Relative biases of the order of 10% in the prediction of maximum wave heights up to 48 h in advance, indicate that the use of higher-resolution winds in the NAH model provides a successful framework for METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY predicting extreme sea states generated by a hurricane. Consequently, the NAH model has been made operational at NCEP for use during the Atlantic hurricane season. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2477 Radar Z-R relationship for summer monsoon storms in Arizona Morin E., Maddox R.A., Goodrich D.C. and Sorooshian S. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (672-679) Radar-based estimates of rainfall rates and accumulations are one of the principal tools used by the National Weather Service (NWS) to identify areas of extreme precipitation that could lead to flooding. Radar-based rainfall estimates have been compared to gauge observations for 13 convective storm events over a densely instrumented, experimental watershed to derive an accurate reflectivity-rainfall rate (i.e., Z-R) relationship for these events. The resultant Z-R relationship, which is much different than the NWS operational Z-R, has been examined for a separate, independent event that occurred over a different location. For all events studied, the NWS operational Z-R significantly overestimates rainfall compared to gauge measurements. The gauge data from the experimental network, the NWS operational rain estimates, and the improved estimates resulting from this study have been input into a hydrologic model to "predict" watershed runoff for an intense event. Rainfall data from the gauges and from the derived Z-R relation produce predictions in relatively good agreement with observed streamflows. The NWS Z-R estimates lead to predicted peak discharge rates that are more than twice as large as the observed discharges. These results were consistent over a relatively wide range of subwatershed areas (4-148 km2 ). The experimentally derived Z-R relationship may provide more accurate radar estimates for convective storms over the southwest United States than does the operational convective Z-R used by the NWS. These initial results suggest that the generic NWS Z-R relation, used nationally for convective storms, might be substantially improved for regional application. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2478 An operational statistical typhoon intensity prediction scheme for the western North Pacific Knaff J.A., Sampson C.R. and DeMaria M. Weather and Forecasting 2005 20/4 (688-699) The current version of the Statistical Typhoon Intensity Prediction Scheme (STIPS) used operationally at the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) to provide 12-hourly tropical cyclone intensity guidance through day 5 is documented. STIPS is a multiple linear regression model. It was developed using a "perfect prog" assumption and has a statistical-dynamical framework, which utilizes environmental information obtained from Navy Operational Global Analysis and Prediction System (NOGAPS) analyses and the JTWC historical best track for development. NOGAPS forecast fields are used in real time. A separate version of the model (decay-STIPS) is produced that accounts for the effects of landfall by using an empirical inland decay model. Despite their simplicity, STIPS and decay-STIPS produce skillful intensity forecasts through 4 days, based on a 48-storm verification (July 2003-October 2004). Details of this model’s development and operational performance are presented. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2479 Limited-area short-range ensemble predictions targeted for heavy rain in Europe Sattler K. and Feddersen H. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2005 9/4 (300-312) Inherent uncertainties in short-range quantitative precipitation forecasts (QPF) from the high-resolution, limited-area numerical weather prediction model DMI-HIRLAM (LAM) are addressed using two different approaches to creating a small ensemble of LAM simulations, with focus on prediction of extreme rainfall events over European river basins. The first ensemble type is designed to represent uncertainty in the atmospheric state of the initial condition and at the lateral LAM boundaries. The global ensemble prediction system (EPS) from ECMWF serves as host model to the LAM and provides the state perturbations, from which a small set of significant members is selected. The significance is estimated on the basis of accumulated precipitation over a target area of interest, which contains the river basin(s) 471 under consideration. The selected members provide the initial and boundary data for the ensemble integration in the LAM. A second ensemble approach tries to address a portion of the model-inherent uncertainty responsible for errors in the forecasted precipitation field by utilising different parameterisation schemes for condensation and convection in the LAM. Three periods around historical heavy rain events that caused or contributed to disastrous river flooding in Europe are used to study the performance of the LAM ensemble designs. The three cases exhibit different dynamic and synoptic characteristics and provide an indication of the ensemble qualities in different weather situations. Precipitation analyses from the Deutsche Wetterdienst (DWD) are used as the verifying reference and a comparison of daily rainfall amounts is referred to the respective river basins of the historical cases. © EGU. 2480 A new dynamical core of the Met Office’s global and regional modelling of the atmosphere Davies T., Cullen M.J.P., Malcolm A.J. et al. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 2005 131/608 (1759-1782) A computational scheme suitable for numerical weather prediction and climate modelling over a wide range of length scales is described. Its formulation is non-hydrostatic and fully compressible, and shallow atmosphere approximations are not made. Semi-implicit, semi-Lagrangian time-integration methods are used. The scheme forms the dynamical core of the unified model used at the Met Office for all its operational numerical weather prediction and in its climate studies. © Crown copyright, 2005. 2481 Theoretical examination of a multi-model composite for seasonal prediction Yoo J.H. and Kang I.- S. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The performance of a multi-model composite for seasonal prediction is theoretically examined in terms of a correlation skill. On the basis of theoretical analysis, we discuss the improvement of skill in the multi-model composite using the APCN multi-model seasonal prediction dataset. Although the skill of multi-model composite is generally increased by increasing the number of models, the highest skill can be obtained by selecting several skillful models which are less dependent each other. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2482 An integrated decision method for prediction of tropical cyclone movement by using genetic algorithm Yang Y. and Wang J. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/3 (429-440) In this study an integrated decision method for the multi-prediction results of tropical cyclone movements by using genetic algorithm (GA) has been adopted. A genetic learning artificial neural network (GLANN) as a learning mechanism for track prediction was developed through training with the huge samples of typhoon tracks from 1884 to 2002. The prediction of typhoon motion is to consider how to suit the dynamic change of environment, where typhoon passed through. The neural network structure is described by GA. A fitness function for choice of GA is given to approach the maximum of fitness (the minimum of the errors). Parallel comparing analyses for prediction abilities of unusual typhoon tracks in recent years by GLANN with multi-forecast methods were conducted. More types of cases were employed in the comparing analyses, which consist of the typhoon, Winnie, No.11, in 1997, characterized by a long life over the ocean and in the mainland with severe effect on China, the 10 unusual typhoon tracks in the 1990s, the tracks with landfall and affected action in 1998 and the typhoons born in the Northwestern Pacific and the South China Sea in 2000, including the 24-48 h forecast, etc. The results indicated that for prediction ability of typhoon tracks, specially for unusual typhoons, GA decision-making developed in this study is superior to the others. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. 472 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY Climate change 2483 Temperature trends in twentieth century at Pune, India Gadgil A. and Dhorde A. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6550-6556) Climatic change is one of the most important issues of present times. Unlike the greenhouse gases, which have a predominantly warming effect, atmospheric aerosols could either warm or cool the atmosphere depending upon the size, distribution and optical properties. Of all the climatic elements, temperature plays a major role in detecting climatic change brought about by urbanization and industrialization. This paper, therefore, attempts to study temporal variation in temperature over Pune city, India, during the period 1901-2000. The long-term change in temperature has been evaluated by Mann-Kendall rank statistics and linear trend. The analysis reveals significant decrease in mean annual and mean maximum temperature. This decrease in temperature is more pronounced during the winter season, which can be ascribed to a significant increase in the amount of suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the ambient air during the last decade. On the contrary, monsoon season shows warming. This warming can be attributed to a significant increase in the low cloud amount. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2484 Ice-sheet and sea-level changes Alley R.B., Clark P.U., Huybrechts P. and Joughin I. Science 2005 310/5747 (456-460) Future sea-level rise is an important issue related to the continuing buildup of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, with the potential to raise sea level
70 meters if completely melted, dominate uncertainties in projected sea-level change. Freshwater fluxes from these ice sheets also may affect oceanic circulation, contributing to climate change. Observational and modeling advances have reduced many uncertainties related to ice-sheet behavior, but recently detected, rapid ice-marginal changes contributing to sea-level rise may indicate greater ice-sheet sensitivity to warming than previously considered. 2485 Cloudiness regime shift during 1946-1992 recorded by coral in the South China Sea Gao R., Sun D., Wang D. and Yang X. Acta Oceanologica Sinica 2005 24/5 (27-34) By extracting and comparing long-term trend components of coral gray value, sea surface temperature, cloudiness, and net heat flux for the period of 1946-1992, the relationships among them are addressed. There exists a prominent regime shift in the cloudiness associated with the corresponding variabilities of sea surface temperature and net heat flux occurred in the mid-1960s, which can be successfully recorded by coral gray value, a climatic proxy. Long-term cloudiness variations in the South China Sea are completely opposite to the equatorial western Pacific in the past five decades, whereas they share a similar trend to that over Asian monsoon prevailing waters. The fact that the coral gray value is highly correlated to cloudiness provides a unique perspective on utilizing this coral to study cloudiness variations in the pre-instrumental period. 2486 EMIC Intercomparison Project (EMIP-CO2 : Comparative analysis of EMIC simulations of climate, and of equilibrium and transient responses to atmospheric CO2 doubling Petoukhov V., Claussen M., Berger A. et al. Climate Dynamics 2005 25/4 (363-385) An intercomparison of eight EMICs (Earth system Models of Intermediate Complexity) is carried out to investigate the variation and scatter in the results of simulating (1) the climate characteristics at the prescribed 280 ppm atmosphere CO2 concentration, and (2) the equilibrium and transient responses to CO2 doubling in the atmosphere. The results of the first part of this intercomparison suggest that EMICs are in reasonable agreement with the present-day observational data. The dispersion of the EMIC results by and large falls within the range of results of General Circulation Models (GCMs), which took part in the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP) and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project, phase 1 (CMIP1). Probable reasons for the observed discrepancies among the EMIC simulations of climate characteristics are analysed. A scenario with gradual increase in CO2 concentration in the atmosphere (1% per year compounded) during the first 70 years followed by a stabilisation at the 560 ppm level during a period longer than 1,500 years is chosen for the second part of this intercomparison. It appears that the EMIC results for the equilibrium and transient responses to CO2 doubling are within the range of the corresponding results of GCMs, which participated in the atmosphere-slab ocean model intercomparison project and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project, phase 2 (CMIP2). In particular EMICs show similar temperature and precipitation changes with comparable magnitudes and scatter across the models as found in the GCMs. The largest scatter in the simulated response of precipitation to CO2 change occurs in the subtropics. Significant differences also appear in the magnitude of sea ice cover reduction. Each of the EMICs participating in the intercomparison exhibits a reduction of the strength of the thermohaline circulation in the North Atlantic under CO2 doubling, with the maximum decrease occurring between 100 and 300 years after the beginning of the transient experiment. After this transient reduction, whose minimum notably varies from model to model, the strength of the thermohaline circulation increases again in each model, slowly rising back to a new equilibrium. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2487 Simulation capability of tropical and extratropical seasonal climate anomalies over South America Labraga J.C. Climate Dynamics 2005 25/4 (427-445) An ensemble of 20 extended integrations of the atmospheric model CSIRO Mark 2, forced with the sea-surface temperature observed during the 1986-1998 period, was performed to analyze the simulation capability of seasonal climate anomalies over South America and adjacent oceanic areas. Variations of the simulation skill within the region and during the experimental period were assessed through standard statistical measures and compared to the signal-to-noise ratio distribution. Before the skill assessment, model systematic errors were thoroughly evaluated. The results confirm that the simulation skill is very high in tropical oceanic areas, and decreases rapidly towards middle and high latitudes. Model performance at mid and high atmospheric levels is substantially better than at low levels. Relatively high simulation capability was found over the Pacific Ocean between the equator and the Antarctic coast, which is coherent with the presence of three relative maximums in the signal-to-noise ratio, similar to the increase of the forced variance found by several authors over much of the Pacific - North American pattern region. Rainfall rate and second-order moments associated with the cyclonic activity and the meridional eddy fluxes of heat and humidity are better simulated in a narrow strip parallel to the SPCZ and extending further southeast into mid latitudes of the continent. The simulation skill noticeably improves during the warm and cold ENSO phases, in correspondence with an intensification of the signal-to-noise ratio, and useful rainfall anomaly simulations can be obtained over the Amazonas and Rio de la Plata river basins. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2488 Elimination of the greenland ice sheet in a high CO2 climate Ridley J.K., Huybrechts P., Gregory J.M. and Lowe J.A. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3409-3427) Projections of future global sea level depend on reliable estimates of changes in the size of polar ice sheets. Calculating this directly from global general circulation models (GCMs) is unreliable because the coarse resolution of 100 km or more is unable to capture narrow ablation zones, and ice dynamics is not usually taken into account in GCMs. To overcome these problems a high-resolution (20 km) dynamic ice sheet model has been coupled to the third Hadley Centre Coupled OceanAtmosphere GCM (HadCM3). A novel feature is the use of two-way coupling, so that climate changes in the GCM drive ice mass changes in the ice sheet model that, in turn, can alter the future climate through changes in orography, surface albedo, and freshwater input to the model ocean. At the start of the main experiment the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration was increased to 4 times the preindustrial level and held constant for 3000 yr. By the end of this period the Greenland ice sheet is METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY almost completely ablated and has made a direct contribution of approximately 7 m to global average sea level, causing a peak rate of sea level rise of 5 mm yr-1 early in the simulation. The effect of ice sheet depletion on global and regional climate has been examined and it was found that apart from the sea level rise, the long-term effect on global climate is small. However, there are some significant regional climate changes that appear to have reduced the rate at which the ice sheet ablates. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2489 Soil control on runoff response to climate change in regional climate model simulations van den Hurk B., Hirschi M., Sch¨ar C. et al. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3536-3551) Simulations with seven regional climate models driven by a common control climate simulation of a GCM carried out for Europe in the context of the (European Union) EU-funded Prediction of Regional scenarios and Uncertainties for Defining European Climate change risks and Effects (PRUDENCE) project were analyzed with respect to land surface hydrology in the Rhine basin. In particular, the annual cycle of the terrestrial water storage was compared to analyses based on the 40-yr ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40) atmospheric convergence and observed Rhine discharge data. In addition, an analysis was made of the partitioning of convergence anomalies over anomalies in runoff and storage. This analysis revealed that most models underestimate the size of the water storage and consequently overestimated the response of runoff to anomalies in net convergence. The partitioning of these anomalies over runoff and storage was indicative for the response of the simulated runoff to a projected climate change consistent with the greenhouse gas A2 Synthesis Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES). In particular, the annual cycle of runoff is affected largely by the terrestrial storage reservoir. Larger storage capacity leads to smaller changes in both wintertime and summertime monthly mean runoff. The sustained summertime evaporation resulting from larger storage reservoirs may have a noticeable impact on the summertime surface temperature projections. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2490 Mechanisms of decadal Arctic climate variability in the community climate system model, version 2 (CCSM2) Goosse H. and Holland M.M. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3552-3570) Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain natural climate variability in the Arctic. These include processes related to the influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation/Arctic Oscillation (NAO/AO), anticyclonic/cyclonic regimes, changes in the oceanic and atmospheric North Atlantic-Arctic exchange, and changes in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. After a brief critical review, the influence and interrelation of the above processes in a long climate integration of the Community Climate System Model, version 2 (CCSM2) are examined. The analysis is based on the time series of surface air temperature integrated northward of 70°N, which serves as a useful proxy for general Arctic climate conditions. This gives a large-scale view of the evolution of Arctic climate. It is found that changes in oceanic exchange and heat transport in the Barents Sea dominate in forcing the Arctic surface air temperature variability in CCSM2. Changes in atmospheric circulation are consistent with a wind forcing of this variability, while changes in the deep overturning circulation in the Atlantic are more weakly related in CCSM2. Over some time periods, the NAO/AO is significantly related to these changes in Arctic climate conditions. However, this is not robust over longer time scales. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2491 Simulated and observed preindustrial to modern vegetation and climate changes Notaro M., Liu Z., Gallimore R. et al. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3650-3671) Rising levels of carbon dioxide since the preindustrial era have likely contributed to an observed warming of the global surface, and observations show global greening and an expansion of boreal forests. This study reproduces observed climate and vegetation trends associated with rising CO2 using a fully coupled atmosphere-ocean-land surface GCM with dynamic vegetation and decomposes the effects into physiological and radiative 473 components. The simulated warming trend, strongest at high latitudes, was dominated by the radiative effect, although the physiological effect of CO2 on vegetation (CO2 fertilization) contributed to significant wintertime warming over northern Europe and central and eastern Asia. The net global greening of the model was primarily due to the physiological effect of increasing CO2 , while the radiative and physiological effects combined to produce a poleward expansion of the boreal forests. Observed and simulated trends in tree ring width are consistent with the enhancement of vegetation growth by the physiological effect of rising CO2 . © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2492 On the USCRN temperature system Hubbard K.G., Lin X. and Baker C.B. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (1095-1101) In 2004 a new aspirated surface air temperature system was officially deployed nationally in the U.S. Climate Reference Network(USCRN) commissioned by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The primary goal of the USCRN is to provide future long-term and high-quality homogeneous observations of surface air temperature and precipitation that can be coupled to past long-term observations for the detection and attribution of present and future climate change. In this paper two precision air temperature systems are included for evaluating the new USCRN air temperature system based on a 1-yr side-byside field comparison. The measurement errors of the USCRN temperature sensor are systematically analyzed, and the components of error attributable to the datalogger, lead wires, fixed resistors, and the temperature coefficient of the resistors are presented. Although the current configuration is adequate, a more desirable configuration of USCRN temperature sensor coupled with the datalogger is proposed as a means of further reducing the uncertainty for the USCRN temperature measurement. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2493 On the use of generalized linear models for interpreting climate variability Chandler R.E. Environmetrics 2005 16/7 (699-715) Many topical questions in climate research can be reduced to either of two related problems: understanding how various different components of the climate system affect each other, and quantifying changes in the system. This article aims to justify the addition of generalized linear models to the climatologist’s toolkit, by demonstrating that they offer an intuitive and flexible approach to such problems. In particular, we provide some suggestions as to how ‘typical’ climatological data structures may be represented within the GLM framework. Recurring themes include methods for space-time data and the need to cope with large datasets. The ideas are illustrated using a dataset of monthly U.S. temperatures. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2494 Long-term changes in the temperature and precipitation regime in St. Petersburg from empirical data and model estimates of regional changes in the past and future Golitsyn G.S., Efimova L.K., Mokhov I.I. et al. Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 2004 -/8 (1-10) Quantitative estimates of statistically significant temperature and precipitation trends in St. Petersburg including those for annual mean regimes and for different months are derived from observational data of the 18th-20th centuries. The most considerable temperature and precipitation increase has been found for the cold season. In addition to changes in average characteristics of temperature and precipitation, changes in characteristics of their interannual variability have also been found. In particular, the variance of summer and winter precipitation in St. Petersburg increased in the second half of the 20th century compared to the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. Estimates of surface air temperature and precipitation variations in St. Petersburg in the 19th-21st centuries are obtained using numerical calculations with coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation models when greenhouse gases increase in the atmosphere. 474 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2495 Structure of long-term variations of snow depth in northern Eurasia Popova V.V. Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 2004 -/8 (4956) The space-time structure of winter accumulation snow variations is studied on the basis of February snow depths over Russia and former Soviet Union republics (1936-1995) from the All-Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information-World Data Center archives using EOF expansion. Homogeneous regions with similar snow depth variations are identified, specific features of long-term snow variations are determined, and a relation with variations of Northern Hemisphere extratropical circulation indices at 700 hPa (1950-2001) is found. It is shown that the major variations of snow depth in Northern Eurasia are connected with a strengthening of a high-latitude zonal flow since the 1970s. 2496 Comparison of climate changes in 1981-2000 with paleoclimate anaologues of global warming Efimova N.A., Zhiltsova E.L., Lemeshko N.A. and Strokina L.A. Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 2004 -/8 (11-15) Characteristic features of regional climate changes in all seasons of the 1990s with a record rise of annual mean global air temperature are considered. The results obtained are compared with estimates of the regional climate changes in the winter, spring, summer, and fall seasons of the 1980s. It is shown that the most substantial temperature changes over the 20-year period were observed in the same regions. Positive temperature anomalies and the area they cover increased in the 1990s in comparison to the 1980s. The estimates of climate changes for 1981-2000 are compared with paleoclimate analogues of global warming for the winter and summer seasons. It is concluded that, according to two independent empirical methods, quantitative estimates of the winter air temperature rise agree over large regions in Eurasia and North America. of the North Atlantic Oscillation on the precipitation pattern, primarily over the last 40 years, and with partly opposite effects in the northern and southern parts of Germany, is found. As such, the North Atlantic Oscillation phase of enhanced decadal variability was shown to be responsible for the low-frequency precipitation components. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2499 Is there a simple bi-polar ocean seesaw? Seidov D., Stouffer R.J. and Haupt B.J. Global and Planetary Change 2005 49/1-2 (19-27) Using an atmosphere-ocean coupled model, the climate response to an idealized freshwater input into the Southern Ocean is studied. In response to the freshwater input, the surface waters around Antarctica freshen and cool. As the addition of freshwater continues, the fresh, surface anomalies spread throughout the world ocean in contrast to ocean-only experiments and North Atlantic experiments using coupled models. Because of the fundamental difference in altering sea surface salinity (SSS) from the two sources (northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere), a bipolar seesaw fails to develop in the ocean, at least in our coupled atmosphere-ocean experiments. Control ocean-only experiments with mixed boundary conditions and similar short-term southern freshwater impacts match the results of the coupled experiments. Based on these experiments, we argue that the concept of ocean bi-polar seesaw should be taken with some caveats. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2497 Potential impact of climate change on wheat yield in South Australia Luo Q., Bellotti W., Williams M. and Bryan B. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (273-285) Refined and improved climate change scenarios have been applied in this study to quantify the possible impacts of future climate change on South Australian wheat yield with probability attached. This study used the APSIM-Wheat module and information drawn from the Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) and nine climate models for 2080. A wheat yield response surface has been constructed within 80 climate change scenarios. The most likely wheat yield changes have been defined under combinations of changes in regional rainfall, regional temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentration (CO2 ). Median grain yield is projected to decrease across all locations from 13.5 to 32% under the most likely climate change scenarios. This has economic and social implications from local to national levels. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2500 Detecting local-scale fire episodes on pollen slides Asselin H. and Payette S. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 2005 137/1-2 (31-40) Assessment of the impacts of future climate change on the boreal forest and forest-tundra biomes relies on a clear understanding of their past dynamics. Fire history information recorded in lake and peat sediments can be retrieved by counting charcoal particles on pollen slides, although it is still debated whether this is reliable at the scale of the watershed (i.e. local scale). Knowing that proportionately larger charcoal particles tend to settle closer to the fire compared to smaller particles, a new method of quantifying microscopic charcoal on pollen slides is presented, taking into account the size distribution of the charcoal fragments in each sample of a sediment core (the CSD method). The lateHolocene fire history of the surroundings of a small subarctic lake was reconstructed using this method and compared with results from four other methods (macroscopic charcoal counts, charcoal concentration, charcoal:pollen ratio, charcoal:Picea ratio). All methods were tested for accuracy by comparison with the fire history of the watershed reconstructed by dendrochronology and radiocarbon-dated soil charcoal. Only the CSD method allowed separation of local-scale fire episodes from background noise attributable to long-distance dispersal. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2498 Wavelet and scaling analysis of monthly precipitation extremes in Germany in the 20th century: Interannual to interdecadal oscillations and the North Atlantic Oscillation influence Markovi´c D. and Koch M. Water Resources Research 2005 41/9 (1-13) [1] Monthly precipitation extremes from gauging stations across Germany were studied using continuous wavelet tools toward variance and frequency-time localization and detection of dominant oscillations. Apart from the high-frequency, 1 year oscillation, the monthly precipitation extremes show enhanced power at interannual (7-8 years) and/or interdecadal (11-14 years) lowfrequency scales, in particular in the second part of the 20th century, providing evidence for some regional climatic changes over Germany. Applying detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA), scaling properties of the precipitation time series through the computation of the Hurst parameter are determined. It is apparent that data with low-frequency components, regardless of whether significant or not, show higher Hurst parameter values, that is, some amount of persistence, than data without such components. Through analyses of the scale-averaged wavelet power and the cross-wavelet spectra, evidence for a teleconnective influence 2501 Divergent vegetation growth responses to the 2003 heat wave in the Swiss Alps Jolly W.M., Dobbertin M., Zimmermann N.E. and Reichstein M. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) In 2003, Europe experienced its hottest summer in >500 years. Satellite-derived photosynthetic activity estimates across the Alps revealed a pattern of high elevation growth enhancement and low elevation growth suppression in response to these extreme summer temperatures. Surface weather-derived effective growing season lengths were shorter in 2003 by an average of 9% and 5% for colline and montane areas respectively and were 2%, 12% and 64% longer for subalpine, alpine and nival areas respectively. In situ forest growth measurements of 244 trees at 15 sites across Switzerland verified this pattern and revealed that this divergent response was consistent between species. We suggest that warmer summer temperatures lengthened the snow-free growing season at high elevations while they increased summertime evaporative demand at lower elevations. Our investigation demonstrates that climatic changes are affecting plants beyond simply shifting the elevation belts upwards. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2502 Decadal to century scale trends in North American snow extent in coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation models Frei A. and Gong G. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) 20th and 21st century decadal scale trends and variability in winter North American snow cover extent (NA-SCE) are investigated using coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model experiments participating in the upcoming Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. Significant between-model variability is found, with most models underestimating mean NA-SCE. 20th century simulations are poorly correlated with observations, and, while individual ensemble members capture the magnitude of decadal scale variability, the variability of the signal is dampened in the ensemble mean, indicating that decadal-scale NA-SCE variability is associated predominantly with internal model variability rather than external forcing. Two 21st century emission scenarios with realistic (moderate or significant) greenhouse gas emission rates produce decreasing NA-SCE trends, while one unrealistic scenario with fixed concentrations produces little or no NA-SCE trend. These results suggest that snow cover may be a sensitive indicator of climate change, and that North American snow extent will probably decrease in response to greenhouse gas emissions, although the magnitude of the response may be nonlinear. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2503 A consistent poleward shift of the storm tracks in simulations of 21st century climate Yin J.H. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) A consistent poleward and upward shift and intensification of the storm tracks is found in an ensemble of 21st century climate simulations performed by 15 coupled climate models. The shift of the storm tracks is accompanied by a poleward shift and upward expansion of the midlatitude baroclinic regions associated with enhanced warming in the tropical upper troposphere and increased tropopause height. The poleward shift in baroclinicity is augmented in the Southern Hemisphere and partially offset in the Northern Hemisphere by changes in the surface meridional temperature gradient. The poleward shift of the storm tracks also tends to be accompanied by poleward shifts in surface wind stress and precipitation, and a shift towards the high index state of the annular modes. These results highlight the integral role that the storm tracks play in the climate system, and the importance of understanding how and why they will change in the future. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2504 Growing typhoon influence on east Asia Wu L., Wang B. and Geng S. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Numerical model studies have suggested that the ongoing global climate likely affect tropical cyclone activity. Since the global warming has been underway, it is meaningful to ask: Are there evidences observed changes in tropical cyclone activity? Using best-track data from 1965 to 2003, we show for the first time that over the past four decades the two prevailing typhoon tracks in the western North Pacific (WNP) have shifted westward significantly; thus the subtropical East Asia has experienced increasing typhoon influence; but the typhoon influence over the South China Sea has considerably decreased. Our trajectory model simulation indicates that the long-term shifts in the typhoon tracks result primarily from the changes in the mean translation velocity of typhoons or the large-scale steering flow, which is associated with the westward expansion and strengthening of the WNP subtropical high. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2505 Attribution studies of observed land precipitation changes with nine coupled models Lambert F.H., Gillett N.P., Stone D.A. and Huntingford C. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Global-land mean observations of 20th century precipitation are compared to modelled values using an optimal regression technique for nine general circulation models. The combined influence of major anthropogenic and natural forcings is detected in five cases. Comparing the accuracy of precipitation and tem- 475 perature simulation of each model, we find that low temperature simulation accuracy produces low precipitation simulation accuracy, but temperature accuracy does not determine precipitation accuracy in general. Model formulation appears to be more important for accurate precipitation simulation than inclusion of a more complete set of forcings. The implications for possible constraints on land precipitation are discussed. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2506 Effects of simulated natural variability on Arctic temperature projections Sorteberg A., Furevik T., Drange H. and Kvamstø N.G. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) A five-member ensemble with a coupled atmosphere-sea iceocean model is used to examine the effects of natural variability on climate projections for the Arctic. The individual ensemble members are initialized from a 300 years control experiment, each starting from different strengths and phases of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. The ensemble members are integrated for 80 years with a 1% per year increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO2 . The main findings are that on decadal time scales, multi-model spread of estimated temperature changes in the Arctic may potentially be attributed to internal variability of the climate system. During weak CO2 forcing the internal variability may mask the strength of the anthropogenic signals for several decades. The implications of the findings are that attribution of any Arctic climate change trends calculated over a few decades is difficult. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2507 Reduction in tropical rainfall diurnal variation by global warming simulated by a 20-km mesh climate model Kitoh A. and Arakawa O. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) A time-slice global warming experiment was performed with a very high-resolution (20-km mesh) atmospheric general circulation model. Due to increased horizontal resolution, land-sea distribution over the Indonesian Maritime Continent is well represented. A clear contrast in precipitation change at the end of the twenty-first century is found over Borneo Island and the Java Sea: over the ocean morning precipitation decreases and evening precipitation increases, while over the island morning precipitation increases, resulting in reduced amplitude of rainfall diurnal variation over both land and ocean. Weakened land-sea breeze circulation by global warming due to larger nighttime temperature increases over land than during the day contributes to this decreased rainfall diurnal variation. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2508 Attribution of global surface warming without dynamical models Stone D.A. and Allen M.R. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Detection and attribution studies of observed surface temperature changes have served to consolidate our understanding of the climate system and its past and future behaviour. Most recent studies analysing up-to-date observations have relied on general circulation models (GCMs) to provide estimates of the responses to various external forcings. Here we revisit a methodology which instead estimates the responses using a simple model tuned directly to the observed record, paralleling a technique currently used with GCM output. The effects of greenhouse gases, tropospheric sulphate aerosols, and volcanic aerosols are all detected in the observed record, while the effects of solar irradiance are unclear. These results provide further observational constraints on past and future warming estimates consistent with those from recent studies with GCMs, supporting the notion that current estimates are robust against the modelling system used. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2509 On the recent changes in surface temperature trends over India Kothawale D.R. and Rupa Kumar K. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Marked differences from global trends in terms of diurnal asymmetry of temperature trends were reported earlier for India, in- 476 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY dicating that the warming over India was solely contributed by maximum temperatures. We report substantial recent changes in the nature of trends, using updated data sets up to 2003, with special focus on the last three decades. While all-India mean annual temperature has shown significant warming trend of 0.05°C/10yr during the period 1901-2003, the recent period 1971-2003 has seen a relatively accelerated warming of 0.22°C/10yr, which is largely due to unprecedented warming during the last decade. Further, in a major shift, the recent period is marked by rising temperatures during the monsoon season, resulting in a weakened seasonal asymmetry of temperature trends reported earlier. The recent accelerated warming over India is manifest equally in daytime and nighttime temperatures. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2510 A stratospheric influence on the winter NAO and North Atlantic surface climate Scaife A.A., Knight J.R., Vallis G.K. and Folland C.K. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) has a profound effect on winter climate variability around the Atlantic basin. Strengthening of the NAO in recent decades has altered surface climate in these regions at a rate far in excess of global mean warming. However, only weak NAO trends are reproduced in climate simulations of the 20th Century, even with prescribed climate forcings and historical sea-surface conditions. Here we show that the unexplained strengthening of the NAO can be fully simulated in a climate model by imposing observed trends in the lower stratosphere. This implies that stratospheric variability needs to be reproduced in models to fully simulate surface climate variations in the North Atlantic sector. Despite having little effect on global mean warming, we show that downward coupling of observed stratospheric circulation changes to the surface can account for the majority of change in regional surface climate over Europe and North America between 1965 and 1995. 2511 An intercomparison of trends in surface air temperature analyses at the global, hemispheric, and grid-box scale Vose R.S., Wuertz D., Peterson T.C. and Jones P.D. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The IPCC Third Assessment Report noted that three major temperature analyses exhibited different warming rates over global land areas since 1976. This paper attempts to explain these trend discrepancies by quantifying the sensitivity of global, hemispheric, and grid-box trends to both the spatial averaging technique and the underlying station network. The Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN) analysis and the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) analysis have comparable trends when the same approach is used to compute the global time series, and since the mid-1970s the rate of warming in both is as much as a third greater than in the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) analysis. On the hemispheric scale, GHCN and CRU have similar trends regardless of the gridding approach, whereas GISS again has less warming in recent decades (particularly in the Southern Hemisphere). GHCN and CRU also exhibit reasonable agreement at the grid-box level during the period 1976-2003. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2512 Understanding future patterns of increased precipitation intensity in climate model simulations Meehl G.A., Arblaster J.M. and Tebaldi C. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) In a future climate warmed by increased greenhouse gases, increases of precipitation intensity do not have a uniform spatial distribution. Here we analyze a multi-model AOGCM data set to examine processes that produce the geographic pattern of these precipitation intensity changes over land. In the tropics, general increases in water vapor associated with positive SST anomalies in the warmer climate produce increased precipitation intensity over most land areas. In the midlatitudes, the pattern of precipitation intensity increase is related in part to the increased water vapor being carried to areas of mean moisture convergence to produce greater precipitation, as well as to changes in atmospheric circulation. Advective effects, indicated by sea level pressure changes, contribute to greatest precipitation intensity increases (as well as mean precipitation increases) over northwestern and northeastern North America, northern Europe, northern Asia, the east coast of Asia, southeastern Australia, and south-central South America. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2513 A simulation of the effect of climate change-induced desertification on mineral dust aerosol Woodward S., Roberts D.L. and Betts R.A. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Vegetation and climate fields from a coupled carboncycle - climate model integration, which included the feedback of vegetation on climate, have been used to drive the HadAM3 AGCM incorporating the Hadley Centre mineral dust scheme in experiments to investigate future dust concentration and forcing. Comparison of 2000 with 2100 simulations shows the global annual mean atmospheric dust load increases from 4  104 to 1.3  105 mg m-2 , due to the combination of desertification and climate change. The global mean radiative forcing due to dust increases from 0.04 to 0.21 Wm-2 at the top of the atmosphere and from -0.74 to -1.82 Wm-2 at the surface. 2514 Wood growth response of Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull to elevated N deposition and drought Lageard J.G.A., Wilson D.B., Cresswell N. et al. Dendrochronologia 2005 23/2 (75-81) Ring diameters and ring number counts were recorded from Calluna stem cross-sections harvested during an N manipulation experiment. The application of dendrochronological methods permitted accurate ageing of shrubs growing in a heathland of known age. Linear regression analyses demonstrated a highly significant association between increasing levels of N input and stem diameter in both watered and droughted plots (droughted in 1997 only). N inputs were identified as the most significant environmental stressor, appearing to speed ageing vis the Calluna growth cycle. Drought sensitivity was noted in the high N treatment plots (120 kg N ha-1 yr-1 ) with decreased stem diameters. This may have implications in the response of Calluna growth under current climate change scenarios. © 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. 2515 Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003 Ciais Ph., Reichstein M., Viovy N. et al. Nature 2005 437/7058 (529-533) Future climate warming is expected to enhance plant growth in temperate ecosystems and to increase carbon sequestration. But although severe regional heatwaves may become more frequent in a changing climate, their impact on terrestrial carbon cycling is unclear. Here we report measurements of ecosystem carbon dioxide fluxes, remotely sensed radiation absorbed by plants, and country-level crop yields taken during the European heatwave in 2003. We use a terrestrial biosphere simulation model to assess continental-scale changes in primary productivity during 2003, and their consequences for the net carbon balance. We estimate a 30 per cent reduction in gross primary productivity over Europe, which resulted in a strong anomalous net source of carbon dioxide (0.5 Pg C yr-1 ) to the atmosphere and reversed the effect of four years of net ecosystem carbon sequestration. Our results suggest that productivity reduction in eastern and western Europe can be explained by rainfall deficit and extreme summer heat, respectively. We also find that ecosystem respiration decreased together with gross primary productivity, rather than accelerating with the temperature rise. Model results, corroborated by historical records of crop yields, suggest that such a reduction in Europe’s primary productivity is unprecedented during the last century. An increase in future drought events could turn temperate ecosystems into carbon sources, contributing to positive carbon-climate feedbacks already anticipated in the tropics and at high latitudes. © 2005 Nature Publishing Group. 2516 Evaluations of subsurface flow for reconstructions of climate change using borehole temperature and isotope data in Kamchatka Miyakoshi A., Taniguchi M., Okubo Y. and Uemura T. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 2005 152/4 (335-342) Subsurface temperature is affected by heat advection due to groundwater flow and surface temperature changes. To evaluate METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY their effects, it was implemented the measurements of temperature-depth profile (T-D profile) and the continuous monitoring of soil temperature in the southern part of Kamchatka which has not affected by human activity. Additionally, stable isotopic compositions of surface water and groundwater were analyzed. T-D profile and stable isotopic compositions show groundwater flow system is differ from the shallow aquifer to the deep aquifer. In the shallow aquifer, T-D profile suggests the existence of upward groundwater flux. On the other hand, the annual variation of soil temperature is divided into the large variation period (VP) and the stable period (SP) by the magnitude of daily and seasonal variation. VP and SP correspond to the summer and the winter season, respectively, and it considers that the difference between VP and SP is caused by the effect of snow cover. Therefore, the T-D profile is affected by not only upward groundwater flux but also the surface warming particularly in the summer season (VP). © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Atmospheric chemistry 2517 On-site measurements of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide emissions from tidal flat sediments of Ariake Sea, Japan Azad Md.A.K., Ohira S.- I., Oda M. and Toda K. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6077-6087) Emission variability of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide from tidal flat sediments to atmosphere in Ariake Sea, Japan was studied using a diffusion scrubber-based portable instrument. Ariake Sea is a typical closed sea consisting of a huge marsh area along the coast. Seasonal, spatial and diurnal variability in emission rates were examined. In addition, depth profiles of the gas emissions were examined with the profiles of anions, heavy metals, water and organic contents. Unexpectedly, SO2 emission was much higher than H2 S in all measurements, while an opposite emission trend was observed in diurnal and spatial patterns of H2 S and SO2 emissions. The mechanisms of these gas emissions are discussed. Total sulfur fluxes to the atmosphere as H2 S and SO2 during the study averaged 7.1 g S m-2 h-1 for muddy sites and 28 g S m-2 h-1 for sandy sites. Sulfur fluxes from tidal flats were comparable to the artificial sulfur emission from the neighboring towns. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2518 Surface ozone enhancements in the south of Brazil owing to large-scale air mass transport Boian C. and Kirchhoff V.W.J.H. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6140-6146) Surface ozone mixing ratios were monitored in the north-west region of the state of Parana (at a site near the city of Maringa, 23.1°S, 53.1°W), from August 2001 to November 2002, in a specific experiment to determine the impact of large-scale transport, over a region of small biomass burning activity (non-source regions). Surface ozone measurements, backward trajectories and meteorological conditions were used to determine the influence of large-scale transport. Surface ozone enhancements were observed when the anticyclonic circulation was well defined and the air masses came from significant source regions of biomass burning (states of Tocantins, Para, Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul). An example of such enhancement is obtained between 25 and 31 August 2001, when the measured average ozone mixing ratio was 89 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) 7.4, with maximum values between 93 and 173 ppbv. Comparison of this and the background concentration during the wet season (January, for example) shows a significant enhancement of 76 ppbv. During the same month, but under the influence of a different transport regime, 8-24 August 2001, considerably lower values were measured (47.2 7.2 ppbv). © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2519 Comments on the parameterization of lightning-produced NO in global chemistry-transport models Ridley B.A., Pickering K.E. and Dye J.E. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6184-6187) Many current global chemistry-transport models limit the annual global source strength of reactive nitrogen from lightning activity to
5 Tg N yr-1 . However, there is strong evidence from aircraft 477 and cloud-resolving model studies and theory that production of NO by an intracloud flash is not an order of magnitude smaller than from a cloud-to-ground flash, an assumption commonly used in the global models. We suggest that modification of the global models to accept comparable production of NO by both types of discharge and the necessarily larger input of NO to higher altitudes will require a reduction in their global annual source strength from lightning activity in order to match existing observations. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2520 Chemical composition of surface films on glass windows and implications for atmospheric chemistry Lam B., Diamond M.L., Simpson A.J. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6578-6586) Atmospherically derived surface films that cover impervious surfaces in cities, have areas comparable to that of atmospheric particulate matter (PM). The films compete with PM for sorption of volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds and alter the functionality of urban surfaces. The determination of surfacefilm composition is therefore vital to understanding their role in mediating chemical fate and transport within cities. Here, we show the composition of urban surface films collected from windows in downtown Toronto (Ontario, Canada) to be comprised of
94% inorganic compounds of which 8% are sulfate, 7% nitrate and 18% metals. Approximately 5% of the urban film mass is organic carbon, with
35% of the organic carbon mass corresponding to carbohydrates,
35% aliphatics,
20% aromatics and
10% carbonyls. The composition of surface films differs significantly from that of PM, suggesting differential accumulation, depositional degradation, and/or processes within films differing from those affecting PM. A rigid polymeric component comprising a small fraction of the organic carbon was also found, which may suggest direct deposition from environmental sources, or possible secondary in situ reactions within the film. Here, we suggest a potential mechanism for the oxidation of surface films to form organic polymers via radical initiation processes. Thus, the composition of surface films has important implications for chemical fate of contaminants within cities and presents a significant aspect of contaminant uptake that has not been considered in many air-quality models. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2521 Comparative study of glass tube and mist chamber sampling techniques for the analysis of gaseous carbonyl compounds Franc¸ois S., Perraud V., Pflieger M. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6642-6653) In this work, glass tube and mist chamber sampling techniques using 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine as derivative agent for the analysis of gaseous carbonyl compounds are compared. Trapping efficiencies of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, acetone, acrolein, glyoxal, crotonaldehyde, benzaldehyde, butyraldehyde and valeraldehyde are experimentally determined using a gas-phase generator. In addition to generalise our results to all atmospheric gaseous compounds and derivative agents, theoretical trapping efficiencies and enrichment factors are expressed taking into account mechanisms involved in the two kinds of traps. Theoretical and experimental results show that, as expected, the trapping efficiencies of the glass tube depend mainly on solubility of compounds. The results provide new information and better understanding of phenomena occurring in the mist chamber and the ability of this sampler to concentrate the samples. Hence, the mist chamber is the more convenient sampling method when the trapping is associated to a fast derivatisation of the compounds and the glass tube technique must be used to trap atmospheric compounds without simultaneous derivatisation. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2522 Nitric acid measurements in connection with corrosion studies Ferm M., De Santis F. and Varotsos C. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6664-6672) Atmospheric nitric acid does not only contribute to acidification and eutrophication but causes also deterioration of many materials. Material belonging to our cultural heritage is irreplaceable and its lifetime can depend on the corrosion rate. Nowadays, only 478 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY very few long-term measurements of nitric acid concentration in Europe and elsewhere have been published so far. Due to the fact that atmospheric corrosion is a long-term effect, the relevant research does not necessarily require monitoring of nitric acid on a daily basis. Moreover, power supply is often not available at sites where it is of interest to study the corrosion rate of objects belonging to our cultural heritage. Besides, such measurements must not disturb the impression of the objects. In this context, the diffusive sampling technique provides average concentrations over long-term periods at a low cost. In addition, the samplers used are noiseless, comparatively small in size, and thus, their ambient exposure can be made inconspicuously and with discretion. The present paper is focussed on an intensive corrosion study, which was performed at 11 rural and 23 urban sites in Europe and one rural site in Canada during 2002/2003. For the above-mentioned reasons, the diffusive sampler’s technique was employed for the nitric acid monitoring, where the diffusive samplers were first tested against the denuder technique and bimonthly measurements of nitric acid were thus obtained. The bi-monthly concentrations varied from 0.05 to 4.3 g m-3 and the annual averages from 0.16 to 2.0 g m-3 . The observations collected, depicted a summertime maximum and a wintertime minimum in the nitric acid concentrations, except at the northern rural sites, where a maximum in the winter was observed. Furthermore, the observed nitric acid concentrations in Southern Europe were higher than in Northern Europe. In a few places, close to the sites of urban measurements, rural measurements of nitric acid were also performed. The obtained nitric acid concentrations were higher in the cities, especially during the period of maximum concentrations. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2523 Meteorologically adjusted trends of daily maximum ozone concentrations in Taipei, Taiwan Lu H.- C. and Chang T.- S. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6491-6501) The meteorological conditions exert large impacts on ozone concentrations, and may mask the long-term trends in ozone concentrations resulting from precursor emissions. Estimation of long-term trends of ozone concentrations due to the changes in precursor emissions is important for corresponding control strategy. Multiple linear regression (method I), multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network (method II) and Komogorov-Zurbenko (KZ) filter method plus MLP methodology (method III), are used to estimate the meteorologically adjusted long-term trends of daily maximum ozone concentrations by removing the masking effects of meteorological conditions in this study. The daily maximum ozone concentrations and relative meteorological variables were extracted from six air-monitoring stations in Taipei area from 1994 to 2001. The data collected during 1994-2000 period were used as modeling set and utilized to estimate the meteorologically adjusted trends, and the data of 2001 were used as the validation data. The meteorologically adjusted trends of ozone for these three methods were calculated and compared. The results show that both MLP and KZ filter +MLP models are more suitable than multiple linear regression for estimating the long-term trends of ozone in Taipei, Taiwan. The long-term linear trends of meteorologically adjusted ozone concentrations due to the precursor emissions show an increase trend at all stations, and the percent changes per year range from 1.0% to 2.25% during the modeling period in Taipei area. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2524 Multi-Phase Chemistry of C2 and C3 organic compounds in the marine atmosphere Warneck P. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 2005 51/2 (119159) A box model is used to explore the detailed chemistry of C2 and C3 organic compounds in the marine troposphere by tracing the individual reaction paths resulting from the oxidation of ethane, ethene, acetylene, propane, propene and acetic acid. The mechanisms include chemical reactions in the gas phase and in the aqueous phase of clouds and aerosol particles at cloud level under conditions resembling those in the northern hemisphere. Organic hydroperoxides are found to be important intermediate products, with subsequent reactions leading partly to the formation of mixed hydroxy or carbonyl hydroperoxides that are readily absorbed into cloud water, where they contribute significantly to the formation of multifunctional organic compounds and organic acids. Organic hydroperoxides add little to the oxidation of sulfur dioxide dissolved in the aqueous phase, which is dominated by H2 O2 . Next to acetaldehyde and acetone, glycol aldehyde, glyoxal, methyl glyoxal and hydroxy propanone are prominent oxidation products in the gas and the aqueous phase. Acetaldehyde is not efficiently converted to acetic acid in clouds; the major local sources of acetic acid are gas-phase reactions. Other acids produced include hydroperoxy acetic, glycolic, glyoxylic, oxalic, pyruvic, and lactic acid. The mechanism of Schuchmann et al. (1985), which derives glycolic and glyoxylic acid from the oxidation of acetate, is found unimportant in the marine atmosphere. The principal precursors of glyoxylic acid are glyoxal and glycolic acid. The former derives mainly from acetylene and ethene, the latter from glycolaldehyde, also an oxidation product of ethene. The oxidation of glyoxylic acid leads to oxalic acid, which accumulates and is predicted to reach steady state concentrations in the range 30-90 ng m-3 . This is greater, yet of the same magnitude, than the concentrations observed over the remote Pacific Ocean. © Springer 2005. 2525 Gas and particle partitioning behavior of aldehyde in the presence of diesel soot and wood smoke aerosols Lee S., Kamens R.M. and Jang M. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 2005 51/2 (223-234) Outdoor smog chamber experiments were performed to investigate gas/ particle (G/P) partitioning behavior of aldehyde compounds in atmospheric acidic aerosols. Diesel soot and wood smoke aerosols were selected as acidic aerosols and octanal, decanal, undecanal, and cis-pinonaldehyde for aldehydes compounds. Aerosol acidity was measured with the equivalent sulfuric acid amounts in aerosol mass: 0.2-0.6 wt% in diesel soot and 0.04-0.1 wt% in wood smoke aerosols. Experimentally determined partitioning coefficients of aldehyde along with other classes of semivolatile organic compounds (SOCs) were compared with the estimation. All experimental G/P partitioning coefficients of aldehyde compounds were 10-200 times higher than estimated partitioning coefficients. Aldehyde partitioning coefficients in wood soot were similar or less than diesel soot aerosols. © Springer 2005. 2526 Molecular line parameters for the "MASTER" (millimeter wave acquisitions for stratosphere/troposphere exchange research) database Perrin A., Puzzarini C., Colmont J.- M. et al. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 2005 51/2 (161-205) In order to investigate the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere (UTLS) region of the earth’s atmosphere, ESA/ESTEC (European space agency) is considering the opportunity to develop the spaceborne limb sounding millimeter sensor "MASTER" (millimeter wave acquisitions for stratosphere/troposphere exchange research). This instrument is part of the "atmospheric composition explorer for chemistry and climate interactions" (ACECHEM) project. In addition, ESA/ESTEC is developing the "MARSCHALS" (millimeter-wave airborne receiver for spectroscopic characterization of atmospheric limb sounding) airborne instrument which will demonstrate the feasibility of MASTER. The present paper describes the line-by-line database which was generated in order to meet at best the needs of the MASTER (or MARSCHALS) instrument. The linelist involves line positions, line intensities, line broadening and line shift parameters in the 294-305, 316-325, 342-348, 497-506 and 624-626 GHz spectral microwindows. This database was first generated for the target molecules for MASTER (H2 O, O3 , N2 O, CO, O2 , HNO3 , HCl, ClO, CH3 Cl, BrO). In addition, ten additional molecules (SO2 , NO2 , OCS, H2 CO, HOCl, HCN, H2 O2 , COF2 , HO2 and HOBr) had also to be considered in the database as "possible interfering species" for the retrieval of the target molecules of MASTER. The line parameters were derived, depending on their estimated accuracy, (i) from a combination of spectral parameters included in the JPL and HITRAN catalogs (ii) from data taken into the literature or (iii) using data obtained through experimental measurements (and/or) calculations performed during the present study. © Springer 2005. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 7 Be, 210 Pb 210 Po and in air 2527 The temporal variations of in England Daish S.R., Dale A.A., Dale C.J. et al. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2005 84/3 (457-467) We have conducted measurements of naturally occurring radionuclides 7 Be, 210 Pb and 210 Po in air at ground level at Chilton, Oxfordshire, England. The sampling and analysis regime for the latter two isotopes has been optimised to minimise uncertainties in measurement due to decay of 210 Po and in-growth of 210 Pb during the sampling and analysis period. Analysis times were reduced by using Cerenkov counting to assay the 210 Bi daughter of 210 Pb. Monthly data collected over a four-year period are presented and discussed. 7 Be activity concentrations appear to peak in spring. 210 Pb activity concentrations also follow a seasonal trend reflecting different 222 Rn emanation rates from soil during winter and summer. Data for 210 Po show no such trend. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2528 In situ measurement of N2 O5 in the urban atmosphere by thermal decomposition/laser-induced fluorescence technique Matsumoto J., Imai H., Kosugi N. and Kajii Y. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6802-6811) The laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detector with a thermal converter has been developed for measuring atmospheric N2 O5 . The detection limit for N2 O5 was 11 pptv for 10-min averaging (S/N=2, [NO2 ]=0). The field measurements of N2 O 5 were conducted in the urban atmosphere in winter. N 2 O5 was successfully monitored during four nights. Typically, observed N2 O5 level was in the range of 0-200 pptv. Note that N2 O5 reached 800 pptv at one night, when NOx level was extremely high and the temperature was low. After the data were selected by the stability of NOx , N2 O 5 chemistry was discussed for a representative case of the urban night. Observed trend of N2 O5 was compared with the theoretically predicted one. The heterogeneous loss rate of N2 O 5 on the aerosol surfaces was estimated as 5.210-4 s-1 . Consequently, it was confirmed that N2 O5 loss was critical for NOx budget in the urban atmosphere in winter, in comparison with NOx loss via NO3 . The LIF instrument proved to be useful for studying nocturnal chemistry of N2 O 5 in the source region. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2529 Traceflux: A small-scale tracer experiment at a forested site Van Gorsel E., Goanta M. and Bernhofer C. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (25-32) Results from four successful tracer experiments carried out in a dense forest canopy are presented. For each experiment, sulphur hexafluoride SF 6 was released from a point source in trunk space and air samples were collected at 19 horizontally distributed locations in the canopy. Meteorological measurements include fast-response turbulence data recorded at several locations in and above the forest. Measured mean concentrations of SF6 are compared against concentrations calculated by an analytical solution to the equation of diffusion. For near neutral and weak unstable conditions the model performs surprisingly well, even though the wind profile and turbulence statistics deviate substantially from surface layer characteristics. Still if more than an estimate of the concentration field is needed a more sophisticated model should be applied. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2530 Diurnal variation of the mixing-layer height and polonium concentration in the air Krajny E., Osrodka L., Skowronek J. et al. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (95-104) The Mixing Height (MH) is one of the most important parameters that characterise the range of the atmospheric turbulence. This parameter shows characteristic diurnal variation but cannot be measured immediately. Therefore, it is evaluated indirectly by measuring other quantities. The measurement of radon concentration in the atmospheric air is one of the method using natural occurring radioactivity to fulfil this task. However, for some reasons, such measurements can be difficult because the natural level of radon concentration in the atmospheric air is rather low. The newly developed method described in this paper relies on the measurement of polonium 218 Po concentration in the air and 479 was examined during measurement campaigns performed in hot seasons. The acoustic sodar instrumentation was chosen as a reference method. As a result, the statistical model was developed to define the MH and the obtained results made it possible to find statistically significant relation between concentration of 218 Po in the air and this parameter. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2531 Retrieval of upper tropospheric water vapor and upper tropospheric humidity from AMSU radiances Houshangpour A., John V.O. and Buehler S.A. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2019-2028) A regression method was developed to retrieve upper tropospheric water vapor (UTWV in kg/m2 ) and upper tropospheric humidity (UTH in % RH) from radiances measured by the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU). In contrast to other UTH retrieval methods, UTH is defined as the average relative humidity between 500 and 200 hPa, not as a Jacobian weighted average, which has the advantage that the UTH altitude does not depend on the atmospheric conditions. The method uses AMSU channels 6-10, 18, and 19, and should achieve an accuracy of 0.48 kg/m2 for UTWV and 6.3% RH for UTH, according to a test against an independent synthetic data set. This performance was confirmed for northern mid-latitudes by a comparison against radiosonde data from station Lindenberg in Germany, which yielded errors of 0.23 kg/m2 for UTWV and 6.1% RH for UTH. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2532 Shipborne solar absorption measurements of CO2 , CH4 , N2 O and CO and comparison with SCIAMACHY WFM-DOAS retrievals Warneke T., de Beek R., Buchwitz M. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2029-2034) CO, CH4 , N2 O and CO2 were retrieved from high resolution solar absorption spectra obtained during a ship cruise from Capetown to Bremerhaven in January/February 2003 by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Precisions of better than 0.5% for the column averaged volume mixing ratios (VMR) of CH4 and CO2 are achieved using of O2 as a reference gas. Shipborne FTIR-measurements of CO and data from SCIAMACHY/ENVISAT retrieved by the Weighting Function Modified Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (WFMDOAS) retrieval algorithm show qualitatively the same latitudinal variations. WFM-DOAS data of CH4 , N2 O and CO2 measured over sea exhibit a great spread. The spread is significantly reduced for satellite measurements over land and a reasonable agreement can be obtained if the shipborne data are compared with the closest SCIAMACHY measurements over land. The number of comparisons is too small to draw conclusions. However, by including only WFM-DOAS data with small errors the shipborne and WFM-DOAS data compare within 5% for CH4 and CO2 and within 30% for N2 O. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2533 Retrieval of ozone column content from airborne sun photometer measurements during SOLVE II: Comparison with coincident satellite and aircraft measurements Livingston J.M., Schmid B., Russell P.B. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2035-2054) During the 2003 SAGE (Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment) III Ozone Loss and Validation Experiment (SOLVE) II, the fourteen-channel NASA Ames Airborne Tracking Sunphotometer (AATS-14) was mounted on the NASA DC-8 aircraft and measured spectra of total and aerosol optical depth (TOD and AOD) during the sunlit portions of eight science flights. Values of ozone column content above the aircraft have been derived from the AATS-14 measurements by using a linear least squares method that exploits the differential ozone absorption in the seven AATS-14 channels located within the Chappuis band. We compare AATS-14 columnar ozone retrievals with temporally and spatially near-coincident measurements acquired by the SAGE III and the Polar Ozone and Aerosol Measurement (POAM) III satellite sensors during four solar occultation events observed by each satellite. RMS differences are 19 DU (7% of the AATS value) for AATS-SAGE and 10 DU (3% of the AATS value) for AATS-POAM. In these checks of consistency between 480 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY AATS-14 and SAGE III or POAM III ozone results, the AATS14 analyses use airmass factors derived from the relative vertical profiles of ozone and aerosol extinction obtained by SAGE III or POAM III. We also compare AATS-14 ozone retrievals for measurements obtained during three DC-8 flights that included extended horizontal transects with total column ozone data acquired by the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) and the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME) satellite sensors. To enable these comparisons, the amount of ozone in the column below the aircraft is estimated either by assuming a climatological model or by combining SAGE and/or POAM data with high resolution in-situ ozone measurements acquired by the NASA Langley Research Center chemiluminescent ozone sensor, FASTOZ, during the aircraft vertical profile at the start or end of each flight. Resultant total column ozone values agree with corresponding TOMS and GOME measurements to within 10-15 DU (
3%) for AATS data acquired during two flights - a longitudinal transect from Sweden to Greenland on 21 January, and a latitudinal transect from 47° N to 35° N on 6 February. For the round trip DC-8 latitudinal transect between 34° N and 22° N on 19-20 December 2002, resultant AATS-14 ozone retrievals plus below-aircraft ozone estimates yield a latitudinal gradient that is similar in shape to that observed by TOMS and GOME, but resultant AATS values exceed the corresponding satellite values by up to 30 DU at certain latitudes. These differences are unexplained, but they are attributed to spatial and temporal variability that was associated with the dynamics near the subtropical jet but was unresolved by the satellite sensors. For selected cases, we also compare AATS-14 ozone re trievals with values derived from coincident measurements by the other two DC-8 based solar occultation instruments: the National Center for Atmospheric Research Direct beam Irradiance Airborne Spectrometer (DIAS) and the NASA Langley Research Center Gas and Aerosol Monitoring System (GAMS). AATS and DIAS retrievals agree to within RMS differences of 1% of the AATS values for the 21 January and 19-20 December flights, and 2.3% for the 6 February flight. Corresponding AATS-GAMS RMS differences are
1.5% for the 21 January flight; GAMS data were not compared for the 6 February flight and were not available for the 19-20 December flight. Line of sight ozone retrievals from coincident measurements obtained by the three DC-8 solar occultation instruments during the SAGE III solar occultation event on 24 January yield RMS differences of 2.1% for AATSDIAS and 0.5% for AATS-GAMS. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2534 Trends of halon gases in polar firn air: Implications for their emission distributions Reeves C.E., Sturges W.T., Sturrock G.A. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2055-2064) Four halons (H-1301, H-1211, H-2402 and H-1202) have been measured in air samples collected from polar firn from Dome Concordia (Dome C), Antarctica, from Devon Island, Canada and the North Greenland Ice Core Project (NGRIP) site, Greenland. H-2402 and H-1202 are reported for the first time in firn air. The depth profiles show the concentrations of all four halons to be close to zero (i.e. below the detection limit of 0.001 ppt) at the base of the firn thus demonstrating their entirely anthropogenic origin. This is the first evidence of this for H-2402 and H-1202. A 2-D atmospheric model was run with emissions previously derived using archive air measurements from the southern hemisphere mid-latitudes to produce historical trends in atmospheric concentrations at the firn sites, which were then input into a firn diffusion model to produce concentration depth profiles for comparison with the firn measurements. This comparison provides an evaluation of the model-derived atmospheric concentration histories in both hemispheres and thus an indirect evaluation of the emission rates and distributions used in the atmospheric model. Atmospheric concentration trends produced using global emissions previously determined from measurements at Cape Grim are found to be consistent with the firn data from the southern hemisphere. Further emissions of H-1202 in recent years (late 1980s onwards) are likely to have come from latitudes mostly south of 40° N, but emissions prior to that may have come from further north. Emissions of H-1211 may also have shifted to latitudes south of 40° N during the late 1980s. Following comparison of the atmospheric model output with the firn data, modelled atmospheric trends of total organic bromine in the form of halons were derived for both polar regions. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2535 Differences in Arctic and Antarctic PSC occurrence as observed by lidar in Ny-U´lesund (79°N, 12°E) and McMurdo (78°S, 167°E) Maturilli M., Neuber R., Massoli P. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2081-2090) The extent of springtime Arctic ozone loss does not reach Antarctic "ozone hole" dimensions because of the generally higher temperatures in the northern hemisphere vortex and consequent less polar stratospheric cloud (PSC) particle surface for heterogeneous chlorine activation. Yet, with increasing greenhouse gases stratospheric temperatures are expected to further decrease. To infer if present Antarctic PSC occurrence can be applied to predict future Arctic PSC occurrence, lidar observations from McMurdo ´ lesund (79° N, 12° E) have station (78° S, 167° E) and Ny U been analysed for the 9 winters between 1995 (1995/1996) and 2003 (2003/2004). Although the statistics may not completely cover the overall hemispheric PSC occurrence, the observations are considered to represent the main synoptic cloud features as both stations are mostly situated in the centre or at the inner edge of the vortex. Since the focus is set on the occurrence frequency of solid and liquid particles, the analysis has been restricted to volcanic aerosol free conditions. In McMurdo, by far the largest part of PSC observations is associated with NAT PSCs. The observed persistent background of NAT particles and their potential ability to cause denoxification and irreversible denitrification is presumably more important to Antarctic ozone chemistry than ´ lesund, ice the scarcely observed ice PSCs. Meanwhile in Ny-U PSCs have never been observed, while solid NAT and liquid STS clouds both occur in large fraction. Although they are also found solely, the majority of observations reveals solid and liquid ´ lesund measureparticle layers in the same profile. For the Ny-U ments, the frequent occurrence of liquid PSC particles yields major significance in terms of ozone chemistry, as their chlorine activation rates are more efficient. The relationship between temperature, PCS formation, and denitrification is nonlinear and ´ lesund PSC observation imply that for the MC Murdo and Ny-U predicted stratospheric cooling it is not possible to directly apply current Antharctic PSC occurence to the Arctic stratosphere. Future Arctic PSC occurence, and thus ozone loss, is likely to depend on the shape and barotrophy of the vortex rather than on minimum temperature alone. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2536 Long-term changes and variability in a transient simulation with a chemistry-climate model employing realistic forcing Dameris M., Grewe V., Ponater M. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2121-2145) A transient simulation with the interactively coupled chemistryclimate model (CCM) E39/C has been carried out which covers the 40-year period between 1960 and 1999. Forcing of natural and anthropogenic origin is prescribed where the characteristics are sufficiently well known and the typical timescales are slow compared to synoptic timescale so that the simulated atmospheric chemistry and climate evolve under a "slowly" varying external forcing. Based on observations, sea surface temperature (SST) and ice cover are prescribed. The increase of greenhouse gas and chlorofluorocarbon concentrations, as well as nitrogen oxide emissions are taken into account. The 11-year solar cycle is considered in the calculation of heating rates and photolysis of chemical species. The three major volcanic eruptions during that time (Agung, 1963; El Chichon, 1982; Pinatubo, 1991) are considered. The quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) is forced by linear relaxation, also known as nudging, of the equatorial zonal wind in the lower stratosphere towards observed zonal wind profiles. Beyond a reasonable reproduction of mean parameters and long-term variability characteristics there are many apparent features of episodic similarities between simulation and observation: In the years 1986 and 1988 the Antarctic ozone holes are smaller than in the other years of that decade. In mid-latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere ozone anomalies resemble the corresponding observations, especially in 1985, 1989, 1991/1992, METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY and 1996. In the Northern Hemisphere, the episode between the late 1980s and the first half of the 1990s is dynamically quiet, in particular, no stratospheric warming is found between 1988 and 1993. As observed, volcanic eruptions strongly influence dynamics and chemistry, though only for few years. Obviously, planetary wave activity is strongly driven by the prescribed SST and modulated by the QBO. Preliminary evidence of realistic cause and effect relationships strongly suggests that detailed process-oriented studies will be a worthwhile endeavour. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2537 Characterisation of the photolytic HONO-source in the atmosphere simulation chamber SAPHIR Rohrer F., Bohn B., Brauers T. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2189-2201) HONO formation has been proposed as an important OH radical source in simulation chambers for more than two decades. Besides the heterogeneous HONO formation by the dark reaction of NO2 and adsorbed water, a photolytic source has been proposed to explain the elevated reactivity in simulation chamber experiments. However, the mechanism of the photolytic process is not well understood so far. As expected, production of HONO and NOx was also observed inside the new atmospheric simulation chamber SAPHIR under solar irradiation. This photolytic HONO and NOx formation was studied with a sensitive HONO instrument under reproducible controlled conditions at atmospheric concentrations of other trace gases. It is shown that the photolytic HONO source in the SAPHIR chamber is not caused by NO2 reactions and that it is the only direct NOy source under illuminated conditions. In addition, the photolysis of nitrate which was recently postulated for the observed photolytic HONO formation on snow, ground, and glass surfaces, can be excluded in the chamber. A photolytic HONO source at the surface of the chamber is proposed which is strongly dependent on humidity, on light intensity, and on temperature. An empirical function describes these dependencies and reproduces the observed HONO formation rates to within 10 %. It is shown that the photolysis of HONO represents the dominant radical source in the SAPHIR chamber for typical tropospheric O3 /H2 O concentrations. For these conditions, the HONO concentrations inside SAPHIR are similar to recent observations in ambient air. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2538 Mexico City basin wind circulation during the MCMA2003 field campaign de Foy B., Caetano E., Maga˜na V. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2267-2288) MCMA-2003 was a major field campaign investigating the atmospheric chemistry of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA) in April of 2003. This paper describes the wind circulation patterns during the campaign both within the Mexico City basin and on the regional scale. "Time roses" are introduced to concisely analyze the diurnal wind patterns. Three episode types were identified that explain the conditions encountered: "O3South", "Cold Surge" and "O3-North". These can be diagnosed from a combination of synoptic and basin observations based on whether the day was predominantly cloudy, or whether the O3 peak was in the north or south of the basin. O3-South days have weak synoptic forcing due to an anti-cyclone over the eastern Pacific. Strong solar heating leads to northerly flows in the basin and an evening shift due to a gap flow from the south-east. Peak ozone concentrations are in the convergence zone in the south of the city. Cold Surge days are associated with "El Norte" events, with strong surface northerlies bringing cold moist air and rain. Stable conditions lead to high concentrations of primary pollutants and peak ozone in the city center. O3-North days occur when the sub-tropical jet is closer to Mexico City. With strong westerlies aloft, the circulation pattern is the same as O3South days except for a wind shift in the mid-afternoon leading to ozone peaks in the north of the city. This classification is proposed as a means of understanding pollutant transport in the Mexico City basin and as a basis for future meteorological and chemical analysis. Furthermore, model evaluation and design of policy recommendations will need to take into account the three 481 episode types. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2539 The relative importance of scavenging, oxidation, and ice-phase processes in the production and wet deposition of sulfate Spiridonov V. and Curic M. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2005 62/7 I (2118-2135) The relative importance of various processes to sulfate production and wet deposition is examined by using a cloud-resolving model coupled with a sulfate chemistry submodel. Results using different versions of the model are then compared and principal differences with respect to their dynamics, microphysics, and chemistry are carefully discussed. The results imply that the dominant microphysical and chemical conversions of sulfate in the 3D run are nucleation, scavenging, and oxidation. Due to the lower cloud water and rainwater pH, oxidation does not contribute as significantly to the sulfate mass in the 2D run as the 3D. Sensitivi ty tests have revealed that in-cloud scavenging in the 2D run for continental nonpolluted and continental polluted clouds accounted for 29.4% and 31.5% of the total sulfur deposited, respectively. The 3D run shows a lower percentage contribution to sulfur deposition for about 28.2% and 29.6%. In addition, subcloud scavenging for the 2D run contributed about 32.7% and 38.2%. In-cloud oxidation in the 2D run accounted for about 24.5% to 30.4% of the total sulfur mass deposited. Subcloud oxidation contributed from 21.0% to 20.6% of the total sulfur mass removed by wet deposition. In-cloud oxidation for the 3D run shows slightly lower percentage values when compared to those from the 2D run. The relative contribution of subcloud oxidation for continental nonpolluted and polluted clouds exceeds those values in the 2D run by approximately 7% and 10%, respectively. Ignoring the ice phase and considering those types of convective clouds in the 2D run may lead to a higher value of the total sulfur mass removed by the wet deposition of about 33.9% to 39.2% for the continental nonpolluted and 36.2% to 45.6% for the continental polluted distributions relative to the base runs. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2540 Mercury chemistry in the MBL: Mediterranean case and sensitivity studies using the AMCOTS (Atmospheric Mercury Chemistry over the Sea) model Hedgecock I.M., Trunfio G.A., Pirrone N. and Sprovieri F. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7217-7230) The atmospheric oxidation of mercury in the Mediterranean marine boundary layer (MBL) has been studied using the Atmospheric Mercury Chemistry over the Sea (AMCOTS) model. The model results have been compared to measured data obtained during an oceanographic research campaign in 2000, with more success than previous modelling attempts. In light of the often high concentrations of ozone present in the Mediterranean boundary layer, seasonal case studies using typical meteorological conditions and average ozone concentrations have been performed to identify the main oxidants of elemental mercury. The sensitivity of the modelled reactive gaseous mercury (RGM) concentrations to the Hg+O 3 rate constant has been assessed using the two most recent rate determinations. The results using the higher of the two literature values gives results inconsistent with measured values of RGM when the reaction between Hg and O3 is assumed to give a gas phase product. This does not necessarily indicate that the rate constant is incorrect but possibly that other rate constants in the model are overestimated or indeed that there may be reduction reactions occurring in the atmosphere which have yet to be identified. Alternatively, when the reaction product of Hg and O3 is assumed to be a solid and therefore not contribute to RGM the modelled and measured results are comparable. The deposition rates calculated by the model when compared with calculated and measured sea surface emission fluxes available in the literature indicate that dry deposition flux of RGM is comparable to the sea surface emission flux. The calculated lifetime of Hg0 in the Mediterranean MBL is between one and two weeks. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2541 Evaluation of two MCM v3.1 alkene mechanisms using indoor environmental chamber data Hynes R.G., Angove D.E., Saunders S.M. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7251-7262) 482 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY Photo-oxidation experiments on propene-NOx -air and 1-buteneNOx -air mixtures were performed in the CSIRO indoor environmental chamber. These data were used to test the alkene submechanisms from the Master Chemical Mechanism version 3.1 (MCM v3.1). A comparison of measured and modelled propeneNOx data showed that the mechanisms required the inclusion of O(3 P)+parent alkene reactions in order to adequately model the results over a wide range of VOC/NOx ratios. Sensitivity studies were performed on propene-NOx and 1-butene-NOx simulations to determine the effect of uncertainties in the chamber parameters and key photolysis rates on the O3 , and NOx profiles. The low VOC/NOx propene simulations were sensitive to the formaldehyde (HCHO) photolysis channel that produces HO 2 radicals and to the presence of O(3 P) reactions. For the higher VOC/NOx propene simulations, the O3 , and NO x results were more sensitive to small changes in the initial HONO and NO2 concentrations. Crown Copyright © 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2542 Quantifying small molecules in secondary organic aerosol formed during the photo-oxidation of toluene with hydroxyl radicals Hamilton J.F., Webb P.J., Lewis A.C. and Reviejo M.M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7263-7275) The composition of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formed during the photo-oxidation of toluene in a large-volume smog chamber was determined using direct thermal desorption coupled to comprehensive gas chromatography-time of flight mass spectrometry (TD-GCGC-TOF/MS). TD-GCGC eliminated offline sample preparation and resulted in a single shot inventory of GC-amenable organic species within the aerosol. Seventyfour species were identified and quantified from chromatographic retention behaviour and mass spectral fragmentation. Functional groups resolved included organic acids, aromatics, dicarbonyls, furans, furanones, furandiones and pyranones. Concentrations of individual species were derived either directly from standards or from chemical surrogates. The major small organic molecule components by mass were formed via the peroxy-bicyclic reaction mechanism (e.g., 5-methyl-2(3H)-furanone=2972 ng m-3 or 0.861% of aerosol mass), although only around 10% of the total aerosol mass could be quantified. In addition, a large number of lower concentration species were observed with ambiguous chemical characteristics. Interpretation of their mass spectra suggests these species may be fragments of larger molecules broken down during the thermal desorption and separation stages. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2543 Dominant factors controlling concentrations of aldehydes in rain, fog, dew water, and in the gas phase Matsumoto K., Kawai S. and Igawa M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7321-7329) Low-molecular weight aldehyde compounds in rain, fog, dew water, and in the gas phase were measured at urban and suburban mountain sites, to characterize the chemical composition of aldehydes in liquid droplets and in the gas phase in the ambient atmosphere, and discuss the factors controlling wet removal processes of aldehydes. Higher concentrations of total aldehydes were found in dew water than in rain and fog water due to the small amount of water volume. Both formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were detected as dominant aldehydes in the gas phase. Secondary formation processes are dominant sources for both aldehydes in the suburban site, whereas primary sources are relatively important for the urban atmosphere. In rainwater, by contrast, formaldehyde was the most abundant aldehyde, followed by glyoxal. Glyoxal was detected as the most dominant aldehyde in fog and dew water. Acetaldehyde was not detected as a main component in liquid droplets in spite of its abundance in the gas phase. Water solubility of each aldehyde compound and dilution effect by water are critical factors that control the compositions and concentrations of these aldehydes in ambient liquid droplets. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2544 Atmospheric corrosion effects of HNO3 - Method development and results on laboratory-exposed copper Samie F., Tidblad J., Kucera V. and Leygraf C. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7362-7373) The effects of the atmospheric pollutant nitric acid (HNO3 ) on materials compared to other corrosive gases, e.g. sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) or ozone (O3 ), have so far received little or no attention. The high sticking coefficient of HNO3 makes this gas one of the most difficult gases to work with. A new apparatus has now successfully been developed for studying the atmospheric corrosion effects of HNO3 on materials. HNO3 concentration measurements up to 1080 g m-3 (420 ppb) were performed by dissolving the gas in water and analysing the nitrate concentration with ion chromatography (IC). Small changes in relative humidity (RH) largely affect the concentration of this pollutant in the exposure chamber and the high sticking coefficient of this gas on copper and quartz glass has been shown. The quartz glass surface, however, became saturated after a certain time of exposure and at 82% RH, the number of monolayers on the surface was estimated to be 10-13. Initial results of copper samples exposed to HNO3 show that at 63% RH and 25°C, the deposition of HNO3 on copper is slightly lower than on a perfect absorber. The loss of HNO3 during exposure of the samples showed good agreement with the amount of nitrates dissolved from surfaces of the samples after exposure. FT-IR, XRD and IC analyses of copper exposed to HNO3 and mass loss and mass gain analyses confirmed cuprite (Cu2 O) and the basic copper nitrate, gerhardtite, as the main corrosion products. Deposition, as well as the corrosion effect, of HNO 3 on copper appeared to be greater than that of any of the other above-mentioned pollutants. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2545 Measurements of CO2 fluxes from the Mexico City urban landscape Velasco E., Pressley S., Allwine E. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7433-7446) In a densely populated section of Mexico City, an eddy covariance (EC) flux system was deployed on a tall urban tower to obtain direct measurements of CO2 emissions from an urban neighborhood located in a subtropical megacity. The measured fluxes and boundary layer conditions satisfy EC assumptions of stationarity, and cospectral analyses of the turbulence measurements exhibit the required boundary layer patterns for acceptable flux measurements. Results from a field experiment conducted during April 2003 show that the urban surface is a net source of CO2 . The CO2 flux measurements showed a clear diurnal pattern, with the highest emissions during the morning (up to 1.60 mg m-2 s-1 ), and the lowest emissions during nighttime. The measured fluxes were closely correlated to traffic patterns in the area. The mean daily flux was 0.41 mg m-2 s-1 , which is similar to that observed in European and US cities. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2546 Global warming potential of manure amended soils under rice-wheat system in the Indo-Gangetic plains Bhatia A., Pathak H., Jain N. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (6976-6984) Use of organic amendments such as farmyard manure (FYM), green manure (GM) and crop residues is important to improve soil health and reduce the dependence on synthetic chemical fertilizer. However, these organic amendments also effect the emissions of greenhouse gas (GHG) from soil. Influence of different organic amendments on emissions of GHG from soil and their global warming potential (GWP) was studied in a field experiment in rice-wheat cropping system of Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP). There was 28% increase in CH4 emissions on addition of 25% N through Sesbania GM along with urea compared to urea alone. Substitution of 100% inorganic N by organic sources lead to a 60% increase in CH4 emissions. The carbon equivalent emission from rice-wheat systems varied between 3816 and 4886 kg C equivalent ha-1 depending upon fertilizer and organic amendment. GWP of rice-wheat system increased by 28% on full substitution of organic N by chemical N. However, the C efficiency ratios of the GM and crop residue treatments were at par with the recommended inorganic fertilizer treatment. Thus use of organic amendments along with inorganic fertilizer increases the GWP of the rice-wheat system but may improve the soil fertility status without adversely affecting the C efficiency ratio. However, the trade-off between improved yield and soil health versus GHG emissions should be taken into account while promoting the practice of farming with organic residues substitution for mineral fertilizer. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2547 Aspects of ozone transport, mixing, and chemistry in the greater Maryland area Vukovich F.M. and Scarborough J. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7008-7019) This study examined the role of ozone transported and the subsequent mixing of the transported ozone on the ozone concentration and chemistry in the surface layer at locations in central Maryland. Surface data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) database, ozone profile data from the University of Maryland’s aircraft measurements, trajectory analyses using the HYSPLIT model, and predictions using the Semi-Empirical Integrated Pollution Model (SIPM) for the periods 11-15 July 1995 and 12-16 July 1997 were used to meet the objectives of this study. It was found that on the day before the air mass reached the receptor in Maryland, the air mass passed over regions where the diurnal maximum ozone concentration was sufficiently large and the mixing sufficiently deep, in most cases, to have been the primary source of the ozone that was found over central Maryland the next morning. Mixing took place between the air mass above the nocturnal inversion and the surface layer when the nocturnal inversion broke down sometime after sunrise, and the ozone in the surface layer increased by about 13 ppb, on average, as a result of the mixing. The results also showed that when certain conditions were met, the chemistry in the surface layer produced up to about three times more ozone when mixing of ozone into the surface layer took place and when a non-zero value for the diurnal minimum zone concentrations were used to initialize the chemistry. There were, however, a number of situations when mixing of ozone into the surface layer and when a non-zero value for the diurnal minimum ozone concentrations were used to initialize the chemistry, had little effect on the surface ozone layer. The conditions, under which both situations occurred, are discussed. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 483 seasonal variations with maxima in winter and minima mainly during summer as a result of higher winter and lower summer SO2 concentrations. The 11-year monthly average SO2 dry deposition rates are 23.2-248.97 and 11.7-175.6 mg m-2 day-1 in the eleven cities in winter and summer, respectively. A monthly average SO2 deposition velocity was also estimated from 0.06 to 9.72 cm s-2 in the 11 cities studied with a 11-year average maximum value of about 1.1-2.7 cm s-2 in April and July and a 11-year average minimum value of about 0.2-1.0 cm s-1 in January. The SO2 dry deposition velocity also exhibits an increasing with wind speed in basins of less than 500 mm annual precipitation. In contrast, due to influences of the relative humidity in valleys of more than 500 mm annual precipitation, it shows a decreasing trend with wind speed increasing. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2550 Measurements of ammonia emissions from manure storing and spreading stages in Polish commercial farms Ferm M., Marcinkowski T., Kieronczyk M. and Pietrzak S. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7106-7113) Representative measurements of ammonia volatilisation from manure at storing and spreading stages were carried out during several years in Poland. All measurements were made using passive horizontal flux samplers. The average ammonia emission from manure storage heaps was determined as 11 kg/LU/year corresponding to a quarter of the stored total nitrogen amount. The ammonia emissions were higher in the winter when the temperature difference between the heap and the ambient air was higher. The project is part of the Baltic agriculture run-off action program (BAAP) applied to Poland. One measurement of the ammonia emission from a slurry tank gave a significantly lower emission compared to the commonly used manure storage heap. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2548 Estimation of contributions of NO2 and PAN to total atmospheric deposition of oxidized nitrogen across Eastern Canada Zhang L., Brook J.R., Vet R. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7030-7043) Total oxidized nitrogen (N) dry deposition fluxes have been estimated for a 1-year period at seven eastern Canadian rural sites using observed air concentrations of nitric acid (HNO3 ) and particle nitrate (NO -3 ), modelled air concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), and modelled dry deposition velocities. The calculated annual dry N deposition fluxes range from 0.8 to 4 kg N ha-1 depending on location. HNO3 is estimated to contribute at most 47-68% of the total, while conservative estimates for NO 2 indicate it contributes 12-36% of the total. Smaller contributions are from NO-3 (12-20%) and PAN (3-16%). The NO2 contribution to total N dry deposition is higher at locations closer to NO x emission sources (e.g., over and downwind of urban areas) than that at remote locations. Available rural NO2 measurements indicate that the modelled NO2 concentrations (from which dry deposition of NO 2 is calculated) are low. With adjustments for this bias, the NO 2 contribution to total dry N flux can be higher than 50%, implying that NO2 dry deposition is more important over a greater land area than previously believed and likely more important than HNO3 over some areas. Combining our calculated dry deposition totals with monitored wet deposition produces an estimate of total annual N deposition ranging from 3 to 8 kg N ha-1 , depending on location, with 25-60% contributed by dry deposition. If NO2 and PAN dry deposition are excluded, then total N deposition is underestimated by 7-30%, depending on location, suggesting that previous estimates that have not included NO2 have underestimated dry and total N deposition substantially. Crown Copyright © 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2551 Measurements of ammonia emissions from oak and pine forests and development of a non-industrial ammonia emissions inventory in texas Sarwar G., Corsi R.L., Kinney K.A. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7137-7153) Estimates of non-industrial source ammonia emissions in Texas were developed through the use of published emission factors and activity data for those sources. A total of 64 non-industrial source emission sub-categories were addressed, each falling into one of seven major source categories: animal husbandry, fertilizer applications, on-road vehicles, non-road sources, municipal wastewater disposal, domestic sources, and natural soil and vegetation. Annual statewide ammonia emissions were initially estimated to be 921,000 metric tons, with greater than 50% originating from natural soil and vegetation. However, estimates for pine and oak forests were characterized as having a great deal of uncertainty. A series of field sampling events were conducted to determine ammonia fluxes from pine and oak forest floors in east Texas. Both dynamic and static chamber methods were used. The ammonia flux averaged 0.09 kg km-2 month-1 for pine forests and 0.13 kg km-2 month-1 for oak forests. These values are significantly lower than those previously measured and cited in the published literature. However, the ammonia fluxes measured in east Texas forests are reasonably consistent with those predicted using mechanistic models for evergreen pine and deciduous broadleaf forests in Alabama, California, Colorado, and Tennessee. Statewide annual ammonia emissions estimates, revised using the newly developed ammonia fluxes for oak and pine forests in Texas, dropped from 921,000 to 467,000 metric tons. The relative contribution of ammonia emissions from pine and oak forests dropped from 49% to less than 1%. Animal husbandry was predicted to be the dominant non-industrial source, accounting for approximately 77% of non-industrial source ammonia emissions. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2549 Long-term measurements of SO2 dry deposition over Gansu Province, China Ta W., Wei C. and Chen F. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7095-7105) Potassium carbonate sulfation plates, monitored monthly for 11 years from 48 sites in 11 cities in Gansu Province, China, provide a crude estimate of cumulative SO2 dry depositions. Measured SO2 dry deposition rates were 1.6-472 mg m-2 day-1 and had 2552 Using measured and modeled indicators to assess ozone-NOx -VOC sensitivity in a western Mediterranean coastal environment Stein A.F., Mantilla E. and Mill´an M.M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7167-7180) It is widely known that the formation of ozone (O3 ) is chemically linked to the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx ) and volatile organic compounds (VOC). This chemical interdependence is 484 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY highly complex and gives rise to non-linear and coupled pollutant formation processes. In the present study, airborne measurements of sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), total reactive oxides of nitrogen (NOy ), and O3 taken from an instrumented aircraft within MECAPIP-1989 project have been reexamined to asses the governing photochemical processes of ozone formation. This experiment was carried out in the Castell´on urban-industrial area, located on the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Noon near field (within a 25-km radius from the coast line) transects show a strong ozone titration effect downwind of the main source area. Moreover, while afternoon measurements still depict ozone consumption near the emissions area, ozone net formation is observed in the mid-field (within a 75-km radius) of the Castell´on urban-industrial complex. Ozone yields have been derived from these aircraft measurements. This analysis shows that there is almost no O3 production for the noon period. Conversely, the O3 yield reaches a maximum downwind of the emissions complex for the afternoon hours. Furthermore, measured values for the O3 /NOy ratio have been used as photochemical indicators to determine the effectiveness of VOC or NOx controls in decreasing O3 abundance. The concentrations of these indicator species have been calculated from a series of simulations using a lagrangian photochemical model and good agreement has been observed between modeled and measured data. The sensitivity of ozone to changes in its primary sources has been examined by simulating scenarios with varying rates of NO x and VOC emissions. The results presented here show that for this particular case the measured and modeled O3 /NOy ratios seem to identify a photochemical regime in which reductions in upwind NO x sources are more effective for lowering O3 than are VOC emissions. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2553 Total ozone over the Russian Federation and adjacent countries from 30-year ground-based measurements Shalamyanskii A.M., Karol I.L., Klyagina L.P. and Romashkina K.I. Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 2004 -/8 (16-26) Total ozone (TO) measurements at the Russian Federation network for 1973-2002 checked and averaged over months and over five basic regions from the north of European Russia to the Far East are presented. Seasonal ozone changes by regions for the entire period and two half-periods (1973-1987 and 1988-2002) are analyzed. Statistical parameters of databases and statistical significance of differences in monthly mean TO between these half-periods and regions are estimated. It is shown that these differences are significant at the 95-99% level in winter and spring months and insignificant in summer at the level below 90%. These long-term data can be used as climatic normals for assessing past, present, and future changes in the ozonosphere. 2554 Ozone content on the Russian Federation territory in the second quarter of 2004 Zvyagintsev A.M., Ivanova N.S., Kruchenitskii G.M. et al. Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 2004 -/8 (71-76) The review is compiled based on the results of the operation of the Total Ozone (TO) Monitoring System in the CIS and Baltic countries functioning at the Central Aerological Observatory (CAO) in the operational regime. The system uses data from the national network of M-124 filter ozonometers operating under the methodological control of the Main Geophysical Observatory. The quality control of the entire system is performed based on the TOMS/EP observations. The basic results of ozone observations for each month of the second quarter of 2004 and for the quarter as a whole are summarized. Considered are both the results of regular observations of surface ozone concentration in the forest zone of Moscow (at Dolgoprudny station), which characterize the state of ozone as a whole in the central Russian region, and in some other regions of the country. 2555 The radiative signature of upper tropospheric moistening Soden B.J., Jackson D.L., Ramaswamy V. et al. Science 2005 310/5749 (841-844) Climate models predict that the concentration of water vapor in the upper troposphere could double by the end of the century as a result of increases in greenhouse gases. Such moistening plays a key role in ‘amplifying the rate at which the climate warms in response to anthropogenic activities, but has been difficult to de- tect because of deficiencies in conventional observing systems. We use satellite measurements to highlight a distinct radiative signature of upper tropospheric moistening over the period 1982 to 2004. The observed moistening is accurately captured by climate model simulations and lends further credence to model projections of future global warming. 2556 Decadal variations of temperature and geopotential height over the Tibetan Plateau and their relations with Tibet ozone depletion Zhou S. and Zhang R. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer/Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (TOMS/ SBUV) merged total ozone data, and the Tibetan Plateau radiosonde reports during the period from 1979 to 2002 are used in this paper we study the decadal variations of temperature and geopotential height over the Tibetan Plateau and their relationship with changes of Tibet total ozone. It is found that temperature and geopotential height over the Tibetan Plateau have displayed declining trends in the stratosphere and positive trends in the troposphere since the late 1970s, well consistent with Tibet total ozone depletion. The possible role of ozone in long-term changes of temperature and geopotential height is proposed. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2557 Towards an improvement of the atmospheric ozone distribution and variability by assimilation of satellitte data (French) (Vers une meilleure repr´esentation de la distribution et de la variabilit´e de l’ozone atmosph´erique par l’assimilation des donn´ees satellitaires) Massart S., Cariolle D. and Peuch V.- H. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 2005 337/15 (1305-1310) Data assimilation plays an important role in the analysis of atmospheric data, in particular for numerical weather prediction and the detection of climate variations. In the field of atmospheric chemistry, assimilation techniques have been recently developed to study the distribution of tracer species, with emphasis on the ozone content. The present work reports on assimilation experiments of vertical ozone profiles from the GOME instrument performed with MOCAGE, a chemical-transport model and a 3D-FGAT variational technique. It is shown that this technique is very well adapted for ozone assimilation and can be extended to various sensors or other trace species. © 2005 Acad´emie des sciences. Publi´e par Elsevier SAS. Tous droits r´eserv´es. Aerosols 2558 Comparison of MODIS and AERONET derived aerosol optical depth over the Ganga Basin, India Tripathi S.N., Dey S., Chandel A. et al. Annales Geophysicae 2005 23/4 (1093-1101) The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) onboard EOS Terra measures global aerosol optical depth and optical properties since 2000. MODIS aerosol products are freely available and are being used for numerous studies. In this paper, we present a comparison of aerosol optical depth (AOD) retrieved from MODIS with Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) data for the year 2004 over Kanpur, an industrial city lying in the Ganga Basin in the northern part of India. AOD retrieved from MODIS ( a M O D I S ) at 0.55m wavelength has been compared with the AERONET derived AOD ( a A E R O N E T ), within an optimum space-time window. Although the correlation between  a M O D I S and  a A E R O N E T during the post-monsoon and winter seasons (R2
0.71) is almost equal to that during the premonsoon and monsoon seasons (R2
0.72), MODIS is found to overestimate AOD during the pre-monsoon and monsoon period (characterized by severe dust loading) and underestimate during the post-monsoon and winter seasons. The absolute difference between  a M O D I S and  a A E R O N E T is found to be low (0.12 0.11) during the non-dust loading season and much higher (0.4 0.2) during dust-loading seasons. The absolute error in  a M O D I S is found to be about
25% of the absolute values of  a M O D I S . Our comparison shows the importance of modifying the METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY existing MODIS algorithm during the dust-loading seasons, especially in the Ganga Basin in northern part of India. © European Geosciences Union 2005. 2559 Fine organic aerosols collected in a humid, rural location (Great Smoky Mountains, Tennessee, USA): Chemical and temporal characteristics Yu L.E., Shulman M.L., Kopperud R. and Hildemann L.M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6037-6050) Fine organic aerosols collected at the Great Smoky Mountain National Park, Tennessee (USA) during 15 July -25 August 1995 as part of the Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study (SEAVS) were chemically characterized. The water-soluble organic species (WSOS) often dominated over the solvent-soluble organic species (SSOS) at this remote, humid sampling site, contributing 76-98% of the total identified organic mass in 17 out of the 21 daytime samples analyzed. Nighttime samples tended to have slightly larger concentrations of total SSOS than the daytime, with nocturnal/diurnal organic mass ratios greater than 1.0 in 7 out of the 10 paired samples. However, for total WSOS mass, the nocturnal-to-diurnal ratios were less than 0.3 in 7 out of the 10 paired samples, reflecting much more substantial depletion and/or less production of the more polar organics during nighttime. Based on identified species, the organic-mass-to-organic-carbon (OM-OC) ratios at the SEAVS site are estimated as 2.0, 2.2, and 1.3 for the daytime total organics, WSOS, and SSOS, respectively. For the nighttime samples, the OM-OC ratio for total identified organics is estimated to be 1.8, slightly lower than the daytime ratio due to the smaller mass fraction of WSOS present at night. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2560 Physicochemical characteristics of atmospheric aerosol during winter in the S˜ao Paulo Metropolitan area in Brazil Miranda R.M. and Andrade M.F. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6188-6193) In order to characterize atmospheric aerosol in the S˜ao Paulo Metropolitan Area, aerosols were sampled during the winter months of August 1999 and August 2000. A micro-orifice uniform deposit impactor (MOUDI) was used. Samples were submitted to gravimetry, as well as to proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE), carbon (black and organic) and ion-chromatography analysis. These analyses supplied information about mass concentrations and physicochemical properties of the particles. Due to the higher humidity, which can increase soluble particles diameters, and reduced atmospheric stagnation seen in 2000, average PM10 concentrations were higher (105 g m-3 ) in the winter of 1999 than in the winter of 2000 (60 g m-3 ). The PIXE analysis revealed metals and metal compounds, soil-derived elements, Si-rich particles, sulfates, carbonates, chlorides and other anthropogenic air-borne particles, supposing molecules in their usual composition. Mass balance for PM2.5 revealed significant participation of organic and black carbon, probably resulting from diesel burning by the heavy-duty fleet. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2561 An approach to monitor the fraction of elemental carbon in the ultrafine aerosol Ten Brink H., Hoek G. and Khlystov A. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6255-6259) Attempts were made to measure the fraction of elemental carbon (EC) in ultrafine aerosol by modifying an Ambient Carbonaceous Particulate Monitor (ACPM, R&P 5400). The main modification consisted in placing a quartz filter in one of the sampling lines of this dual-channel instrument. With the filter all aerosol and EC contained in it is collected, while in the other line of the instrument the standard impactor samples only particles larger than 0.14 m. The fraction of EC in particles smaller than 0.14 m is derived from the difference in concentration as measured via the two sampling lines. Measurements with the modified instrument were made at a suburban site in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. An apparent adsorption artefact, which could not be eliminated by the use of denuders, precluded meaningful evaluation of the data for total carbon. Blanks in the measurements of EC were negligible and the EC data were hence further evaluated. We found that the concentration of EC obtained via the channel with the impactor was systematically lower than that in the filter-line. 485 The average ratio of the concentrations was close to 0.6, which indicates that approximately 40% of the EC was in particles smaller than 0.14 m. Alternative explanations for the difference in the concentration in the two sampling lines could be excluded, such as a difference in the extent of oxidation. This should be a function of loading, which is not the case. Another reason for the difference could be that less material is collected by the impactor due to rebound, but such bounce of aerosol is very unlikely in The Netherlands due to co-deposition of abundant deliquesced and thus viscous ammonium compounds. The conclusion is that a further modification to assess the true fraction of ultrafine EC, by installing an impactor with cut-off diameter at 0.1 m, would be worth pursuing. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2562 Characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in different size fractions in deposited road particles (DRPs) from Lake Biwa area, Japan Lee B.- C., Shimizu Y., Matsuda T. and Matsui S. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7402-7409) Deposited road particles (DRPs) collected from 13 heavily traveled roadways in an urban area of Southern Lake Biwa, Japan, were analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in seven different particle size fractions (<20 to 1000-2000 m) and evaluated for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligand activity by using a yeast bioassay. The mean compositions of individual PAHs to total PAH concentrations in different particle size fractions were 19-21% for pyrene, which was the most dominant component, 14-16% for fluoranthene, and 7-13% for benzo[g,h,i]perylene, which were the next dominant components. The total PAH distribution pattern in different particle size fractions of DRPs was different from the organic matter distribution pattern which increased with decreasing particle size of DRPs, and could be explained by the differences in their sources. Moreover, AhR ligand activities were observed in the DRP extracts of all size fractions. The activity of the DRP extracts from the smallest size fraction was approximately 5 times more potent than that of the largest size fraction in a yeast AhR ligand activity assay. The mean contribution (%) of benzo[k]fluoranthene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrene to the AhR activity of DRP extracts in all size fractions was 1.43-4.11%, 1.63-3.53%, 0.63-1.69%, and 0.31-1.42%, respectively. Although the contribution of PAHs to AhR ligand activity presented in the DRP extracts was relatively low (below 10%), it may be best to remove these DRPs before discharge to receiving water environments. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2563 The role of resuspended soil in lead flows in the California South Coast Air Basin Harris A.R. and Davidson C.I. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7410-7415) The inputs and outputs of airborne lead in the South Coast Air Basin of California (SOCAB) are quantified according to standard mass balance calculations. Results for 2001 show that approximately 49 000 kg of lead exit the Basin each year, but traditional sources contribute only about 6500 kg of lead each year. We resolve this discrepancy through a simple computer model that quantifies the resuspension of lead-containing particles. Our results suggest that these lead particles were deposited during the years of leaded gasoline use and that resuspension is responsible for generating an additional 54000 kg of airborne lead each year. This agrees roughly with estimated outputs. Thus, we conclude that resuspension, although an insignificant source of airborne lead during the era of leaded fuel, became a principal source in the SOCAB as lead emissions from vehicles declined. The results of the resuspension model further suggest that soil lead levels will remain elevated for many decades, in which case resuspension will remain a major source well into the future. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2564 Molecular characteristics of urban organic aerosols from Nanjing: A case study of a mega-city in China Wang G. and Kawamura K. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7430-7438) Over 90 organic species have been determined in fine aerosols (PM 2.5 ) collected during the summer and winter in Nanjing, a typical mega-city in China, using gas chromatography-mass 486 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY spectrometry. The organic compounds detected were apportioned to four emission sources (i.e., plant emission, fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning, and soil resuspension) and secondary oxidation products. The most abundant classes of compounds are fatty acids, followed by sugars, dicarboxylic acids excluding oxalic and malonic acids, and n-alkanes, while alcohols, polyols/polyacids and lignin/sterols are less abundant. Total amounts of the seven classes of compounds were on average 938 ng m-3 in the summer and 1301 ng m-3 in the winter, respectively, contributing 0.26-1.96% of particle mass (PM2.5 ). In the summer, n-alkanes were heavily enhanced by vegetation emissions with a maximum carbon number (Cmax ) at C29 , whereas they were dominated by emissions from fossil fuels combustion with a Cmax at C22 /C23 in the winter. Concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids were lower in the summer than in the winter, being consistent with enhanced photooxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in the summer. Concentrations of dicarboxylic acids for the summer aerosols were much higher in the daytime than in the nighttime, indicating increased photochemical production in the daytime. In the summer, plant emissions were the most significant source of organic aerosols, contributing more than 33% of total compound mass (TCM), followed by fossil fuel combustion or secondary oxidation. In contrast, fossil fuel combustion was the dominant source of winter organic aerosols, contributing more than 51% of TCM, followed by plant emissions and secondary oxidation products. The quantitative results on sugars and lignin pyrolysis products further suggested that biomass burning and soil resuspension are also significant sources of urban organic aerosols. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2565 Simultaneous determination of mono- and dicarboxylic acids, ! -oxo-carboxylic acids, midchain ketocarboxylic acids, and aldehydes in atmospheric aerosol samples Li Y.- C. and Yu J.Z. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7616-7624) This paper describes a method for the simultaneous determination of monocarboxylic acids (C6 -C34 ), dicarboxylic acids (C 2 -C24 ), ! -oxo-carboxylic acids (C2 -C 9 ), ketocarboxylic acids (pyruvic and pinonic acid), and select aldehydes (glyoxal, methylglyoxal, and nonanal) in atmospheric particles. Quantification of these compounds gives information on important chemical characteristics of aerosols for source apportioning of aerosol organics and for studying atmospheric processes leading to secondary organic aerosol formation. These target analytes were determined as their butyl ester or butyl acetal derivatives using gas-chromatography mass spectrometry. The method is modified from a method described by Kawamura. Kawamura’s original method involved a water extraction step, which practically restricted the method to the determination of only those compounds that are watersoluble. Our method eliminates the water extraction step and combines extraction and derivatization of the target compounds in one step. A mixture of hexane/butanol/BF3 simultaneously derivatizes the polar function groups (i.e., -COOH, -C=O) and extracts the target analytes from the aerosol filter substrates. A prominent advantage of our method is improved recoveries for the more volatile analytes in the target compound classes as a result of eliminating the water evaporation step. Recoveries better than 66% were obtained for the target analytes, including the relatively volatile ones. This improvement for the light species has allowed detection of a new midchain ketocarboxylic acid, 4-oxopentanoic acid, which would have escaped detection by the Kawamura method because of its high susceptibility to evaporative loss. Examples are presented to demonstrate the use of this method in analysis of ambient aerosol samples. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2566 Atmospheric size distribution of PAHs: Evidence of a high-volume sampling artifact Sanderson E.G. and Farant J.- P. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7631-7637) The purpose of this study was to characterize atmospheric levels of four-to six-ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the vicinity of a horizontal stud S¨oderberg aluminum smelter in terms of the size distribution of particulate matter (September to December 2002). It was found that the vast majority of the PAHs was associated with particle diameters less than 1 and 3 m. A profile comparison of the PAH mixture-using benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) relative abundance ratios (PAH/B[a]P)-for the cascade impactor filters indicated the formation of a sampling artifact. Overall, the PAH stability scale generated in this study agrees with those produced experimentally for ozone and nitrogen dioxides or developed using other in situ measurement techniques. Correlations of the four- to six-ring PAHs with other atmospheric variables suggested that smelter plume conditions and particle characteristics may play a potentially important role in the overall PAH reactivity. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report a sampling artifact for the four- to six-ring PAHs during in situ high volume sampling under real world conditions. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2567 Air mass characterization and source region analysis for the Gosan super-site, Korea, during the ACE-Asia 2001 field campaign Kim J., Yoon S.- C., Jefferson A. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6513-6523) This paper presents results of air mass characterization and the associated microphysical and optical properties of Asian aerosols, using the cluster analysis technique for classifying air mass backtrajectories arrived at Gosan on the Jeju Island, Korea during the ACE-Asia campaign. Five distinct clusters of trajectories were taken to explain each transport regime. The temporal variation of the transported air masses could be well explained by the consecutive and stepwise change of air masses between statistically classified clusters. The cluster-mean trajectory exhibited its close relationship with the synoptic-scale circulation pattern. In addition, it was shown that the composite of mean sea-level pressure field is useful for explaining favorable meteorological conditions for long-range transport of dust and anthropogenic pollution in East Asia. The highest light scattering and absorption coefficients for sub-10- and submicron aerosols as well as highest concentrations of 222 Rn and condensation nuclei are associated with the air mass types accompanying dusts and pollutants. The cluster-mean single scattering albedo (SSA) for sub-10- and submicron aerosols ranged 0.88-0.90 and 0.81-0.86, respectively. This value of SSA indicates the large contribution of submicron aerosol for the light absorption in East Asia. The concentration of 222 Rn and aerosol microphysical and optical properties for marine air mass suggests that the marine air masses are somewhat influenced by continental outflows. The minor differences in aerosol microphysical and optical properties among continental clusters with similar routes and different transport speed implies that the effect of transport speed may not be significant if the transport routes are similar. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2568 An extremely low visibility event over the Guangzhou region: A case study Wu D., Tie X., Li C. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6568-6577) Over the Guangzhou region, also called the Pearl River Delta (PRD) of Southern China, there are often high aerosol concentrations. The satellite (MODIS) data show that the aerosol optical depth is often higher than 0.6 in this area, which is known as Asian Brown Cloud region. In some extreme events, these high aerosol levels have caused very low visibilities. In this paper, we will show that on 2 November 2003, the daily average visibility is less than 2 km (the instantaneous value is less than 200 m), and the aerosol optical depth is greater than 1.2. We analyze the cause of this particular event. The analysis indicates that this event is related to the hurricane of "Melor 0319". The hurricane is located at the northwest Philippines on 2 November 2003, and the Guangzhou region is outside the hurricane. The hurricane produces a strong descent motion in the lower troposphere, a weak surface wind speed, and a relatively low planetary boundary layer (PBL) in the Guangzhou region. As a result, the strong subsidence causes descending air motions to force the aerosol particles into a very shallow layer, and the weak horizontal wind acts to keep the aerosol particles inside the source region, producing very high aerosol concentrations and extremely low visibility in the Guangzhou region on 2 November 2003. This case analysis will be useful to better understand the causes of the poor air quality over Guangzhou, which is a first step for ultimately improving it in the future. For example, one can reduce emissions when synoptic conditions are expected to METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY cause recurrences of the phenomenon discussed in the paper. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2569 Thermodynamics of the formation of atmospheric organic particulate matter by accretion reactions - 2. Dialdehydes, methylglyoxal, and diketones Barsanti K.C. and Pankow J.F. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6597-6607) Predicting the formation of organic particulate matter (OPM) in the atmosphere by absorptive gas/particle partitioning requires a knowledge of the identities, atmospheric levels, and physical properties of all condensable species. Data from field and chamber experiments have shown that a portion of atmospheric OPM samples are comprised of products generated during oxidation of volatile organic compounds. It has been suggested that some of these initially formed oxidation products also contribute to the formation of atmospheric OPM via molecular-weight (MW) building "accretion reactions". The role of such reactions as well as a general theoretical approach for evaluating their thermodynamic relevance in regard to atmospheric OPM formation, have been discussed in prior work. This work utilizes that approach in considerations of accretion reactions of glyoxal, two other dialdehydes, methylglyoxal, and two diketones. The methods used to predict free energy of formation ( G f °) values (and hence equilibrium constant (K) values) indicate that: (1) for 1,4butanedial, 2,3-butanedione, and 2,5-hexanedione, the accretion reactions considered are not favorable; (2) for C6 and higher dialdehydes, reaction by aldol condensation may contribute to atmospheric OPM formation under certain circumstances, if kinetically favorable; and (3) for glyoxal, diol and subsequent oligomer formation, and for methylglyoxal, aldol condensation, are thermodynamically favorable, and may contribute significantly to OPM in the atmosphere, if kinetically favorable. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2570 Study of scavenging of submicron-sized aerosol particles by thunderstorm rain events Chate D.M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6608-6619) Observed scavenging coefficients for 0.013-0.75 m particles are between 1.0810-5 and 7.5810-4 s-1 . Based on observed results a correlation between scavenging coefficient and rain intensity is obtained to study below thundercloud scavenging of atmospheric aerosols during thunderstorm rain events. When the rain intensity increases from 5.24 to 45.54 mm h-1 , the corresponding scavenging coefficient increases from 0.510-5 to 410-5 s -1 for thunderstorm rain episodes. The overall scavenging coefficients for 0.02 - 10 m particles at different rainfall rates are estimated from contributions of Brownian diffusion, directional interception, inertial impaction, thermophoresis, diffusiophoresis and electrical forces during thunderstorms. The evolutions of PSD are predicted at different time intervals with theoretical scavenging rates. Comparison of observed evolutions of PSD during thunderstorm rain events with predicted evolutions of PSD shows an order of discrepancy between the observed and model results. Possible causes for discrepancy are discussed in terms of uncertainties in observed data and shortcomings in theoretical approach. The present results are useful for recommendations for the type of experimental setup essential for the field study of precipitation scavenging and improvements in theoretical approach close to atmospheric conditions during thunderstorm rain events. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2571 Estimation of the radiative forcing by key aerosol types in worldwide locations using a column model and AERONET data Yoon S.- C., Won J.- G., Omar A.H. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6620-6630) The aerosol direct radiative forcing (ADRF) is calculated using aerosol robotic network (AERONET) data, and based on aerosol categorization results, the global ADRF is estimated. The CRM2.1.2, a stand-alone version of the radiative transfer model implemented in NCAR’s community climate model, CCM-3.6, is used for the evaluation. A method of determining the aerosol optical parameters is proposed for the ADRF calculation using AERONET data. Linear regression in the log-log plane makes it possible to represent the wavelength-dependent optical properties in the model using AERONET measurements. The local 487 ADRF is estimated at Gosan, Jeju in Korea in Spring from 2001 to 2003, and the ground-based radiation measurements during the ACE-Asia IOP are used to validate the calculation. Using 3 years of AERONET data, the mean forcing efficiency at 500 nm at Gosan in Spring season is evaluated as -80.5 13.2 Wm-2 at the surface and -29.9 4.9 Wm-2 at the top of atmosphere (TOA). The seasonal variations of the ADRF at eight AERONET sites are calculated from AERONET climatology data. The ADRF calculation at the TOA is compared with the CERES/Terra measurement, and the comparison verifies that the methodology used in this study is suitable for the global ADRF evaluation. Finally, the ADRF values in 14 regions are evaluated. Large ADRF values in Asia and Sahara regions suggest the relative importance of the aerosols on the energy budget in these regions. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2572 The use of trajectory cluster analysis to examine the long-range transport of secondary inorganic aerosol in the UK Abdalmogith S.S. and Harrison R.M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6686-6695) The influence of synoptic-scale atmospheric transport patterns on observed levels of sulphate, nitrate and PM10 at Belfast (urban) and Harwell (rural) has been examined. Three-day 6-hourly back trajectories for January 2002 to December 2003, arriving at the two sampling locations at 1200 GMT and 900 hPa were calculated. A K-means clustering algorithm is used to group these trajectories into 10 clusters depending on their direction and speed. Non-parametric statistics were used to test for significant differences in mean aerosol concentration across clusters. Significant inter-cluster differences were observed with highest nitrate and sulphate levels associated with south-easterly and easterly trajectory clusters at Belfast and Harwell respectively, and highest chloride concentrations associated with fast moving maritime trajectory categories at both sites. Easterly trajectory clusters show lower sulphate/nitrate ratios compared to other clusters, especially for air travelling from the near continent. Nitrate shows greater episodicity than sulphate with implications for achievement of the daily PM10 limit value of 50 g m-3 . Our trajectory analysis suggests that control of NOx emissions from the UK and adjacent continental European countries has a major role to play in achieving compliance with the current PM10 limit value. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2573 0-D-modelling of carbonaceous aerosols over greater Paris focusing on the organic particle formation Liousse C., Michel C., Bessagnet B. et al. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 2005 51/2 (207-221) To improve our understanding of aerosol formation and ageing in urban atmospheres, we have tested the ORISAM 0-D aerosol module (ORganic and Inorganic Spectral Aerosol Model). This module accounts for both types of primary carbonaceous particles (black carbon BC and primary organic carbon OCp ) and also simulates the formation of secondary inorganic and organic particles (sulfates, nitrates, ammonium, water and secondary organic carbon particles OCsec) by attachment of gas precursors to pre-existing carbonaceous particles. Simulations were performed for surface aerosols over Greater Paris area during the ESQUIF summer 1998 and winter 2000 experiments. Results show that OCsec formation is highly dependent on temperature and insolation with more intense secondary formation in summer than in winter. Moreover in Summer, when atmospheric conditions shift from warm and humid to hot and dry, the model indicates a decreasing formation of secondary organic aerosols OCsec as shown by an increase of the OCp /(OCp + OCsec ) ratio from 42 to 56%. These results satisfactorily compare with the few experimental available data for BC/(OCp + OCsec ) ratios increasing from 24 to 37% against modelled values in the range 21-32%. ORISAM module sensitivity to initial size distributions, background concentrations and emissions of gases and primary carbonaceous particles was documented too. One main result is that the formation of secondary organic particles with ORISAM is very sensitive to the concentrations of gaseous precursors. At the present stage of ORISAM development, OCsec build up appears to be however less sensitive to particulate background concentrations. © Springer 2005. 488 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2574 Impact of meteorology and energy structure on solvent extractable organic compounds of PM2.5 in Beijing, China Feng J., Chan C.K., Fang M. et al. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (623-632) Twenty-eight PM2.5 samples collected in Summer (July 2002) and Winter (November 2002) at two sites in Beijing, China were analyzed using GC/MS to investigate the impact of meteorology and coal burning on the solvent extractable organic compounds (SEOC). The characteristics and abundance of the n-alkanes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), n-fatty acids and nalkanols were determined. Source identification was made using organic species as molecular markers. Semi-volatile compounds of alkanes and PAHs had much higher concentrations in winter than summer because of the large difference in the temperature between the seasons. Plant wax emission was a major contributor to n-alkanes in summer, but fossil fuel residue was a major source (>80%) in winter. The seasonal differences in the distribution of pentacyclic triterpanes clearly shows the impact of coal burning for space heating in winter. The yield of PAHs in winter (148 ng m-3 at the urban site and 277 ng m -3 at the suburban site) was six to eight times higher than that in summer and was found to be mainly from coal burning. Higher pollutant concentrations were measured at the suburban site than the urban site in winter due to the rapid expansion of the city limit and the relocation of factories from urban to suburban areas over the last two decades. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2575 Nucleation and growth of new particles in the rural atmosphere of Northern Italy - Relationship to air quality monitoring Rodrguez S., Van Dingenen R., Putaud J.- P. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6734-6746) This study investigates the relationship between aerosols number size distribution on the one hand, and air quality in terms of particulate matter (PM) mass concentrations (as usually monitored in the air quality networks) on the other hand. For this purpose, time series of trace gases levels, submicron aerosol size distributions, both recorded at a rural site in Northern Italy (ISPRA), and of trace gas levels and PM mass concentrations, recorded in the air quality network operating in this region, have been compared and interpreted. Because of the regional nature of the PM pollution events, the daily mean levels of the aerosol volume (V), surface area (S) and black carbon (BC) concentrations at ISPRA rural site are well correlated with the daily mean levels of PM mass concentrations recorded at the other air quality monitoring sites. At ISPRA, the submicron aerosol size distribution is strongly influenced by two main competing processes: nucleation of new particles and condensation of gas-phase components onto pre-existing particles (resulting in particles growth). These processes influence on the daily, seasonal and day-to-day variations of the submicron aerosol features. Because increasing aerosol S concentrations favour condensation and hinder nucleation (and vice versa) the ‘mean’ particle size Dp N (mode of the dN/dlog D size distribution) increases with increasing PM concentrations (e.g. 45 nm for V=4m3cm-3 and 110 nm for V=45m3cm-3). Owing to this, time series of aerosol Dp N and V, S, mass and BC concentrations are strongly anti-correlated with those of the smallest ultrafine particle number concentration (N, 5-10 and 1020 nm). Nucleation episodes occur under the clean air conditions prompted by the North-F¨oehn meteorology. This anti-correlation between submicron aerosol mass and N<20 nm concentrations (prompted by the low contribution of the ultrafine particles to the aerosol mass) has important implications for a proper air quality monitoring: the parameters classically used for the air quality assessing (e.g. PM2.5) are not suitable for monitoring of this ultrafine PM pollution and consequently a specific monitoring of the ultrafine PM number concentration should be performed. The significance of this specific ultrafine PM number concentration monitoring is supported by facts already proven: a significant fraction of the current urban PM emissions occurs in the ultrafine PM fraction and exposure to ultrafine PM is associated with adverse effects on human health. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2576 Open burning of agricultural biomass: Physical and chemical properties of particle-phase emissions Hays M.D., Fine P.M., Geron C.D. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6747-6764) We present the physical and chemical characterization of particulate matter (PM2.5 ) emissions from simulated agricultural fires (AFs) of surface residuals of two major grain crops, rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The O2 levels and CO/CO2 ratios of the open burn simulations are typical of the field fires of agricultural residues. In the AF plumes, we observe predominantly accumulation mode (100-1000 nm) aerosols. The mean PM2.5 mass emission factors from replicate burns of the wheat and rice residuals are 4.7 0.04 and 13.0 0.3 g kg -1 of dry biomass, respectively. The combustion-derived PM emissions from wheat are enriched in K (31% weight/weight, w/w) and Cl (36% w/w), whereas the PM emissions from rice are largely carbonaceous (84% w/w). Molecular level gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of PM2.5 solvent extracts identifies organic matter that accounts for as much as 18% of the PM mass emissions. A scarcity of detailed PM-phase chemical emissions data from AFs required that comparisons among other biomass combustion groups (wildfire, woodstove, and fireplace) be made. Statistical tests for equal variance among these groups indicate that the degree to which molecular emissions vary is compound dependent. Analysis of variance testing shows significant differences in the mean values of certain n-alkane, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), oxy-PAH, and sugar marker compounds common to the biomass combustion types. Individual pairwise comparisons of means at the combustion group level confirm this result but suggest that apportioning airborne PM to these sources may require a more comprehensive use of the chemical emissions fingerprints. Hierarchical clustering of source test observations using molecular markers indicates agricultural fuels as distinct from other types of biomass combustion or biomass species. Rough approximations of the total potential PM2.5 emissions outputs from the combustion of the wheat and rice surface residues are given. This agricultural activity could significantly contribute to emissions inventories at regional, national, and global geographic levels. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2577 Mineralogy and origin of atmospheric particles in the industrial area of Huelva (SW Spain) Bernab´e J.M., Carretero M.I. and Gal´an E. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6777-6789) The mineralogy of atmospheric particles at the confluence of the Tinto and Odiel rivers, south of Huelva (a highly industrialized city in the SW Spain), was characterized in view to identify source origins. In spite of the small amount of sample collected, mineralogical characterization was performed by Xray diffraction, polarized light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy with EDS analysis system, using an adequate sample preparation methodology. Sedimentable (SP) and aerosols particles were sampled an one-week basis every two months for one year. Quartz, calcite and feldspars were found to be the major minerals in both fractions, and phyllosilicates, dolomite and gypsum were also identified in lower content. Minor mineral particles included barite, apatite, sphalerite and pyrite. SEM studies revealed the additional presence of chalcopyrite in both SP and aerosols, and of chalcocite-covellite, halite and sylvite in the latter. Siderite, hematite and ankerite were only detected in the SP fraction. The concentrations of the previous minerals increased in summer by effect of the limited rain and the resulting scarcity of atmosphere washing. Non-mineral particles detected by SEM in SP and aerosol fractions included spherical, biological and compositionally complex particles. The main source of mineral particles was found to be the soil suspension in addition to the metallurgical and fertilizer production industries in the area. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2578 The use of carbon dioxide as a tracer in the determination of particle number emissions from heavy-duty diesel vehicles Jayaratne E.R., Morawska L., Ristovski Z.D. and Johnson G.R. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6812-6821) In this paper, we have analysed the particle number and CO2 concentration data from four previous dynamometer studies, each METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY consisting of a number of heavy-duty vehicles of different age and operating on different diesel fuel blends. Emission rates were calculated for four operational modes corresponding to 0%, 25%, 50% and 100% of the maximum rated engine power. In a given mode the calculated CO2 emission rates were approximately the same for all vehicles, but the calculated particle number emission rates varied considerably between vehicles. Using concentrations measured directly from the dilution tunnel, we found that the ratio of diluted particle number concentration, to diluted CO2 concentration (P/C ratio) was directly proportional to the calculated undiluted particle number emission concentration, with a high degree of correlation. These observations suggest that the P/C ratio within the diluted sample is a good indicator of the particle number emission concentration for the undiluted exhaust. This was confirmed by grouping the vehicles according to age whence the newest age group, expected to have the cleanest emissions, always showed the lowest P/C ratio. An additional series of experiments were conducted on-road with a light duty diesel vehicle, at speeds ranging from 40 to 100 km h-1 . The diluted exhaust emissions were collected in a large bag housed in a trailer attached to the back of the vehicle. Various dilution ratios were achieved by sampling over a range of distances directly behind the vehicle tail-pipe outlet. As expected, the particle number concentration in the bag, for different distances and therefore different dilution ratios, showed a definite relationship to the dilution ratio, however the P/C ratio was independent of dilution for dilution ratios in the range 20-110. Based on the results of the dynamometer and on-road studies, it is suggested that the P/C ratio may be used as a viable method for the rapid identification of high particle number emitting vehicles as they drive past on a road. The technique has the added advantage that it is independent of the position of the sampling point in relation to the emission plume. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2579 Estimating measurement uncertainty in an ambient sulfate trend White W.H., Ashbaugh L.L., Hyslop N.P. and McDade C.E. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6857-6867) This paper examines the effects of sampling and analytical error on time trends derived from routine monitoring. Our analysis is based on actual concentration differences observed among three long sulfate series recorded by collocated and independent measurements at Shenandoah National Park. Five-year sulfate trends at this location are shown to include a one-sigma uncertainty of about 1% year-1 from measurement error alone. This is significantly more than would be estimated under na¨ıve statistical assumptions from the demonstrated precision of the measurements. The excess uncertainty arises from subtle trends in the errors themselves. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2580 Deposition velocities and washout ratios on a coastal site (southeastern Spain) calculated from 7 Be and 210 Pb measurements Due˜nas C., Fern´andez M.C., Carretero J. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6897-6908) The activity concentrations of 7 Be and 210 Pb were measured in M´alaga, Southeastern Spain (36°43
40

N; 4°28
8

W) in aerosols, precipitation and dry fallout continuously and systematically for 8 years. At the same sampling point, aerosols were collected weekly on filters and monthly precipitation sampling was carried out to study deposition. The air concentration of 7 Be showed a seasonal increase during the spring and summer months while the air concentration of 210 Pb was greater in summer. The concentration data of 7 Be and 210 Pb together with meteorological variables were used for a comprehensive analysis of variations. The specific activities of 7 Be and 210 Pb in bulk deposition samples showed a similar seasonal trend variation to that of the aerosols concentrations. Using the concentrations of 7 Be and 210 Pb in air and their depositional fluxes, the deposition velocities of aerosols and washout ratios were calculated. The mean deposition velocity of 7 Be and 210 Pb over the 8-year period is 0.4 and 1.5 cm s-1 , respectively, and the corresponding washout ratios are 477 and 1908, respectively. The results showed a prevailing influence of amount of rainfall for deposition velocities and other factors such as TSP, the number of rainy days and the number of dry days for washout ratios. A comparison of our measurements and other 489 data obtained at different locations in the world was also made. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2581 Single particle characterization of spring and summer aerosols in Beijing: Formation of composite sulfate of calcium and potassium Liu X., Zhu J., Van Espen P. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6909-6918) Scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX) was used for the analysis of 2500 single particles in five atmospheric aerosol samples collected during the spring and summer of 2000 in Beijing, China. Mineral dust appeared to be the dominant particles during an Asian dust episode, while in other circumstances mineral dust and S-containing particles constituted the major particle components. During anthropogenic pollution episodes in the summer, a large abundance of S-containing particles featured the atmospheric aerosol. Chemical and size distribution characteristics are discussed for Ca-S, K-S and Ca-K-S particle classes. Formation of Ca-K-S and other S-containing particle classes with high abundance was closely related to meteorological conditions such as relative humidity and cloud coverage. Simple and composite sulfate particles with an elongated crystalline morphology were detected which appear to be indicative of aqueous phase oxidation, such as in-cloud processing for sulfate formation pathway. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2582 On-line alkali analysis of individual aerosol particles in urban air Svane M., Janh¨all S., Hagstr¨om M. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6919-6930) On-line measurements of individual alkali-containing submicron particles in ambient air have been performed at two urban sites in G¨oteborg, on the west coast of Sweden. Results obtained with a recently developed particle beam mass spectrometer are presented. This instrument combines an optimized particle inlet with mass spectrometric techniques and detection of particlebound alkali metal is based on surface ionization technique. The concentrations of Na and K in submicron particles were followed over periods of a few weeks. Mass concentrations of alkali in ambient air varied in the range 0.02-100 ng m -3 during the measurement periods depending on air mass history, wind direction, season, and contributions from local sources. The number of alkali-containing particles varied between 0.1 and 100 cm-3 . Most detected individual particles contained a relatively small amount of Na, and few particles had sufficient Na content to be identified as pure sea-salt particles. The detected aerosol was concluded to be dominated by emissions from combustion of biomass and fossil fuels, with a significant contribution from sea-salt particles only during intrusion of marine air. This conclusion was supported by backward air mass trajectories and calculated K/Na weight ratios that generally agreed well with earlier measurements in urban environments. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2583 Lack of spatial variation of endotoxin in ambient particulate matter across a German metropolitan area Morgenstern V., Carty C.L., Gehring U. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6931-6941) In this study, we describe the spatial variation of endotoxin across an urban setting using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) methods. We also identify potential sources of endotoxin that account for between-site variability and compare endotoxin levels in particulate matter with a 50% aerodynamic cut-off diameter of 2.5 m (PM2.5 ) and of 10 m (PM10 ). In 1999-2000, we collected PM2.5 and PM 10 in Munich urban air and measured soluble endotoxin concentrations in both particle fractions. Using Teflon filters and Harvard impactors, PM 2.5 was collected at 40 outdoor monitoring sites across Munich and PM10 at a subset of these sites (n=12). Approximately four samples were collected at each site for a total of 158 PM2.5 samples and 48 PM10 samples. We visited and characterized the surrounding 100 m of each site for potential endotoxin sources. The geometric mean endotoxin concentration for all sites was 1.46 EU mg-1 PM2.5 (95% confidence intervals (CI): 1.21-1.77) and at the subset of the sites was 1.30 EU mg-1 PM2.5 (95% CI: 1.01-1.67 EU mg-1 PM 2.5 ). Endotoxin levels in PM10 were higher, 3.91 EU mg-1 490 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY PM10 (95% CI: 3.03-5.03 EU mg-1 PM 10 ), than in PM2.5 and were moderately correlated, r=0.51. All endotoxin concentrations measured in this study were <5.5 EU m -3 and thus lower than the accepted thresholds for acute adverse health effects for occupational exposures. Sites with more potential sources (n3) had slightly higher mean endotoxin levels (MR: 1.30 for EU mg -1 PM -3 2.5 and 1.13 for EU m PM2.5 ) than sites with no identified sources. Based on the ranges of endotoxin levels at the different sites, we found very little spatial variation in ambient endotoxin concentrations across the metropolitan area of Munich using inverse distance weighting method (IDW) methods (R2=0.013 for EU mg-1 PM 2.5 and R2=0.020 for EU m-3 PM2.5 ). Potential sources of endotoxin surrounding the sites only partly explained the variation seen. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2584 Size distribution of trace elements and major ions in the eastern Mediterranean atmosphere Kuloglu E. and Tuncel G. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (221-241) Size distribution of trace elements is measured at the Mediterranean coast of Turkey, by analyzing hi-vol impactor samples collected between August 1993 and May 1994. Mass median diameters of marine elements are between 4.6 and 5.3 m, and those of crustal elements are between 3.0 and 3.5 m. Mass median diameters of crustal elements are 30% smaller in samples impacted by Saharan Dust. Pollution derived elements, As, Cd, Mo, Pb, Se, and Zn have MMD’s between 1.25 and 1.01 m. Although 70-90% of the masses of these elements were associated with particles smaller than 2.1 m, 10-30% of their mass was associated with coarse particles. Coarse component in concentrations of Cd, Pb, Sb and particulate Hg are due to adsorption of fine anthropogenic particles on coarse crustal aerosol, whereas coarse fraction Zn, As, Se, In, Mo and Au are crustal at Al concentrations > 100 ng m-3 . Bromine, Cr, Ni, and V have bimodal distributions. The fine component, which account for approximately 30-40% of their masses are due to anthropogenic sources, whereas the coarse component, which accounts for 3050% of their masses are due to sea salt for Br, and crustal particles for Cr, Ni, and V. © Springer 2005. 2585 Size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban and suburban sites of Beijing, China Zhou J., Wang T., Huang Y. et al. Chemosphere 2005 61/6 (792-799) PAHs in five-stage size segregated aerosol particles were investigated in 2003 at urban and suburban sites of Beijing. The total concentration of 17 PAHs ranged between 0.84 and 152 ng m-3 , with an average of 116 ng m -3 , in urban area were 1.1-6.6 times higher than those measured in suburban area. It suggested a serious pollution level of PAHs in Beijing. PAHs concentrations increased with decreasing the ambient temperature. Approximately 68.4-84.7% of PAHs were adsorbed on particles having aerodynamic diameter 2.0 m. Nearly bimodal distribution was found for PAHs with two and three rings, more than four rings PAHs, however, followed unimodal distribution. The overall mass median diameter (MMD) for PAHs decreased with increasing molecular weight. Diagnostic ratios and normalized distribution of PAHs indicated that the PAHs in aerosol particles were mainly derived from fossil fuel combustion. Coal combustion for domestic heating was probably major contributor to the higher PAHs loading in winter, whereas PAHs in other seasons displayed characteristic of mixed source of gasoline and diesel vehicle exhaust. Biomass burning and road dust are minor contributors to the PAHs composition of these aerosol particles. Except for source emission, other factors, such as meteorological condition, photochemical decay, and transportation from source to the receptor site, should to be involved in the generation of the observed patterns. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2586 Measurements of Saharan dust aerosols over the eastern Mediterranean using elastic backscatter-Raman lidar, spectrophotometric and satellite observations in the frame of the EARLINET project Papayannis A., Balis D., Amiridis V. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2065-2079) We report on the vertical distributions of Saharan dust aerosols over the N.E. Mediterranean region, which were obtained during a typical dust outbreak on August 2000, by two lidar systems located in Athens and Thessaloniki, Greece, in the frame of the European EARLINET project. MODIS and ground sun spectrophotometric data, as well as air-mass backward trajectories confirmed the existence of Saharan dust in the case examined, which was also successfully forecasted by the DREAM dust model. The lidar data analysis for the period 2000-2002 made possible, for the first time, an estimation of the vertical extent of free tropospheric dust layers [mean values of the aerosol backscatter and extinction coefficients and the extinction-to-backscatter ratio (lidar ratio, LR) at 355 nm], as well as a seasonal distribution of Saharan dust outbreaks over Greece, under cloudfree conditions. A mean value of the lidar ratio at 355 nm was obtained over Athens (53 1 sr) and over Thessaloniki (44 2 sr) during the Saharan dust outbreaks. The corresponding aerosol optical thickness (AOT) at 355 nm, in the altitude range 0-5 km, was 0.69 0.12 and 0.65 0.10 for Athens and Thessaloniki, respectively (within the dust layer the AOT was 0.23 and 0.21, respectively). Air-mass back-trajectory analysis performed in the period 2000-2002 for all Saharan dust outbreaks over the N.E. Mediterranean indicated the main pathways followed by the dust aerosols. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2587 Characterization of high molecular weight compounds in urban atmospheric particles Samburova V., Zenobi R. and Kalberer M. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2163-2170) The chemical nature of a large mass fraction of ambient organic aerosol particles is not known. High molecular weight compounds (often named humic-like substances) have recently been detected by several authors and these compounds seem to account for a significant fraction of the total organic aerosol mass. Due to the unknown chemical structure of these compounds quantification as well as a determination of their molecular weight is difficult. In this paper we investigate water soluble humic-like substances in ambient urban aerosol using size exclusion chromatography-UV spectroscopy and laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (LDI-MS). LDI-MS was used for the first time to investigate HULIS from atmospheric aerosols. A careful evaluation of the two method shows that both methods complement each other and that both are needed to learn more about the molecular weight distribution and the concentration of humiclike substances. An upper molecular weight limit of humic-like substances of about 700 Da and a concentration of 0.3-1.6 g/M3 air can be estimated, corresponding to 930% of the total organic carbon for an urban background site. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2588 Physical aerosol properties and their relation to air mass origin at Monte Cimone (Italy) during the first MINATROC campaign Van Dingenen R., Putaud J.- P., Martins- Dos Santos S. and Raes F. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2203-2226) Aerosol physical properties were measured at the Monte Cimone Observatory (Italy) from 1 June till 6 July 2000. The measurement site is located in the transition zone between the continental boundary layer and the free troposphere (FT), at the border between the Mediterranean area and Central Europe, and is exposed to a variety of air masses. Sub-m number size distributions, aerosol hygroscopicity near 90% RH, refractory size distribution at 270°C and equivalent black carbon mass were continuously measured. Number size distributions and hygroscopic properties indicate that the site is exposed to aged continental air masses, however during daytime it is also affected by upslope winds. The mixing of this transported polluted boundary layer air masses with relatively clean FT air leads to frequent nucleation events around local noon. Night-time size distributions, including fine and coarse fraction s for each air mass episode, have been parameterized by a 3-modal lognormal distribution. Number and volume concentrations in the sub-m modes are strongly affected by the air mass origin, with highest levels in NW-European air masses, versus very clean, free tropospheric air coming from the N-European sector. During a brief but distinct dust episode, the coarse mode is clearly enhanced. The observed hygroscopic behavior of the aerosol is consistent with the chemical composi- METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY tion described by Putaud et al. (2004), but no closure between known chemical composition and measured hygroscopicity could be made because the hygroscopic properties of the water-soluble organic matter (WSOM) are not known. The data suggest that WSOM is slightly-to-moderately hygroscopic (hygroscopic growth factor GF at 90% relative humidity between 1.05 and 1.51), and that this property may well depend on the air mass origin and history. External mixing of aero sol particles is observed in all air masses through the occurrence of two hygroscopicity modes (average GF of 1.22 and 1.37, respectively). However, the presence of "less" hygroscopic particles has mostly such a low occurrence rate that the average growth factor distribution for each air mass sector actually appears as a single mode. This is not the case for the dust episode, where the external mixing between less hygroscopic and more hygroscopic particles is very prominent, and indicating clearly the occurence of a dust accumulation mode, extending down to 50 nm particles, along with an anthropogenic pollution mode. The presented physical measurements final ly allow us to provide a partitioning of the subm aerosol in four non-overlapping fractions (soluble/volatile, non-soluble/volatile, refractory/non-black carbon, black carbon) which can be associated with separate groups of chemical compounds determined with chemical-analytical techniques (ions, non-water soluble organic matter, dust, elemental carbon). All air masses except the free-tropospheric N-European and Dust episodes show a similar composition within the uncertainty of the data (53%, 37%, 5% and 5% respectively for the four defined fractions). Compared to these sectors, the dust episode shows a clearly enhanced refractory-non-BC fraction (17%), attributed to dust in the accumulation mode, whereas for the very clean N-EUR sector, the total refractory fraction is 25%, of which 13% non-BC and 12% BC. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2589 A global off-line model of size-resolved aerosol microphysics: I. Model development and prediction of aerosol properties Spracklen D.V., Pringle K.J., Carslaw K.S. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2227-2252) A Global Model of Aerosol Processes (GLOMAP) has been developed as an extension to the TOMCAT 3-D Eulerian off-line chemical transport model. GLOMAP simulates the evolution of the global aerosol size distribution using a sectional two-moment scheme and includes the processes of aerosol nucleation, condensation, growth, coagulation, wet and dry deposition and cloud processing. We describe the results of a global simulation of sulfuric acid and sea spray aerosol. The model captures features of the aerosol size distribution that are well established from observations in the marine boundary layer and free troposphere. Modelled condensation nuclei (CN >3 nm) vary between about 250-500 cm-3 in remote marine boundary layer regions and are generally in good agreement with observations. Modelled continental CN concentrations are lower than observed, which may be due to lack of some primary aerosol sources or the neglect of nucleation mechanisms other than binary homogeneous nucleation of sulfuric acid-water particles. Remote marine CN concentrations increase to around 2000-10 000cm-3 (at standard temperature and pressure) in the upper troposphere, which agrees with typical observed vertical profiles. Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) at 0.2% supersaturation vary between about 1000 cm-3 in polluted regions and between 10 and 500 cm-3 in the remote marine boundary layer. New particle formation through sulfuric acid-water binary nucleation occurs predominantly in the upper troposphere, but the model results show that these particles contribute greatly to aerosol concentrations in the marine boundary layer. For this sulfur-sea salt system it is estimated that sea spray emissions account for only
10% of CCN in the tropical marine boundary layer, but between 20 and 75% in the midlatitude Southern Ocean. In a run with only natural sulfate and sea salt emissions the global mean surface CN concentration is more than 60% of that from a run with 1985 anthropogenic sulfur emissions, although the natural emissions comprise only 27% of total sulfur emissions. Southern hemisphere marine boundary layer CN are more than 90% natural in origin, while polluted continental CN are more than 90% anthropogenic in origin, although these numbers will change when other anthropogenic CN 491 sources are included in the model. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2590 Aerosol mass closure and reconstruction of the light scattering coefficient over the Eastern Mediterranean sea during the MINOS campaign Sciare J., Oikonomou K., Cachier H. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2253-2265) As part of the Mediterranean Intensive Oxidant Study (MINOS) performed during August 2001 in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, intensive measurements of chemical and radiative properties of atmospheric aerosols were performed at two remote sites on Crete Island, located in the marine boundary layer (MBL), and in the lower free troposphere (FT), respectively. Gravimetric particulate mass, as well as chemically-derived masses of water soluble ions, organic and elemental carbon, and tracer elements for dust aerosols were measured for fine (<1.2 ) and coarse (> 1.2 ) particles at the two sampling sites. Although strongly bound water, mainly associated with inorganic species, could have slightly altered our results (10% of the reconstructed mass), chemical mass closure was achieved most of the time for the fine and coarse size fractions and at both sites. Our conversion factor of 2.1 for organic carbon (OC) to particulate organic matter (POM) is at the upper end of those reported in the literature, but fits with the aged smoke particles collected during the campaign. The results indicate that this conversion factor changed during the campaign along with the BC/TC ratio. The particulate mass (PM) concentration for fine aerosols at the MBL and FT sites averaged 17.4 4.7 g/m3 and 11.2 3.2 g/m3 , respectively, and is among the highest reported in the literature for remote sites; more than 90% of this PM was composed equally of ammonium sulfate and carbonaceous aerosols. Comparison between the MBL and FT sites showed a slight vertical gradient for PM that was not observed for dust aerosols, which averaged 10.5 4.8 and 11.7 5.0 g/m3 for the MBL and FT sites, respectively. The results were used to reconstruct the ambient light sc attering coefficient ( sp ) that was measured at ambient Relative Humidity (RH) for fine particles at the MBL site. Reconstruction of sp was achieved using ratios of wet to dry scattering, f (RH), that depend on RH for ammonium sulfate, but are kept equal to 1 for POM. This results in a low water adsorption for our organicrich carbonaceous aerosols, although these aged biomass smoke aerosols are supposed to be highly oxidized. Mass scattering efficiencies of the main aerosol components were obtained by multivariate regression analysis, and were 2.66 and 4.19 m2 /g (at the 95% confidence level) for dry ammonium sulfate and POM, respectively. The calculations indicate that one third of the reconstructed sp was due to water uptake by ammonium sulfate aerosols, demonstrating their major role in the radiative aerosol properties in the eastern Mediterranean. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2591 Characterization of aerosol particle episodes in Finland caused by wildfires in Eastern Europe Niemi J.V., Tervahattu H., Vehkam¨aki H. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2299-2310) We studied the sources, compositions and size distributions of aerosol particles during long-range transport (LRT) PM2.5 episodes which occurred on 12-15 August, 26-28 August and 5-6 September 2002 in Finland. Backward air mass trajectories, satellite detections of fire areas and dispersion modelling results indicate that emissions from wildfires in Russia and other Eastern European countries arrived in Finland during these episodes. Elemental analyses using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive X-ray microanalyses (EDX) showed that the proportions of S-rich particles and agglomerates (agglomeration was caused partly by the sampling method used) increased during the episodes, and they contained elevated fractions of K, indicating emissions from biomass burning. These aerosols were mixed with S-rich emissions from fossil fuel burning during transport since air masses came through polluted areas of Europe. Minor amounts of coarse Ca-rich particles were also brought by LRT during the episodes, and they probably originated from wildfires and/or from Estonian and Russian oil-shale-burning industrial areas. Ion chromatography analysis showed that concentrations of sulphate (SO24 ), total nitrate (NO3 +HNO3 (g)) and total ammonium (NH+4 +NH3 (g)) increased during the epi- 492 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY sodes, but the ratio of the total amount of these ions to PM10 concentration decreased, indicating unusually high fractions of other chemical components. Particle number size distribution measurements with differential mobility particle sizer (DMPS) revealed that concentrations of particles 90-500 nm increased during the episodes, while concentrations of particles smaller than 90 nm decreased. The reduction of the smallest particles was caused by suppressed new particle formation due to vapour and molecular cluster uptake of LRT particles. Our results show that emissions from wildfires in Russian and other Eastern European countries deteriorated air quality of very large areas, even at distances of over 1000 km from the fire areas. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2592 Top-of-atmosphere direct radiative effect of aerosols over global oceans from merged CERES and MODIS observations Loeb N.G. and Manalo- Smith N. Journal of Climate 2005 18/17 (3506-3526) The direct radiative effect of aerosols (DREA) is defined as the difference between radiative fluxes in the absence and presence of aerosols. In this study, the direct radiative effect of aerosols is estimated for 46 months (March 2000-December 2003) of merged Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Terra global measurements over ocean. This analysis includes the contribution from clear regions in both clear and partly cloudy CERES footprints. MODIS-CERES narrow-to-broadband regressions are developed to convert clear-sky MODIS narrowband radiances to broadband shortwave (SW) radiances, and CERES clear-sky angular distribution models (ADMs) are used to estimate the corresponding top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiative fluxes that are needed to determine the DREA. Clear-sky MODIS pixels are identified using two independent cloud masks: (i) the NOAA/National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) algorithm that is used for inferring aerosol properties from MODIS on the CERES Single Scanner Footprint TOA/Surface Fluxes and Clouds (SSF) product (NOAA SSF); and (ii) the standard algorithm that is used by the MODIS aerosol group to produce the MODIS aerosol product (MOD04). Over global oceans, direct radiative cooling by aerosols for clear scenes that are identified from MOD04 is estimated to be 40% larger than for clear scenes from NOAA SSF (5.5 compared to 3.8 W m-2 ). Regionally, differences are largest in areas that are affected by dust aerosol, such as oceanic regions that are adjacent to the Sahara and Saudi Arabian deserts, and in northern Pacific Ocean regions that are influenced by dust transported from Asia. The net total-sky (clear and cloudy) DREA is negative (cooling) and is estimated to be -2.0 W m-2 from MOD04, and -1.6 W m-2 from NOAA SSF. The DREA is shown to have pronounced seasonal cycles in the Northern Hemisphere and large year-to-year fluctuations near deserts. However, no systematic trend in deseasonalized anomalies of the DREA is observed over the 46-month time series that is considered. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2593 Characteristics of aerosol number concentrations over the ice-covered Okhotsk sea Inoue J. and Toyota T. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 2005 83/4 (633-640) Aerosol number concentrations were observed in conjunction with in-situ meteorological parameters aboard the patrol vessel SOYA in February 2003 over the ice-covered Okhotsk Sea. The concentrations of particles with radii larger than 0.35 m were close to the background level, while concentrations of particles less than 0.35 m were close to the remote continental level. During the observation period, relatively higher and lower aerosol number concentrations (HA and LA) were observed, depending on synoptic weather conditions. Backward trajectory analyses revealed that for the HA period, the air mass in the study region traced back to the Sea of Japan; for the LA period, the air mass originated from the northern ice-covered area. This suggests that sea ice influences the aerosol number concentration by suppressing the amount of oceanic sea salt supplied to air masses. Using the observational data and an empirical formula, differences in surface solar radiation between the HA and LA periods were also examined. © 2005, Meteorological Society of Japan. 2594 Investigation of sulfate and nitrate formation on mineral dust particles by receptor modeling Hien P.D., Bac V.T. and Thinh N.T.H. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7231-7239) The formation of sulfate and nitrate by heterogeneous reactions of gaseous precursors on mineral dust particles was investigated using positive matrix factorization (PMF) of coarse PM10 (particulate diameters from 2.2 to 10 m) collected at urban (Hanoi) and rural (Lucnam) sites in northern Vietnam. Air samples were analyzed for ionic and elemental components using ion chromatography and proton induced X-ray emission methods. PMF revealed six similar sources/types of coarse PM10 at the two sites, namely soil dust containing nitrate and sulfate, coal fly ash from distant and local sources, soil dust containing organic matter and ammonium sulfate and marine aerosol. Traffic (road) dust was found only at the urban site. From the PMF factor models, the yields of NO-3 , SO4 2- and NH+4 can be estimated and their possible chemical forms in different particulate types can be suggested. The yields of nitrate and sulfate formation on mineral dust particles increase with the [Ca]/[Si] ratio, which is greater in soil dust than in coal fly ash. Nitrate is bound to Ca-richest soil dust particles. Ammonium was found in dust particles containing soil organic matter, which also hold the largest amount of sulfate. The comparison of urban and rural receptor models provided synergy for the source identification and insights into the properties of mineral dust particles relevant to their interactions with acidic gases in ambient air. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2595 Vertical differences in the composition of PM10 and PM 2.5 in the urban atmosphere of Osaka, Japan Sasaki K. and Sakamoto K. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7240-7250) Vertical differences in PM10 and PM2.5 suspended particles were investigated using a building in Osaka, Japan. Samples were collected on the roof of the building (200 m above ground level) and on the ground during 5-9 August and 2-6 December 2002. In addition to determination of sample mass, concentrations have been analyzed for major chemical components including elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC). Particle mass concentrations of the samples collected at 200 m were lower than those collected on the ground. "Others" species, defined as the difference between the total particle mass and the sum of the masses of the measured species, dominantly accounted for the vertical difference in mass concentrations in summer, whereas EC and OC were the major contributors in winter. Vertical profiles of relative humidity observed simultaneously indicated that relative humidity on the ground was higher than that at 200 m during the summer sampling period. Hence, it is likely that the higher concentrations of "others" species in the samples collected on the ground were probably caused by water having been absorbed by deliquescent components of the particles. Vertical temperature profiles during the winter sampling period suggested that stable meteorological conditions in winter resulted in the accumulation of primary particles, mainly emitted from vehicle exhaust, leading to the high concentrations of EC and OC on the ground. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2596 Saharan dust outbreak over southeastern Spain as detected by sun photometer Lyamani H., Olmo F.J. and Alados- Arboledas L. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7276-7284) Characterization of mineral aerosol properties in southeastern Spain is important due to its proximity to the African continent that permit studying the Saharan dust just entering European continent before its possible mixing with anthropogenic emissions in Europe. Two Saharan dust events that occurred during 30 August-3 September and on 10 September 1998 were observed at an inland location on the outskirts of Granada in southeastern Spain. Detailed analyses including back trajectories and TOMS aerosol index maps showed transport of Saharan dust from the Sahara desert and North Africa to the study area. The dust episodes were associated with marked increases in aerosol optical depth ( a ) at all wavelengths examined in this study. Thus a (500 nm) increased from a value of
0.2 corresponding to normal conditions up to 0.6 in the first event and up to 0.55 in the second. At the end of these events, the arrival of air masses METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY from the Atlantic caused a sharp decrease in a (500 nm) that reaches values close to those obtained before the event (
0.2). The Angstr¨om exponent  reached a minimum of 0.36 in the first event and 0.37 in the second. The Angstr¨om exponent  and aerosol optical depth values during dust events agree well with those obtained under the same kind of events in AERONET and SKYNET sites, as well as with the results obtained in ACE-2 and ACE-Asia experiments. The aerosol size distributions, retrieved from aerosol optical depth using King’s method, demonstrated how the large size fraction of aerosol associated with Saharan dust dominated during these events. When Saharan dust was present, the retrieved aerosol size distributions were bimodal with a well-defined mode centred at a radius of 0.6 m, and showed an evident increase in the large particles mode with radii in the range 0.4-2 m. The small particle concentration during the two events did not present any marked change, and was similar to those observed on days without Saharan dust. Large particle concentration was higher by a factor of 8 than during normal conditions. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2597 Dry atmospheric fluxes of trace metals (Al, Fe, Mn, Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu) over the Levantine Basin: A refined assessment Koc¸ak M., Kubilay N., Herut B. and Nimmo M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7330-7341) The current work presents dry deposition fluxes of trace metals to the Southern and Northern Levantine Basin of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. The dry depositional inputs were calculated taking into account (i) the spatial gradients in metal aerosol concentrations across the Levantine Basin (using concentrations from two location, Erdemli, Turkey and Tel Shikmona, Israel over a 3 year sampling period), (ii) the air mass origins, (iii) air mass temporal influence across the north and south Levantine basins and (iv) fine/coarse elemental aerosol size mass distributions allowing the use of new elemental settling velocities. Two distinct airflow sectors were defined at each site; North (N) and southwest (SW), having different temporal influences at each site (the temporal ratio of SW:N was 1.85 and 0.43 at Tel Shikmona and Erdemli, respectively). Temporal airflow weighted aerosol concentrations were then calculated for each site. The applied settling velocities calculated using size fractioned aerosol samples (n=227) collected from Erdemli and from the literature, yielded higher (compared to previous work) settling velocities for Cu, Pb, and Zn being 1.1, 0.8 and 0.9 cm s-1 , respectively. Total dry deposition fluxes for the crustal elements (Al, Fe and Mn) were consistent with previous studies for the region; however, Cu, Pb, and Zn were much higher, in part, due to the larger adopted settling velocities. Using sequential leach data, the "exchangeable" as well as total elemental dry inputs were presented for both the north and south Levantine basins. Comparison with limited literature wet deposition would suggest that the dry deposition pathway is a more significant input for Cu, Pb, and possibly Al and Fe. The "exchangeable" dry atmospheric inputs of Pb, Cu and Cd to the southern basin were orders of magnitude greater than dissolved riverine inputs. A similar comparison could not be made for the northern basin owing to absence of riverine input data. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2598 Sampling artifact estimates for alkanes, hopanes, and aliphatic carboxylic acids Sihabut T., Ray J., Northcross A. and McDow S.R. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (6945-6956) Sampling artifacts for molecular markers from organic speciation of particulate matter were investigated by analyzing fortyone samples collected in Philadelphia as a part of the Northeast Oxidant and Particulate Study (NEOPS). Samples were collected using a high volume sampler with two quartz fiber filters in series. n-Alkanes (C23-C31), hopanes (C27-C31), and n-alkanoic acids (C10-C22) were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS). The extent of artifact error was dependent on vapor pressure and species concentration. Particulate organic species are classified into the following three categories: (1) the amount collected on the backup filter was often a large fraction of the amount collected on the front filters (n-alkanes C23 and C24, n-carboxylic acids C10-C14); (2) the amount collected on the backup filter was consistently a small fraction of the amount collected on the front filter (n-alkanes C25-C28, hopanes C27-C30, n-carboxylic acids C15-C18, and dicarboxylic acids C3-C9); (3) 493 the species was rarely observed on backup filters (n-alkanes C29C31, hopanes C31 and C32). 2599 Seasonal variations and interactions of N-containing gases and particles over a coniferous forest, Saxony, Germany Plessow K., Spindler G., Zimmermann F. and Matschullat J. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (6995-7007) Ambient concentrations of NH3 , HNO3 , HNO2 , HCl, SO2 , particulate NH+4 , NO -3 , and SO24 were simultaneously measured from October 2001 to April 2003 at the Oberb¨arenburg research site (Erzgebirge, Germany). Seasonal variations of gas phase concentrations were often related to meteorological parameters and specific source strength. The particulate species (PM2.5 ) displayed weak seasonal trends, but periods with low mixing heights resulted in significantly elevated concentrations. Mean NH3 , HNO2 , HNO3 , and SO2 concentrations in air (g m-3 ) were about 0.48, 0.30, 0.80, and 5.9, respectively. With a PM2.5 -mass fraction of 11.3 g m-3 , the Erzgebirge was moderately polluted. Average particle bound NH+4 - (1.5 g m-3 ) and NO -3 - (2.2 g m-3 ) concentrations were 2-3-times higher than the corresponding gas phase concentrations. In summer, preferentially (NH4 )2 SO4 existed, while the dominance of NH4 NO3 -aerosol increased in spring. The thermodynamic equilibrium constant for the system NH3 /HNO 3 /NH4 NO3 agrees well with the measured concentration product considering the co-existence of SO4 2- . The particulate phase is often favoured under ambient temperature and humidity. Nearly all species exhibited maximum concentrations from February to April 2003, during a stable high-pressure system. In March and April 2003, the secondary ions contributed more than 90% to the PM2.5 fraction. This was particularly due to increased NO-3 - concentrations. The formation of NO-3 was supported by a large supply of free NH3 . © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2600 Water-soluble part of the aerosol in the dust storm season - Evidence of the mixing between mineral and pollution aerosols Wang Y., Zhuang G., Sun Y. and An Z. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7020-7029) Six dust episodes were observed in Beijing in 2002. Both TSP (Total Suspended Particulate, particle size smaller than 100 m) and PM 2.5 (particle size smaller than 2.5 m) aerosol samples in these episodes were collected and their characteristics of water-soluble part were elaborated in demonstrating the mixing of mineral aerosol with pollution aerosol in the long-range transport of Asia aerosols with various sources and different paths. The dust storm peaked on 20 March, in which the highest concentrations of TSP and PM2.5 were 10.9 and 1.4 mg m-3 , respectively. The mass fraction of water-soluble part generally decreased with the increase of dust intensity. SO24 contributed 38-70% to the total anions and Ca2+ contributed 37-80% to the total cations, 2+ were the most abundant anion and indicating that SO24 and Ca cation, respectively. The major ions of the water-soluble parts could be classified into three groups, i.e., the crust ions (Ca2+ , + Na + , and Mg2+ ), the pollution-crust ions (SO 24 , Cl , and K ), and the pollution ions (NO-3 , NH+4 , NO -2 , and F- ). Crust ions and pollution ions were the main ion fractions in super dust and nondust days, respectively, whereas the pollution-crust ions were the main ion fractions in both dust days of various dust intensity and non-dust days, which demonstrated clearly that the mixing between mineral and pollution aerosols was ubiquitous during the dust seasons (even in the super dust storm days) although it was more obvious in those normal and weak dust episodes. The main chemical species of the water-soluble part of the aerosols were CaCO3 in the super dust storm, CaSO4 in the normal and the weak dust events, and NH 4 NO3 in the non-dust event days. The secondary transformation of sulfate and nitrate occurred on dust particles both during and after dust days provided the strong evidence of the mixing between mineral and pollution aerosols during the long-range transport of dust. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2601 Seasonal variability of optical properties of aerosols in the Eastern Mediterranean Vrekoussis M., Liakakou E., Koc¸ak M. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7083-7094) 494 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY The aerosol optical properties (scattering and absorption coefficients) were investigated at two remote locations in the Eastern Mediterranean in conjunction with aerosol ion composition measurements: Finokalia in the Crete Island in Greece (March 2001-June 2002) and Erdemli in Turkey (July 1999-June 2000). Ambient light-scattering coefficient ( sp-532nm ) at Finokalia had a mean value of 50 23 Mm-1 while at Erdemli this value was 90 160 Mm-1 , due to a severe dust event that occurred from 17 to 19 April 2000. Scattering coefficients up to 5000 Mm -1 were encountered during the transition periods (spring and autumn) and were associated with dust storm events. During these events significant correlations were observed between dust and sp and mass scattering efficiencies of 0.21 and 0.96 m2 g-1 were calculated for dust for Finokalia and Erdemli, respectively. Significant correlations were also observed at both locations between non-sea-salt sulphate (nss-SO24 ); sp and mass scattering efficiencies of 5.9 1.8 and 5.7 1.4 m2 g-1 were calculated for 2the nss-SO4 at Finokalia and Erdemli, respectively. At Finokalia absorption measurements were also performed at the same time and the mean absorption coefficient ( ap-565nm ) was found to be 5.6 3.6 Mm-1 . Maxima of absorption coefficient were associated with two distinct meteorological situations indicative of pollution transported from northern Europe and Saharan dust events. Saharan dust can therefore significantly contribute to both scattering and absorption of solar radiation, the latter due to its hematite content. Based on scattering and absorption measurements, an annual mean single-scattering albedo (! ) adjusted at 550 nm of 0.89 0.04 was calculated for Finokalia. Finally, radiative forcing efficiency (RFE) over the sea at 550 nm induced by aerosols has been calculated for Finokalia. RFE follows a clear seasonal variation, with the lowest mean values during summer (-73W m-2 ) and the highest during winter (-30W m2 ). Using aerosol optical thickness measurements in the area, we obtain radiative forcing estimates at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) ranging from -12.6 to -2.3 W m 2 for summer and winter, respectively. These values are up to five times higher than that induced by the greenhouse gases (2.4 Wm-2 ) but opposite in sign. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2602 Estimation of uncertainty of direct radiative forcing of the aerosol for a rural site in central Europe Feczk´o T., Marton A., Moln´ar A. and Szentes G. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7127-7136) Direct climate forcing due to scattering and absorption of the main aerosol components (ammonium sulfate and total carbon) was estimated seasonally in Hungary by a box model. Ammonium sulfate played an important role in the direct forcing while the carbonaceous aerosol contributed significantly to the development of extinction. In summer, the scattering effect of both species showed a maximum (ammonium sulfate: -2.21 1.73 W m-2 , total carbon: -0.88 0.73 W m-2 ), while the absorption of carbon was the most significant in autumn (+0.40 0.41 W m-2 ). Uncertainty of these data was obtained by using the theory of error propagation and by taking into consideration the standard deviation of the experimental parameters. The relatively high values of the calculated relative standard deviations of the climate forcing data were attributed partly to the large number of the model parameters (9 and 11) and partly to their large uncertainty. The calculated uncertainties of various forcings were found to be in between the factors of 1.7 and 2.1 which were lower than those generally applied in forcing calculations. Parameter sensitivity analysis of the model equation proved that the reliability of the calculated data could be improved if attention is paid to the measurement of certain parameters such as: mass concentration, cloud coverage, surface albedo, upscattered fraction, single-scattering albedo and the fractional transmittance of the atmosphere. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2603 Diurnal and seasonal characteristics of particle volatility and chemical composition in the vicinity of a light-duty vehicle freeway Kuhn T., Biswas S. and Sioutas C. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7154-7166) During the winter of 2005, physicochemical properties of sizefractionated PM10 particles were analyzed next to State Route 110 (Pasadena freeway in Los Angeles, CA, USA), a light-duty vehicle freeway, closed to heavy-duty traffic. We report volatility of ultrafine particles and chemical characteristics in the coarse, accumulation, and ultrafine modes very close to the freeway and at an urban background site. For measurement of mass and chemical composition, the study employed in each location a Micro-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor (MOUDI) and a modified high-volume sampler. Both instruments sampled with the same size cutpoints. A tandem differential mobility analyzer (TDMA) was used at the two sampling sites to analyze the semivolatile fraction of the aerosols. Size distributions of the ambient aerosol were measured using a DMA and total number concentration using a condensation particle counter (CPC). In this study, which was a continuation of a campaign during summer 2004, we compared the seasonal, i.e. winter versus summer, and diurnal, i.e. daytime versus evening, variation in PM characteristics in the vicinity of this freeway. Conditions in winter differed most from those in summer during the evening rush-hour traffic, with much lower temperatures in the winter campaign. Diurnal variations in particle volatility were observed, with higher content of volatile material in aerosols sampled in the evenings. Particle number concentrations were also much higher during the evening hours, increasing from 67,000 to 110,000 cm-3 . The average total number concentration next to the freeway was 80,000 cm-3 during the sampling period, which was higher than in summer, when the average was 46,000 cm -3 . External mixing was observed with increasing nonvolatile fractions for 40, 80, and 120 nm particles (39% of particles). In general the volatility increased in the evenings, while the nonvolatile fraction decreased. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2604 Correlating MODIS aerosol optical thickness data with ground-based PM 2.5 observations across Texas for use in a real-time air quality prediction system Hutchison K.D., Smith S. and Faruqui S.J. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7190-7203) Investigations have been conducted at the Center for Space Research (CSR) into approaches to correlate MODIS aerosol optical thickness (AOT) values with ground-based, PM2.5 observations made at continuous air monitoring station locations operated by the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ). These correlations are needed to more fully utilize real-time MODIS AOT analyses generated at CSR in operational air quality forecasts issued by TCEQ using a trajectory-based forecast model developed by NASA. Initial analyses of two data sets collected during 3 months in 2003 and all of 2004 showed linear correlations in the 0.4-0.5 range in the data collected over Texas. Stronger correlations (exceeding 0.9) were obtained by averaging these same data over longer timescales but this approach is considered unsuitable for use in issuing air quality forecasts. Peculiarities in the MODIS AOT analyses, referred to as hot spots, were recognized while attempting to improve these correlations. It is demonstrated that hot spots are possible when pixels that contain surface water are not detected and removed from the AOT retrieval algorithms. An approach to reduce the frequency of hot spots in AOT analyses over Texas is demonstrated by tuning thresholds used to detect inland water surfaces and remove pixels that contain them from the analysis. Finally, the potential impact of hot spots on MODIS AOT-PM2.5 correlations is examined through the analysis of a third data set that contained sufficient levels of aerosols to mask inland water surfaces from the AOT algorithms. In this case, significantly stronger correlations, that exceed the 0.9 value considered suitable for use in a real-time air quality prediction system, were observed between the MODIS AOT observations and ground-based PM2.5 measurements. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2605 A kinetic mechanism for predicting secondary aerosol formation from the reactions of d-limonene in the presence of oxides of nitrogen and natural sunlight Leungsakul S., Jeffries H.E. and Kamens R.M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7063-7082) Among the monoterpenes, d-limonene is one of the most reactive, and has one of the highest particle formation potentials. Chamber experiments with d-limonene, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and diurnal natural sunlight are compared with simulation results from a first generation semi-explicit d-limonene daytime mechanism. The d-limonene model adequately predicts the timing of METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY NO-NO2 crossover, d-limonene decay, and the general trend of ozone formation, and particle mass accumulation. When experimental secondary organic aerosol (SOA) masses were greater than 1 mg m-3 the simulations tended to agree closely with the measured aerosol maxima. At lower SOA concentrations, the simulations tended to overpredict measured aerosol maxima by 25-50%. FTIR analysis and GC-ECD measurements indicate particle phase nitrates and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) formation in the system. In the afternoon when temperatures are highest in the outdoor chambers, the slow rise of continuous ozone measurements suggests that PAN type compounds were decomposing to "bleed" NO2 into the gas phase. Partitioning calculations also suggest that these types of compounds are offgassing from the particle phase later in the afternoon as well, and provide an additional source of NO2 . Predicted aerosol yields with a commonly used two-parameter aerosol yield model are compared with experimental aerosol yields. The parameritized aerosol yield model had difficulty predicting most of the UNC chamber data. The explicit d-limonene mechanism developed in this study could reasonably simulate the aerosol formation trend in the Caltech chambers, but tended to overpredict SOA maxima. 2606 Single scattering albedo of aerosols over the central India: Implications for the regional aerosol radiative forcing Ganguly D., Gadhavi H., Jayaraman A. et al. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Extensive measurements of various aerosol parameters including single scattering albedo (SSA) were made at various locations over the central Indian region during February 2004 to study their impact on the regional aerosol radiative forcing. An overall increase in the measured value of SSA is noticed (0.75 to 0.9) over the period of this campaign, indicating unequal changes in source strength or removal processes of absorbing and scattering types of aerosols. Diurnally averaged value of direct SW radiative forcing for the region is in the range of -15 to -40 W/m2 at the surface, about 15% lower compared to that over the Bay of Bengal region and 22% higher than over the Arabian Sea. TOA forcing is in the range of +0.7 to -11 W/m2 , about 50% lower compared to both these regions. This results in a heating rate of nearly 0.8 K/day for the first 2km in the atmosphere. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2607 The role of convective plumes and vortices on the global aerosol budget Koch J. and Renno N.O. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) Atmospheric aerosols produce both a direct radiative forcing by scattering and absorbing solar and infrared radiation, and an indirect radiative forcing by altering cloud processes. Therefore, it is essential to understand the physical processes that contribute to the global aerosol budget. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that mineral dust contributes to
1/3 of all primary particle emissions to the atmosphere. The significance of mineral dust aerosol becomes evident when one considers the large surface area of arid and semi-arid regions on most continents. It is evident from observations in the U.S. Southwest that convective plumes and vortices lift large quantities of desert dust. Here, we use a combination of observational data and theory to determine the role of convective plumes and vortices on the global aerosol budget. We show that convective plumes and vortices contribute to about 35% of the global budget of mineral dust. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2608 Secondary organic aerosol formation from isoprene photooxidation under high-NOx conditions Kroll J.H., Ng N.L., Murphy S.M. et al. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The oxidation of isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) is known to play a central role in the photochemistry of the troposphere, but is generally not considered to lead to the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA), due to the relatively high volatility of known reaction products. However, in the chamber studies described here, we measure SOA production from isoprene photooxidation under high-NOx conditions, at significantly lower isoprene concentrations than had been observed previously. Mass yields are low (0.9-3.0%), but because of large emissions, isoprene photooxidation may still contribute substantially to global 495 SOA production. Results from photooxidation experiments of compounds structurally similar to isoprene (1,3-butadiene and 2- and 3-methyl-1-butene) suggest that SOA formation from isoprene oxidation proceeds from the further reaction of firstgeneration oxidation products (i.e., the oxidative attack of both double bonds). The gas-phase chemistry of such oxidation products is in general poorly characterized and warrants further study. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2609 A large organic aerosol source in the free troposphere missing from current models Heald C.L., Jacob D.J., Park R.J. et al. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Aircraft measurements of organic carbon (OC) aerosol by two independent methods over the NW Pacific during the ACE-Asia campaign reveal unexpectedly high concentrations in the free troposphere (FT). Concentrations average 4 g sm-3 in the 2-6.5 km column with little vertical gradient. These values are 10100 times higher than computed with a global chemical transport model (CTM) including a standard 2-product simulation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation based on empirical fits to smog chamber data. The same CTM reproduces the observed vertical profiles of sulfate and elemental carbon aerosols, which indicate sharp decreases from the boundary layer to the FT due to wet scavenging. Our results suggest a large, sustained source of SOA in the FT from oxidation of long-lived volatile organic compounds. We find that this SOA is the dominant component of aerosol mass in the FT, with implications for intercontinental pollution transport and radiative forcing of climate. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2610 Surfactants in South East Asian Aerosols Latif M.T., Brimblecombe P., Ramli N.A. et al. Environmental Chemistry 2005 2/3 (198-204) The concentration of surfactants in aerosols was determined at several sites in South East Asia, Bangi, Penang and Kota Kinabalu in Malaysia and Bangkok, Thailand, as methylene blue active substances (MBAS) and ethyl violet active substances (EVAS) for anionic surfactants and disulphine blue active substances (DBAS) for cationic surfactants. The methodology used is based on the formation of extractable ion-association complexes of surfactants and dye in organic solvents followed by spectrometric measurement of the intensity of the extracted coloured complex. Results showed surfactants in aerosols are mostly in the anionic form as MBAS and EVAS, and higher in aerosols collected in congested areas, especially in times of forest fires. Concentrations are in the range of 34.6 to 285.0 pmol m-3 for MBAS and 129.9 to 932.2 pmol m-3 for EVAS. Several different types of soot and humic acid seem possible sources of surfactants in atmospheric aerosols. Laboratory experiments suggested that combustion products, especially from motor vehicles, are important primary sources of surfactants in aerosols. There is also some laboratory evidence that there are secondary sources for these surfactants in aerosols, possibly humic-like substances (HULIS) from the oxidation and photochemical reaction of soots and humic acid. © CSIRO 2005. 2611 Altitude profiles of bioaerosol concentrations in the troposphere of southern West Siberia Borodulin A.I., Saphatov A.S., Belan B.D. et al. Doklady Earth Sciences 2005 404/7 (1090-1092) This communication presents altitude profiles of the concentrations of total protein and viable microorganisms, which were obtained by averaging data on the tropospheric BCs in 1999-2003, and discusses their properties. Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. Atmospheric pollution 2612 Assessment of ambient air PM10 and PM2.5 and characterization of PM10 in the city of Kanpur, India Sharma M. and Maloo S. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6015-6026) 496 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY This research was initiated to study the air quality in the city of Kanpur, India in terms of PM10 and PM2.5 and chemical composition in terms of heavy metals and benzene-soluble organic fraction (BSOF) for PM10 . Three sampling locations, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) (control site), Vikas Nagar (VN) (commercial site) and Juhi Colony (JC) (residential site) were selected. Total forty-seven 24-h samples were collected for PM2.5 and PM10 during October 2002-February 2003 at these locations. The collected PM10 samples were subjected to chemical analysis for determination of heavy metals and toxic organic fraction by measuring BSOF. PM10 (45-589 g m-3 ), PM 2.5 (25-200 g m-3 ), BSOF (1-170 g m-3 ) and heavy metals were highest at VN followed by JC and IIT. The study concluded that the overall air quality in the city of Kanpur was much inferior to other cities in India and abroad. Similar to PM10 and PM2.5 , heavy metals were almost 5-10 times higher than levels in European cities. The study concluded that there was a need to address the issue of PM2.5 monitoring and control. Because regular PM2.5 monitoring may take some time, a linear model for predicting PM2.5 using routinely monitored parameters PM10 and BSOF was suggested for preliminary assessment. The model was checked for its adequacy and it was validated. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2613 BTX measurements in a medium-sized European city Pilidis G.A., Karakitsios S.P. and Kassomenos P.A. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6051-6065) The BTX levels are significantly high compared to the EU directive for benzene in European cities with population around or higher one million. Since there are hundreds of towns in Europe with smaller population, it is important to know the levels of aromatics in these areas. This work presents the results of a benzene, toluene and xylene (BTX) measurement campaign that took place in Ioannina, a medium-sized Greek city. As a result of traffic situation and the local meteorological conditions, pollution levels in Ioannina are unusually high, at least for a city of that size. BTX levels were measured using passive samplers placed at several points around the city, as well as across a selected street canyon using both passive and active samplers, combined with simultaneous measurements of traffic flow and wind speed. The measurement procedure was repeated in an exact manner for all four seasons and the results suggest that benzene levels, at all sampling points, exceed the limit set by EU Directive 2000/69. Benzene levels appear correlated to traffic density, while benzene/toluene/xylene ratios present a seasonal variation linked to meteorological conditions. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2614 Long-range transport of aerosols and their impact on the air quality of Taiwan Lin C.- Y., Liu S.C., Chou C.C.- K. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6066-6076) The impact of long-range transport on the air quality of Taiwan was assessed by using measurements at stations of the air quality monitoring network of the Taiwan Environment Protection Administration over the winter monsoon periods of 2000 and 2001. The primary long-range transport process can be clearly identified to be the prevailing northeasterly following the cold front of winter monsoon that originates in the Asian continent. Based on pollutants concentration differences among different meteorological conditions, we estimate that the long-range transport of particulate pollutants contributes to about 30 g m-3 to the PM10 concentrations in northern and eastern Taiwan. A smaller contribution is estimated for the western plain of Taiwan. Contributions of the long-range transport to CO and SO2 are about 230 and 0.5 ppb, respectively. The identified, dust events have the highest average inflow concentration (about 71 34 g m-3 ) of PM10 . The dust impacts on PM10 have been estimated to be nearly 100% at windward background stations along the north and northeast coast. In the northern cities of Taiwan, such as Taipei and Hsinchu, the impacts decrease to around 60-80% as local emission increase. Due to geographic blocking, a smaller impact is estimated for the western plain of Taiwan. However, the identified frontal pollution cases have significant impact on CO and SO2 , which is more evident than the impact of dust events. In general, impacts of long-range transport on air pollutants at coastal stations are greater than those in urban areas. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2615 A model for vehicle-induced non-tailpipe emissions of particles along Swedish roads Omstedt G., Bringfelt B. and Johansson C. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6088-6097) One of the most important parameters that controls the suspension of road dust particles in the air is road surface moisture. This is calculated every hour from a budget equation that takes into account precipitation, evaporation and runoff. During wet conditions a road dust layer is built up from road wear which strongly depends on the use of studded tyres and road sanding. The dust layer is reduced during dry road conditions by suspension of particles due to vehicle-induced turbulence. The dust layer is also reduced by wash-off due to precipitation. Direct non-tailpipe vehicle emissions due to the wear and tear of the road surface, brakes and tyres are accounted for in the traditional way as constant emission factors expressed as mass emitted per vehicle kilometre. The model results are compared with measurements from both a narrow street canyon in the city centre of Stockholm and from an open highway outside the city. The model is able to account for the main features in the day-today mean PM 10 variability for the street canyon and for the highway. A peak in the PM10 concentration is typically observed in late winter and early spring in the Nordic countries where studded tyres are used. This behaviour is due to a combination of factors: frequent conditions with dry roads, high number of cars with studded tyres and an accumulated road dust layer that increases suspension of particles. The study shows that using a constant emission factor for PM10 or relating PM10 emissions to NOx cannot be used for prediction of day-to-day variations in PM10 concentrations in the traffic environments studied here. The model needs to describe variations in dust load, wetness of the road and how dust suspension interacts with these processes. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2616 Exotic dust incursions into central Spain: Implications for legislative controls on atmospheric particulates Moreno T., Querol X., Alastuey A. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6109-6120) The area of Castilla-La Mancha in central Spain is repeatedly visited by mineral dust incursions from the deserts of NW Africa. Such exotic atmospheric intrusions raise background PM10 levels, making urban areas much more likely to exceed daily limits of 50 g m-3 and become subject to fines under European environmental law. Data from a 3-year (2001-2003) study of hourly PM10 values demonstrate that average background dust levels in remote sites rise from 6-8 g m-3 when Atlantic-derived W/SW winds are blowing, to 24-7 g m-3 when African events take place. In four Castilla-La Mancha towns, numbers of exceedence days (ED: when PM 10 >50 g m-3 ) per year averaged 31 in Guadalajara (suburban site with annual daily PM10 average ADPM10 =27 g m-3 ), 68 in Toledo (ADPM10 =38 g m-3 ) and 139 in Albacete (ADPM10 =47 g m-3 ; both urban sites), and 151 in Puertollano (industrial urban site with ADPM10 =51 g m-3 ). Thirty-four percent of ED occurred during African dust incursions, and current law allows exclusion of such days from annual data (which also reduces the ADPM10 by 2-4 g m-3 ). Rather than simply excluding such days, a more scientifically satisfactory approach would be to allow subtraction of the estimated component of exotic background dust present daily at every urban monitoring station, and thus identify towns subject to high levels of locally derived anthropogenic PM10 . Such an approach reduces ADPM10 values by the same amount as above (2-4 g m-3 ) if only African-derived PM10 values (as measured at remote background stations) are subtracted, although
ED shows a relative increase. If, however, an attempt is made to estimate and subtract the total amount of exotic PM10 (i.e. not just African non-locally derived) at the four sites, this reduces the ADPM10 by 8-12 g m-3 , and
ED also drops significantly. Whichever approach is adopted, however, our data confirm that the legally allowable number of ED is far more strict than the annual limit value. This inconsistency will make it especially difficult for many southern European towns, with their abundant dry dust resuspension and regular incursions of African dust, to achieve PM exceedence targets in 2005. We argue that further refinement METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY of aerosol pollution law is necessary to ensure that penalties for exceeding legally acceptable levels of atmospheric particulates are scientifically well founded and fair. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2617 A new air quality regime classification scheme for O3 , NO 2 , SO2 and PM10 observations sites Flemming J., Stern R. and Yamartino R.J. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6121-6129) The paper presents an objective air quality classification scheme for observed ozone (O3 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) and particulate matter (PM10) time series in Germany. The classification is based on the medians of daily average concentration and relative daily variation. Six (O3 and NO2 ) and five (SO2 and PM10) different regimes were identified by means of hierarchical clustering. The stability of the clusters in relation to variable scaling and transformation was ensured by a crossvalidation test based on re-sampling. Quick classification rules were developed, which permit a rapid and easy classification of any further observed or modelled annual time series. The climatological properties of the defined regimes were examined in terms of the mean and maximum values, as well as inter-annual, yearly, weekly and daily variability. The polluted regimes are characterised by a pronounced weekly cycle. O3 and NO2 classifications agree reasonably well for most stations, but the range of SO2 and PM10 concentrations is large within specific O3 regimes. 2618 Modelling of air pollution on a military airfield Brzozowski K. and Kotlarz W. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6130-6139) The paper presents a numerical study of exhaust emission and pollutant dispersion of carbon monoxide on a military airfield. Investigations have been carried out for typical conditions of aircraft usage in the Polish Air Force Academy in De¸blin. Two different types of aircraft have been taken into account. One of them is an MI-2 helicopter, the second is a TS-11 plane. Both are used in military pilot education in Poland. Exhaust emission of CO from those aircrafts has been obtained in an experiment carried out on an engine test stand. CO concentrations have been calculated for different meteorological conditions (averaged from 5 years observations) and selected conditions of aircraft use. The finite volume method has been used to discretise the equation describing the process of pollutant dispersion. In addition, the two-cycle decomposition method has been employed to solve the set of ordinary differential equations of the first order obtained after discretisation of the advection-diffusion equation. A meteorological pre-processor, based on relationships resulting from the Monin-Obukhov theory, is used to define eddy diffusivity and the profile of air speed in the lower layer of the atmosphere. In the paper, the computer model and calculated average concentration of CO in the De¸blin airfield during typical flights are presented. The goal of the computational analysis is to predict CO pollution level in the workplace of aircraft service personnel. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2619 Origin of particulate matter pollution episodes in wintertime over the Paris Basin Bessagnet B., Hodzic A., Blanchard O. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6159-6174) Several wintertime pollution events due to particulate matter on the Paris Basin in 2003 are investigated in this paper. Highpressure systems close to Scandinavia or the North Sea involve highly stable conditions with slight Northeasterly flux on France leading to high airborne pollutant concentrations. An evaluation of the CHIMERE model results against observations over the Paris area is proposed. While PM10 , nitrate and ammonium seem fairly well reproduced, sulfate concentrations remain difficult to predict. A specific study, by removing Ile-de-France emissions, displays on 21 February and 21 March episodes an important ammonium nitrate contribution, mainly originating from outside the Paris area. According to the model results, the Paris Basin has also a large influence up to the Southwest of France. In a similar way, an investigation of the possible sources outside the Paris basin, displays a strong influence of emissions from Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium during these episodes. To a lesser extent, Italy has an influence on the Paris area at the end of the 497 episodes. It is also demonstrated that in some situations, the contribution of locally produced or emitted particles is prevalent at the ground level. The influence of French emissions is also studied from 20 to 25 March displaying an influence on Spain and a strong impact at the end of the episode successively on Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands when winds veer Southeast and West. This influence is also significant up to Eastern Europe. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2620 The Washington aerial spray drift study: Modeling pesticide spray drift deposition from an aerial application Tsai M.- Y., Elgethun K., Ramaprasad J. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6194-6203) A routinely scheduled aerial organophosphorus pesticide application of methamidophos in central Washington State was monitored in the summer of 2002. The sprayed potato crop surrounded a rural agricultural community where residences were within 200 meters of the sprayed fields. Modeling pesticide spray drift is critical for exposure assessment of the residential population. Herein the objective is to model spray drift deposition with regard to model selection, calibration, and prediction for a particular application event. The US Environmental Protection Agency’s Fugitive Dust Model (FDM) was chosen for its flexibility in terms of both inputs and outputs. Model calibration was accomplished by varying the aerosol size distribution in comparison with collected deposition samples and locating the minimum relative bias measure. From the calibrated model, a map of total pesticide deposition within the community indicated spray drift occurring despite adherence to general precautionary pesticide application guidelines. The calibrated model also provided 15min time-resolved deposition images over the 5-h application period. These time-resolved maps revealed that actual community deposition occurred in only 2 of the 20 time periods when the source, due to the changing wind, was oriented towards the community. Despite the limitations of FDM in modeling a liquid aerosol, the calibration of the model to samplers located in the areas of interest allows it to serve as a potential tool for conducting exposure assessment within the community. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2621 Identification of local sources of lead in atmospheric deposits in an urban area in Southern Brazil using stable lead isotope ratios Mirlean N., Robinson D., Kawashita K. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6204-6212) Lead concentrations of several thousand mg kg-1 were found in the atmospheric deposit samples and tens of thousand mg kg-1 in the soil samples in the city of Rio Grande in southern Brazil. Stable lead isotopes ratios were used to identify local sources of lead contamination. A significant source of lead in samples taken in a nearby fishing village was the production of lead weights by local fishermen. In suburban areas of the city lead used in roof construction, appears to be a major source of lead in atmospheric samples. Atmospheric samples obtained in the oldest part of the city, show anomalous lead results possibly due to lead paint from abandoned buildings. Sources of lead were differentiated on the basis of their 206 Pb/207 Pb and 208 Pb/207 Pb ratio. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2622 A critical assessment of shrinkage-based regression approaches for estimating the adverse health effects of multiple air pollutants Roberts S. and Martin M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6223-6230) Most investigations of the adverse health effects of multiple air pollutants analyse the time series involved by simultaneously entering the multiple pollutants into a Poisson log-linear model. Concerns have been raised about this type of analysis, and it has been stated that new methodology or models should be developed for investigating the adverse health effects of multiple air pollutants. In this paper, we introduce the use of the lasso for this purpose and compare its statistical properties to those of ridge regression and the Poisson log-linear model. Ridge regression has been used in time series analyses on the adverse health effects of multiple air pollutants but its properties for this purpose have not been investigated. A series of simulation studies was used to 498 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY compare the performance of the lasso, ridge regression, and the Poisson log-linear model. In these simulations, realistic mortality time series were generated with known air pollution mortality effects permitting the performance of the three models to be compared. Both the lasso and ridge regression produced more accurate estimates of the adverse health effects of the multiple air pollutants than those produced using the Poisson log-linear model. This increase in accuracy came at the expense of increased bias. Ridge regression produced more accurate estimates than the lasso, but the lasso produced more interpretable models. The lasso and ridge regression offer a flexible way of obtaining more accurate estimation of pollutant effects than that provided by the standard Poisson log-linear model. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2623 The air quality impact of cordon and distance based road user charging: An empirical study of Leeds, UK Mitchell G., Namdeo A. and Milne D. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6231-6242) Traffic assignment, pollutant emission and dispersion models were applied to a major UK city so as to assess the air quality impacts of five road pricing schemes. Schemes were evaluated with reference to: exceedence of air quality standards for six pollutants; greenhouse gas emission; redistribution of pollution, an environmental justice concern; and road network performance as traffic speed and trip distance. Results were compared to alternatives of do nothing, network development and clean fuel promotion. The air quality benefits of a modest distance-based charge are highlighted. However, whilst road pricing shows potential as an air quality management tool, its value and suitability are strongly sensitive to prior air quality and emission source apportionment in the application city. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2624 Modeling wind-blown desert dust in the southwestern United States for public health warning: A case study Yin D., Nickovic S., Barbaris B. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/33 (6243-6254) A model for simulating desert dust cycle was adapted and applied for a dust storm case in the southwest United States (US). This is an initial test of the model’s capability as part of a future public health early warning system. The modeled meteorological fields, which drive a dust storm, were evaluated against surface and upper-air measurement data. The modeled dust fields were compared with satellite images, in situ surface PM2.5 and PM10 data, and visibility data in the areas affected by the dust event. The model predicted meteorological fields reasonably well. The modeled surface and upper-air field patterns were in agreement with the measured ones. The vertical profiles of wind, temperature, and humidity followed closely with the observed profiles. Statistical analyses of modeled and observed meteorological variables at surface sites showed fairly good model performance. The modeled dust spatial distributions were comparable with the satellite-observed dust clouds and the reduced visibility patterns. Most encouragingly, the model-predicted and observed PM2.5 peak hours matched reasonably well. The model produced better PM2.5 peak hours than PM10 peak hours. The temporal varying trends of daily and hourly PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations at most of the measurement sites were similar to those observed. Discrepancies between the values of the modeled and the measured surface PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations differed with time and location. Sometimes the modeled and measured concentrations can have one order of magnitude differences. These revealed there were possible deficiencies in the simulation of the dust production strength and location, and the representation of dust particle size in the modeling. Better land surface data and size representation of the dust production are expected to further improve model performance. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2625 Influence of local human population on atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations Hafner W.D., Carlson D.L. and Hites R.A. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7374-7379) Literature values of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations from sampling sites around the world were found, and using a high-resolution human population grid, the population within a 25-km radius of each sampling site was calculated. A regression of concentration vs population revealed much about PAH concentration differences among regions as well as site locations within a continent. The best fit for the regression was for sampling locations in North America. A small amount of scatter was present for the regression of all developed countries indicating slight differences in emission regulations or energy usage. The regression from this plot was used as a benchmark for the expected relationship between PAHs and human population. Sites located within 25 km of a coast tended to have concentrations lower than expected, due to dilution with clean ocean air, while sites near industrial outputs or other point sources had higher than expected concentrations. Sites from developing countries typically had PAH concentrations that were far higher than those of the rest of the world. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2626 A novel method for determination of size-resolved, submicrometer particle traffic emission factors Janh¨all S. and Hallquist M. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7609-7615) A novel approach to determine size-segregated particle number emission factors for traffic is presented. It was proven that using limited data sets (800-2000 samples) statistically significant emission factors from road traffic can be extracted. In this study data from four sites were used for calculating emission factors (rural and urban roadside, urban rooftop, and urban background). The measurements were performed using SMPS/DMPS (scanning or differential particle sizers) from TSI and commercial gas analyzers. Describing the particle concentration as a ratio to an exhaust trace gas, e.g. NO x , the dilution effect will be minimized. This ratio is easily compared among different studies. By knowledge of the emission factor of the chosen trace gas the emission ratio can be converted to an emission factor for particle numbers of defined particle sizes. For the presented method only one measurement site is needed, where the difference between high and low (background) traffic exposure is used. To define high and low traffic exposure, the best result was obtained using high ratio of [NO] to [NO2 ] and low [NOx ], respectively. Emission ratios for 10-100-nm particles at two road sites, one high-speed 90-kmph rural case and one urban, slower, and more congested situation, were determined to (35 15)  10 14 and (24 8)  1014 particles per mole NOx , respectively. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2627 Emissions of toxic pollutants from compressed natural gas and low sulfur diesel-fueled heavy-duty transit buses tested over multiple driving cycles Kado N.Y., Okamoto R.A., Kuzmicky P.A. et al. Environmental Science and Technology 2005 39/19 (7638-7649) The number of heavy-duty vehicles using alternative fuels such as compressed natural gas (CNG) and new low-sulfur diesel fuel formulations and equipped with after-treatment devices are projected to increase. However, few peer-reviewed studies have characterized the emissions of particulate matter (PM) and other toxic compounds from these vehicles. In this study, chemical and biological analyses were used to characterize the identifiable toxic air pollutants emitted from both CNG and low-sulfurdiesel-fueled heavy-duty transit buses tested on a chassis dynamometer over three transient driving cycles and a steady-state cruise condition. The CNG bus had no after-treatment, and the diesel bus was tested first equipped with an oxidation catalyst (OC) and then with a catalyzed diesel particulate filter (DPF). Emissions were analyzed for PM, volatile organic compounds (VOCs; determined onsite), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and mutagenic activity. The 2000 model year CNG-fueled vehicle had the highest emissions of 1,3-butadiene, benzene, and carbonyls (e.g., formaldehyde) of the three vehicle configurations tested in this study. The 1998 model year diesel bus equipped with an OC and fueled with low-sulfur diesel had the highest emission rates of PM and PAHs. The highest specific mutagenic activities (revertants/g PM, or potency) and the highest mutagen emission rates (revertants/mi) were from the CNG bus in strain TA98 tested over the New York Bus (NYB) driving cycle. The 1998 model year diesel bus with DPF had the lowest VOCs, PAH, and mutagenic activity emission. In general, the NYB driving cycle had the highest emission rates (g/mi), and the METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) had the lowest emission rates for all toxics tested over the three transient test cycles investigated. Also, transient emissions were, in general, higher than steady-state emissions. The emissions of toxic compounds from an in- use CNG transit bus (without an oxidation catalyst) and from a vehicle fueled with low-sulfur diesel fuel (equipped with DPF) were lower than from the low-sulfur diesel fueled vehicle equipped with OC. All vehicle configurations had generally lower emissions of toxics than an uncontrolled diesel engine. Tunnel backgrounds (measurements without the vehicle running) were measured throughout this study and were helpful in determining the incremental increase in pollutant emissions. Also, the on-site determination of VOCs, especially 1,3-butadiene, helped minimize measurement losses due to sample degradation after collection. © 2005 American Chemical Society. 2628 Influence of regional pollution outflow on the concentrations of fine particulate matter and visibility in the coastal area of southern China Cheung H.- C., Wang T., Baumann K. and Guo H. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/34 (6463-6474) The Pearl River Delta (PRD) is a fast developing region in China that has experienced serious air pollution. In this study, we present the measurement results of fine particulate matter (PM2.5 ) mass, major ions, and carbonaceous concentrations at a rural site in southern PRD during November to December 2002. The aims of this study are to characterize the temporal variation of PM2.5 mass and chemical composition in winter, which is typically a season of high pollution, and to estimate the contribution of sources from PRD inland and coastal cities (Hong Kong and Shenzhen) on the levels of fine particles observed in the downwind area. The average concentration of 24-h PM2.5 filter samples (N=24) was 41.3 ( 17.1) g m -3 ( standard deviation), with the concentration of individual samples ranging from 10.1 to 89.9 g m-3 . Particulate organic matter (POM) and non-sea-salt sulfate (nss-SO24 ) were the major components of PM2.5 accounting for 42% and 25% of the total mass, respectively. Examination of the ratio of secondary organic carbon to total organic carbon suggests that approximately 34% of organic carbon was of secondary origin. The temporal variations of PM2.5 concentrations were strongly influenced by synoptic wind flow. The regional outflows from PRD inland and coastal cities made significant contributions to the ambient concentrations in the study site, which accounted for 48-57% for PM 2.5 , 66-72% for POM, and 18-20% for nss-SO24 , respectively. An application of a formula developed in the IMPROVE study showed that POM accounted for 44%, 42% and 22% of the light extinction under northeasterly, northerly, and easterly winds, respectively, whereas ammonium sulfate contributed 45%, 47%, and 70%, respectively. This highlights the significance of fine sulfate in visibility impairment in region with humid climates. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2629 Measuring and simulating atmospheric concentration trends of polychlorinated biphenyls in the Northern Hemisphere Hung H., Sum C.L., Wania F. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6502-6512) Temporal trend analysis of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) air concentration data measured in the Canadian Arctic and around the Great Lakes in the 1990s has shown that individual PCB congeners decline at different rates in air. The atmospheric decline rate of the same congener also varied from site to site. To determine whether these site-specific variations in atmospheric trends of PCB concentrations are controlled by changes in primary emissions or various removal processes in the environment (transfer to deep sea, freshwater sediment burial, reaction with OH radicals, degradation in media other than air), the measured trends are compared to those simulated by a zonally averaged global fate and transport model using historical emission estimates and realistic and hypothetical environmental scenarios. The modelled decline rates of a specific congener in both the North Polar and the North Temperate zones are similar and mimic closely those of the historical emission estimates fed into the model, suggesting that the rate of decline of PCB air concentrations during the 1990s was mostly driven by declines in primary emission. This implies that measured air concentration data reflect primary PCB emissions 499 as long as these continue. Under the assumption that primary emission completely ceased after 2001, the model predicted that the terrestrial surface media would eventually become the only major global PCB reservoir, and the rate of concentration decline in air then depends solely on that in soil. Also, primary emissions and volatilization from soil, respectively, are the primary input to the atmosphere before and after primary emissions stopped. The model further illustrates that even during periods when primary emissions still dominate PCB air concentrations temperaturedriven cycles of air/surface exchange may be observed. Large scale re-distribution of PCBs by the grass-hopper effect can thus also occur while primary emissions are still dominant. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2630 Evaluation of an integrated modelling system containing a multi-layer perceptron model and the numerical weather prediction model HIRLAM for the forecasting of urban airborne pollutant concentrations Niska H., Rantam¨aki M., Hiltunen T. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6524-6536) In this paper, a multi-layer perceptron (MLP) model and the Finnish variant of the numerical weather prediction model HIRLAM (High Resolution Limited Area Model) were integrated and evaluated for the forecasting in time of urban pollutant concentrations. The forecasts of the combination of the MLP and HIRLAM models are compared with the corresponding forecasts of the MLP models that utilise meteorologically pre-processed input data. A novel input selection method based on the use of a multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) is applied in conjunction with the sensitivity analysis to reduce the excessively large number of potential meteorological input variables; its use improves the performance of the MLP model. The computed air quality forecasts contain the sequential hourly time series of the concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5 ) from May 2000 to April 2003; the corresponding concentrations have also been measured at two urban air quality stations in Helsinki. The results obtained with the MLP models that use HIRLAM forecasts show fairly good overall agreement for both pollutants. The model performance is substantially better, when the HIRLAM forecasts are used, compared with those obtained both using either HIRLAM analysis data or meteorological pre-processor, for both pollutants. The performance of the currently widely used statistical forecasting methods (such as those based on neural networks) could therefore be significantly improved by using the forecasts of NWP models, instead of the conventionally utilised directly measured or meteorological pre-processed input data. However, the performance of all operational models considered is relatively worse in the course of air pollution episodes. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2631 Study of the profile of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in atmospheric particles (PM10 ) using multivariate methods Dallarosa J.B., Teixeira E.C., Pires M. and Fachel J. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6587-6596) The scope of the present study is to identify and quantify the main sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Candiota region, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Four sampling sites at a distance of 50 km from the emission source were selected: Acegu´a, Aeroporto, 8 de Agosto and Pedras Altas. Samples were collected from February 2001 to October 2001, using an HV PM 10 sampler for high volumes during a continuous period of 24 h every 15 days. The filters containing the particulate matter were extracted with dichloromethane in soxhlet and later analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The average concentrations of PAHs varied from 0.051 to 1.791 ng m-3 . The analysis of their distribution amongst the main emission sources was done through the diagnosis of concentration ratios of PAHs, as well as using statistical methods like factor analysis. The statistical analysis separated the 13 compounds studied in 3 Factors, grouping under Factor 1 emissions from the combustion of coal and wood, under Factor 2 vehicular emissions from the combustion of diesel oil and gasoline and under Factor 3 emissions from unburned diesel oil and gasoline. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 500 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2632 Emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from combustion of agricultural and sylvicultural debris Conde F.J., Ayala J.H., Afonso A.M. and Gonz´alez V. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6654-6663) In this work, 28 parent and substituted-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been quantified in 76 smoke samples produced by burning pine wood, pine needles, prickly pear and almond skin using two different kinds of combustion devices. The results show a great variability in the total concentrations of the PAHs, while their proportions in the different samples are practically independent of the type of biomass that is burned. Just a few PAHs with low molecular weight - naphthalene, 1and 2-methylnaphthalene, acenaphthylene and phenanthrene are the most common in the different smoke samples, representing between 61% and 72% of the total. The high correlation coefficients between naphthalene and the total concentrations of PAHs, or between naphthalene and the concentrations of PAHs grouped by number of rings, demonstrate that all combustion processes studied are equally affected by the variables that regulate those processes. The results underscore the important role that naphthalene plays in the formation of higher molecular weight PAHs by pyrosynthesis and show that the naphthalene concentration can be used as an indicator of the total hydrocarbons content in the smoke. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. mostly utilized as roadside trees. They were fumigated with NO2 at 0.1 l l-1 for 8 h, and the amount of reduced nitrogen derived from NO2 (in mg N g-1 dry weight) in the leaves (designated NO2 assimilation capability hereafter) were determined. Data were analyzed in the comparison with the previously reported ones obtained at 4 l l-1 NO2 . Among the 70 taxa, the value of NO2 assimilation capability differed by a factor of 122 between the highest (Prunus yedoensis; 0.061) and the lowest (Cryptomeria japonica; 0.0005). Based on the analysis of NO2 assimilation capability values at 0.1 and 4  l-1 NO2 , the 70 taxa of woody plants appeared to be classified into four types; those of high NO2 assimilation and high NO2 resistance, those of high NO2 assimilation but low NO2 resistance, those of low NO2 assimilation and low NO2 resistance, and those of low NO2 assimilation but high NO2 resistance. The first, second, third and fourth types include 13, 11, 35 and 11 taxa, respectively. The broad-leaf deciduous trees may have advantages of high biomass and fast growth as compared with woody plants of other habits. Thus, four broad-leaf deciduous species, Robinia pseudo-acacia, Sophora japonica, Populus nigra and Prunus lannesiana, were concluded here to be the best phytoremediators for the urban air. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2633 Emissions of fine particles, NOx , and CO from on-road vehicles in Finland Yli- Tuomi T., Aarnio P., Pirjola L. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/35 (6696-6706) Real-time particle number size distributions and NO, NO2 , NOx , CO, and CO2 concentrations were measured with a mobile laboratory van in October 2003 on the streets and highways of the Helsinki metropolitan area, Finland. A bimodal particle size distribution was observed with about 85% of the particles being smaller than 29 nm. Real-time fuel-based emission factors for size-resolved particle numbers, CO, and NO x were determined. Wide distributions of emission factors were obtained for all pollutants. In addition, PM2.5 samples were collected and the elemental compositions were analysed. Relative to fixed site urban PM2.5 , street air PM2.5 concentrations of Cu, BC, Fe, and Zn were elevated. Weather and road conditions influenced PM concentrations more than the differences between the city and highway traffic environments. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2636 Decrease of atmospheric deposition of heavy metals in an urban area from 1994 to 2002 (Paris, France) Azimi S., Rocher V., Garnaud S. et al. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (645-651) Total atmospheric deposition, i.e. both wet and dry ones, was sampled during three different sampling periods between 1994 and 2002. The aim of this study is to determine the temporal variation of the atmospheric deposition fluxes of four heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) in an urban area (Paris region, France). The global pattern shows a decrease of the fluxes for most of elements during this period. Indeed, the atmospheric deposition fluxes measured in 2001-2002 were lower than those measured during the 1994-1997 period by factors reaching 16, 2.5, 4 and 7.5 at Cr´eteil and 7, 1, 6 and 4.5 at Chatou for Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn, respectively. At the Paris site, the decreasing factors were 2.5 and 3 for Cd and Pb, respectively while Cu and Zn fluxes were nearly similar during the whole studied period. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2634 Temporal variations of PM2.5 in the ambient air of a suburban site in Athens, Greece Vassilakos Ch., Saraga D., Maggos Th. et al. Science of the Total Environment 2005 349/1-3 (223-231) Twenty-three hour measurements of PM2.5 particulate matter have been carried out during the period between the 1st April and the 13th November 2003 in a suburban area of Athens. The monitoring site was located in the National Research Center "DEMOKRITOS", on the foot of Hemittos Mountain and about 12 km away from the center of Athens. The site covers an area of 600 acres in a forest of pine trees close enough to the newly constructed Hemittos Mountain peripheral highway. PM2.5 samples were collected on 47 mm filters, with the use of low volume gravimetric samplers while a meteorological station recorded meteorological data 6 m above the ground, nearby the sampling instrumentation. The daily average PM2.5 concentration reached 21.1 g m-3 and all measurements were below U.S. Environmental Pollution Agency daily limit (65 g m-3 ). A regression analysis was used to investigate the relationship among PM 2.5 concentrations and meteorological parameters. Additionally, PM2.5 mass concentrations were correlated with other inorganic gaseous pollutants (O3 , NO, NO2 , SO2 ) while weekly and seasonal PM2.5 variations were also investigated. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2635 Differential assimilation of nitrogen dioxide by 70 taxa of roadside trees at an urban pollution level Takahashi M., Higaki A., Nohno M. et al. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (633-639) In order to screen for the best species for mitigating nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) by plants at urban levels, we investigated assimilation of nitrogen dioxide by 70 taxa of woody plants that are 15 N-labeled 2637 Chemical characterization of extractable water soluble matter associated with PM10 from Mexico City during 2000 Guti´errez- Castillo M.E., Olivos- Ortiz M., De Vizcaya- Ruiz A. and Cebri´an M.E. Chemosphere 2005 61/5 (701-710) We report the chemical composition of PM10 -associated watersoluble species in Mexico City during the second semester of 2000. PM 10 samples were collected at four ambient air quality monitoring sites in Mexico City. We determined soluble ions (chloride, nitrate, sulfate, ammonium, sodium, potassium), ionizable transition metals (Zn, Fe, Ti, Pb, Mn, V, Ni, Cr, Cu) and soluble protein. The higher PM10 levels were observed in Xalostoc (45-174 g m-3 ) and the lowest in Pedregal (19-54 g m-3 ). The highest SO2 average concentrations were observed in Tlalnepantla, NO2 in Merced and O3 and NOx in Pedregal. The concentration range of soluble sulfate was 6.7-7.9 and 19-25.5 g m-3 for ammonium, and 14.8-29.19 for soluble V and 3.2-7.7 ng m-3 for Ni, suggesting a higher contribution of combustion sources. PM-associated soluble protein levels varied between 0.038 and 0.169 mg m-3 , representing a readily inhalable constituent that could contribute to adverse outcomes. The higher levels for most parameters studied were observed during the cold dry season, particularly in December. A richer content of soluble metals was observed when they were expressed by mass/mass units rather than by air volume units. Significant correlations between Ni-V, Ni-SO4-2, V-SO4-2, V-SO2 , Ni-SO2 suggest the same type of emission source. The variable soluble metal and ion concentrations were strongly influenced by the seasonal meteoclimatic conditions and the differential contribution of emission sources. Our data support the idea that PM10 mass concentration by itself does not provide a clear understanding of a local PM air pollution problem. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2638 Data assimilation for short range atmospheric dispersion of radionuclides: A case study of second-order sensitivity Qu´elo D., Sportisse B. and Isnard O. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2005 84/3 (393-408) This article presents the application of variational data assimilation to a simple Gaussian plume model for radionuclides. Adjoint modeling is applied to the model in order to minimize discrepancies between contamination observations and model outputs. The interest of such an approach is to get a better estimation of some parameters such as emissions or dispersion parameters. A second-order analysis is also performed to assess the sensitivity of the optimized parameters to some poorly known parameters. Sensitivity with respect to network design is also done. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2639 Characterization of non-methane volatile organic compounds at swine facilities in eastern North Carolina Blunden J., Aneja V.P. and Lonneman W.A. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6707-6718) Samples were collected and analyzed in a field study to characterize C 2 -C12 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted at five swine facilities in Eastern North Carolina between April 2002 and February 2003. Two sites employed conventional lagoon and field spray technologies, while three sites utilized various alternative waste treatment technologies in an effort to substantially reduce gaseous compound emissions, odor, and pathogens from these swine facilities. More than 100 compounds, including various paraffins, olefins, aromatics, ethers, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, halogenated hydrocarbons, phenols, and sulfides were positively identified and quantified by Gas Chromatographic/Flame Ionization Detection (GC/FID) analysis and confirmed by Gas Chromatographic/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). GC/MS analysis of one particularly complex sample collected assisted in providing identification and retention times for 17 sulfur-type VOCs including dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide as well as many other VOCs. Highest VOC concentration levels measured at each of the facilities were near the hog barn ventilation fans. Total measured VOCs at the hog barns were typically dominated by oxygenated hydrocarbons (HCs), i.e., ethanol, methanol, acetaldehyde, and acetone. These compounds, in addition to other oxygenated VOCs measured at the various sites, generally represented
37-73% of net total measured VOCs that were emitted from the hog barns at the various sites. Dimethyl sulfide and dimethyl disulfide, both recognized as malodorous compounds, were determined to have higher concentration levels at the barns than the background at every farm sampled with the exception of one farm during the warm sampling season. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2640 Fine particle emission profile for a large coke production facility based on highly time-resolved fence line measurements Weitkamp E.A., Lipsky E.M., Pancras P.J. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6719-6733) This paper presents a fine particle emission profile for a large metallurgical coke production facility. The profile is developed from highly time-resolved, ambient air quality measurements made at a fence line site adjacent to the plant. A fence line approach was employed because the coke plant has hundreds of stacks and other emission points, making it difficult to develop an integrated, facility-wide emission profile using stack sampling techniques. Continuous or semi-continuous measurements of PM2.5 mass, PM10 mass, SO2 , NOx , organic and elemental carbon (OC and EC), particle size and number, 11 trace metals, wind direction and wind speed were made. Background pollutant levels were also measured. A combination of highly time-resolved meteorology and air quality data were used to determine when the coke facility emissions influenced the sampling site. Concentrations for most pollutants at the fence line site were one to two orders of magnitude higher than background levels when the facility plume heavily influenced the fence line site. Highly time-resolved measurements are essential to resolve these relatively short-duration, large spikes in pollutant concentrations. Simply measuring wind direction is insufficient. From these highly time-resolved measurements an average PM2.5 emission profile for the coke facility was developed. The profile is dominated by OC (40% 9% of PM2.5 mass emissions) and EC (25% 5% of 501 PM2.5 mass emissions). Significant contributions of certain trace metals were also observed, including As, Zn, Se, and Pb. The particle emissions are dominated by the fine fraction, with PM2.5 estimated to contribute 84% 14% of the PM10 mass. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2641 Local and transported pollution over San Diego, California Luria M., Tanner R.L., Valente R.J. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6765-6776) Ten air-quality samplings flights were performed over the San Diego metropolitan area during July 2003. One of the objectives of these flights was to assess the contribution of the offshore pollution sources (civilian and military vessels) to the air quality in the region. The flights, which took place during the midday hours in the lower levels of the boundary layer, originated offshore and proceeded eastwards through a series of concentric arcs covering an area of approximately 600 km2 . The data from the continuous gas analyzers were translated to image plots that enabled the determination of the impact of the various sources on air quality. The results revealed that the offshore sources could often be detected (at least during five of the 10 flights) from their SO2 plume. However, the area covered by these plumes and the concentrations were significantly lower than those measured over other parts of the domain due to sources south of the region. It was further observed that vehicular traffic contributed in a major source way to the formation of ozone. During most flights the pollution cloud, originating over the high traffic area in the vicinity of the downtown area, could be tracked ‘ownwind’ until the completion of the photochemical processing. By then, most of the NOX had been converted to NOZ , and peak O3 levels caused by the local emissions had started to ebb. Also, during most flights boundary layer peak levels of O3 exceeded 100 ppbv, and in one case were above 140 ppbv. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2642 On-road remote sensing of diesel vehicle emissions measurement and emission factors estimation in Hong Kong Chan T.L. and Ning Z. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6843-6856) In the present study, the real world on-road diesel vehicle emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and nitric oxide (NO) were investigated at nine sites in Hong Kong. A regression analysis approach based on the measured vehicle emission data was used to estimate the on-road diesel vehicle emission factors of CO, HC and NO with respect to the effects of instantaneous vehicle speed and acceleration/deceleration profiles for local urban driving patterns. The results show that the diesel vehicle model years, engine sizes, vehicle types and driving patterns have a strong correlation with their emission factors. A comparison was made between the average diesel and petrol vehicle emissions factors in Hong Kong. The deviation of the average emission factors of aggregate diesel vehicles reflects the variability of local road condition, vehicle traffic fleet and volume, driving pattern, fuel composition and ambient condition etc. Finally, a unique database of the correlation of diesel vehicle emission factors (i.e., g km-1 and g l-1 ) on different model years and vehicle types for urban driving patterns in Hong Kong was established. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2643 Health risks of NO2 , SPM and SO2 in Delhi (India) Pandey J.S., Kumar R. and Devotta S. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6868-6874) There is increasingly growing evidence linking urban air pollution to acute and chronic illnesses amongst all age groups. Therefore, monitoring of ambient concentrations of various air pollutants as well as quantification of the dose inhaled becomes quite important, specially in view of the fact that in many countries, policy decisions for reducing pollutant concentrations are mainly taken on the basis of their health impacts. The dose when gets combined with the likely responses, indicates the ultimate health risk (HR). Thus, as an extension of our earlier studies, HR has been estimated for three pollutants, namely, suspended particulate matter (SPM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) and sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) for Delhi City in India. For estimation and analyses, three zones have been considered, namely, residential, industrial and 502 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY commercial. The total population has been divided into three age classes (infants, children and adults) with different body weights and breathing rates. The exercise takes into account age-specific breathing rates, body weights for different age categories and occupancy factors for different zones. Results indicate that health risks due to air pollution in Delhi are highest for children. For all age categories, health risks due to SO2 (HR SO 2 ) are the lowest. Hence, HR SO2 has been taken as the reference with respect to which HR values due to SPM and NO2 have been compared. Taking into account all the age categories and their occupancy in different zones, average HR values for NO2 and SPM turn out to be respectively 22.11 and 16.13 times more than that for SO2 . The present study can be useful in generating public awareness as well as in averting and mitigating the health risks. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2644 The impact of congestion charging on vehicle speed and its implications for assessing vehicle emissions Beevers S.D. and Carslaw D.C. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/36 (6875-6884) Previous analysis of London’s congestion charging scheme (CCS) has shown that changes in vehicle speed are an important factor in reducing vehicle emissions. Therefore, a detailed investigation of network average vehicle speed in both central and inner London has been undertaken using a combination of the non-parametric Wilcoxon sign ranks test and a method for calculating the cumulative difference between mean speeds preand post-CCS, or cumulative sum (CUSUM) analysis. Within the charging zone (CZ), the Wilcoxon test has shown that the difference in speed between pre- and post-CCS periods has increased on average by 2.1 km h-1 and that these changes are significant at the p=0.05 level. The CUSUM analysis has provided evidence of the timing of this change in mean speed in the CZ and this agrees well with the introduction of the CCS on the 17 February 2003. In combination, these results provide compelling evidence that the introduction of congestion charging has significantly increased vehicle speed in the CZ and by comparison with the results in inner London, that these changes are not part of a wider trend. To examine one impact of this change we used an instantaneous emissions model, the Vehicle Transient Emissions Simulation Software, to undertake a comparison between the change in vehicle emissions associated with changing driving characteristics, between pre- and post-charging periods, and those associated with a change in average speed. The analysis was limited to three vehicle types: a Euro II LGV, a Euro III diesel car and a Euro IV petrol car, but showed that driving characteristics in central London have a relatively small effect on emissions of NOX and CO2 compared with the average vehicle speed. However, for PM 10 emissions from the Euro II LGV the opposite was found and for this vehicle the driving characteristics were more important than the average speed in estimating exhaust emissions. For this vehicle, emissions increased between pre- and post-CCS periods by 4%. For the Euro IV petrol car NOX emissions also increased by 6% between pre- and post-CCS periods. These findings will help to further understand the extent to which congestion charging reduces vehicle emissions in London. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2645 Air pollution forecast in Portugal: A demand from the new air quality framework directive Monteiro A., Lopes M., Miranda A.I. et al. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (4-15) This work aims at developing and validating a numerical air quality operational forecasting system that will be applied over Portugal. The CHIMERE model was chosen for the chemistrytransport simulation using the meteorological parameters supplied by the MM5 mesoscale meteorological model, forced by the AVN/NCEP global forecasts. An experiment of 48-hour realtime forecast simulations was performed, on a daily basis, during the four summer months of 2003. The numerical model system is then evaluated against hourly time series of basic meteorological variables and of ozone and NO2 concentrations, collected in several Portuguese monitoring stations included in meteorological and air quality network. Statistical skill scores are discussed and compared with previous studies. The results point this developed model system as a useful tool that can be used and implemented to anticipate pollution episodes, to local and regional air quality management and for population information purpose. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2646 Characterising uncertainty in plume dispersion models Irwin J.S. and Hanna S.R. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (16-24) For management decisions related to effects of releases of toxic chemicals, it is useful to consider not only the expected or most likely impact of the release, but also the envelope of possible outcomes, the latter of which involves an assessment of the uncertainty in the modelling results. In this paper, we provide quantitative estimates of major sources of uncertainty in plume dispersion modelling and then provide a preliminary assessment of their effects. The sources of uncertainty investigated are wind speed and direction, plume rise, dispersion parameters, and stochastic effects not simulated by dispersion models. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2647 Dispersion modelling of radioactive pollutants: Application of the ‘Demokritos’ Transport code system for Complex Terrain (DETRACT) to the Hanford Purex scenario Andronopoulos S., Davakis E., Gounaris N. et al. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (33-47) The DETRACT computational system, consisting of a meteorological processor and a Lagrangian particles atmospheric dispersion model, is applied to the ‘Hanford Purex Scenario’ - an accidental 3 1/2 days of lasting release of radioactive 131 I from the stack of the Hanford (USA) Purex Chemical Separations Plant (2-5 September 1963) - for evaluation purposes. During the release, the source intensity and the wind direction varied. The variables used for the model evaluation were daily-averaged and time-integrated concentrations in air, according to the available observations. Graphical and statistical means (factor-of-2, of-5 and of-10) were applied for the evaluation. The obtained results (18%, 45%, and 53% for the daily concentrations and 38%, 63%, and 81% for the time-integrated concentrations, respectively) are discussed in view of the computational system suitability for use in complex situations of accidental atmospheric releases of hazardous contaminants, including radioactive pollutants, and its sensitivity to the spatial density of the meteorological observations. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2648 Development of numerical model for dispersion over complicated terrain in the convective boundary layer Kouchi A., Okabayashi K., Yoshikado H. et al. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (48-59) Complicated terrain and atmospheric stability are important factors in the predicting the dispersion of air pollutants. The aim of our study is to develop practical dispersion model for unstable conditions for regulatory use. The numerical model we adopted was a combination of the potential flow model and Lagrangian stochastic dispersion model. In this model, time-mean flow field is solved by the potential flow model and concentration field is calculated by Lagrangian stochastic model by using the flow field from potential model. Wind tunnel experiments simulating gas dispersion in the convective boundary layer were also done. The data sets of turbulent properties and concentrations obtained in the wind tunnel were used for the modification of dispersion model and model validation. Based on the developed model, user-friendly software applicable to dispersion over complicated terrain was also developed. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2649 Parameterisation of dry deposition processes in the surface layer for admixtures with gravity deposition Ganev K. and Yordanov D. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (60-70) It seems that the ‘big leaf’ approach to the dry deposition assessment will be the one followed by the model developers in the near future. The resistance against turbulent transport of the component close to the surface - the aerodynamic resistance is one of the major factors of dry deposition. The most popular parameterisation schemes treat the aerodynamic resistance and the gravity deposition independently, most often by simply adding the gravity deposition velocity. As the gravity deposi- METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY tion modifies the admixture profiles and thus the turbulent fluxes in the Surface Layer (SL). This approach is obviously incorrect. This paper suggests a more general approach, based on the exact solution of the pollution transport (turbulent and gravity deposition) equation in the SL, which provides a correct expression for the aerodynamic resistance and also accounting for the gravity deposition effects. Some results from simple calculations, which demonstrate the importance of a joint treatment of turbulent transport and gravity deposition while calculating the aerodynamic resistance, are also shown in the paper. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2650 Sensitivity of urban dispersion calculations to urban meteorology (COST 715) Fisher B. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (71-79) Generally the worst air pollution occurs in cities. This paper describes the COST 715 programme, which is a European activity supporting scientific exchange and networks on ‘meteorology applied to urban air pollution problems’. For urban pollution assessments one needs the input of pollution near the ground, ‘averaged’ over an area containing a mixture of houses, gardens, streets, etc. The properties of the urban surface vary enormously over very short distances making this difficult. COST 715 has considered most of the available methods. As no single solution to the averaging problem has emerged, computer models with finer grid resolutions are seen as the best way of approaching this complex issue, as well as improving the forecasting of air pollution episodes. The sensitivity and accuracy of air quality predictions to assumptions regarding urban meteorological parameterisations in computer models appear to be hidden by other uncertainties associated with dispersion and emissions within the overall calculation. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2651 Evaluation of dispersion model parameters by dual Doppler lidars over West London, England Middleton D.R. and Davies F. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (80-94) Urban dispersion models have parameters for the turbulence and mixing height. We identify the parameters in meteorological pre-processors, which are, in principle, measurable by pulsed Doppler lidar. This technique measures radial velocity from the Doppler shifted wavelengths of backscattered laser pulses. First results obtained from single and dual lidar operations are described. Using two scanning lidars increases the range of parameters that can be sensed remotely. Scanned Dual Doppler lidar provides a novel remote sensing method for studying the rural-urban interface. Results are presented from a recent field experiment at an airfield site in West London. Results are compared with data from the Met Office operational dispersion model, NAME, a model using numerical weather forecast data. We show three methods for the urban mixing height. The paper concludes by considering the potential merits of dual-lidar remote sensing of urban dispersion model parameters. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2652 Dynamic modelling of transient emissions and concentrations from traffic in street canyons Mensink C., Cosemans G. and Pelkmans L. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (118-130) In the EU 5th framework project DECADE (2001-2003) a new methodology has been developed to calculate in detail the engine power required to drive a given vehicle over any particular route. It includes the rapidly changing (transient) demands placed on the engine, an area that has proved an obstacle to accurate simulations in the past. Together with the associated speed profiles, the actual power demands allow a detailed calculation of emissions and ambient air concentrations in street canyons. This makes the methodology a valuable tool for detailed assessments of the ambient air quality impact of e.g., street design (traffic lights, road bumps, busy crossings), driving patterns, driving behaviour and fleet composition. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 503 2653 A study of heat transfer effects on air pollution dispersion in street canyons by numerical simulations Moussiopoulos N., Ossanli I. and Barmpas P. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (131-144) This study investigated thermal effects on the flow and dispersion of pollutant in urban street canyons. A heating module was introduced into the micro scale model MIMO for describing the thermal exchange between the air in the street and the buildings. Furthermore, the influence of wall temperatures and building shading on the in-street flow and its vertical transport is discussed. Results from numerical simulations that are performed with MIMO are compared with corresponding results from numerical simulations performed with the commercial CFD code CFX-TASCflow. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2654 Parametric study of the dispersion aspects in a streetcanyon area Koutsourakis N., Neofytou P., Venetsanos A.G. and Bartzis J.G. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (155-163) Most modern cities practically consist of street canyons, making monitoring of the level of their pollution an important issue. In this study, a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation of pollutant dispersion was performed for a real, complex-geometry street canyon for various wind directions and speeds. Typical street-canyon effects - like the formation of a longitudinal vortex for wind flow perpendicular to the street axis, or the high concentration levels along the middle of the street for wind flow parallel to the street axis - were observed even in this complex geometry street canyon. Conversely, three dimensional vortices and secondary flows were noticed, resulting in complex flow patterns and pollution hot-spots that proved the important role of CFD in parametric analysis and decision support. The study was performed in order to optimise the positioning of optical pollution measuring instruments inside the canyon area by providing the paths of maximum average concentration. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2655 Evaluation of turbulence from traffic using experimental data obtained in a street canyon Mazzeo N.A. and Venegas L.E. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (164-176) The present study analyses the influence of traffic-produced turbulence (TPT) on CO concentration using full-scale measurements obtained in G¨ottinger Strasse (Hannover, Germany). Cases with airflow within 11.25° from the direction perpendicular to the street axis were used. The values C = Ci-Cb (Ci is concentration measured inside the street canyon and Cb is the background concentration) were plotted against ambient wind speed (U) for different traffic volumes. For windward conditions, the data verified the form C / U-m and for leeward situations, C / (aU2 +6V2 )-1/2 (a is a function of street geometry, b depends on the characteristics of the vehicles and traffic density, V is the average vehicle speed). We obtained empirical expressions for b, for C/C0 (C0 is the concentration ‘without’ the influence of the TPT) and for a critical wind speed (UC ) (which does aU 2C = bV2 ). The ratio C/C0 is 0.71 when U=UC , not depending on the traffic flow. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2656 3D stream and vortexes in the urban canopy layer and transport of motor vehicles exhaust gas Kono H. and Kusunoki K. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (177-190) Wind-tunnel experiments were conducted to investigate the transport of motor vehicle exhaust gas in the vicinity of a street. The stream and the vertical and horizontal vortexes in 2D and 3D street canyons were visualised using smoke. They were recorded by video camera and the transport of the exhaust gas by vortexes was then investigated. The vertical vortex plays a significant role in the vertical exchange between in-canyon flow and outer flow, and transports the exhaust gas outside the street canyons. The horizontal vortexes transport air pollutants to the next intersecting street. The relationships between functions of the vortexes and several assumptions in the Osaka Municipal Government (OMG) volume-source model are discussed. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 504 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2657 Field measurements within a quarter of a city including a street canyon to produce a validation data set Sch¨afer K., Emeis S., Hoffmann H. et al. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (201-216) Air pollutants and meteorological parameters were measured continuously by in situ instruments, path-averaging techniques (up to three DOAS systems), and SODAR inside a street canyon and in the surrounding area of 1 km  1 km (G¨ottinger Strasse in Hanover, Germany) from 2001 until 2003 which are available in the data bank ValiData for validation of microscale models. During three IOPs tracer experiments with a SF6 line source, sampling techniques of up to 15 sites and path-averaging FTIR spectrometry were performed. Concentration measurement results at roof level were anti-correlated with SODAR mixing layer heights, while those inside the street canyon are not. Re-circulation flow patterns inside the street canyon were studied together with corresponding wind tunnel experiments. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2658 Application of atmospheric dispersion models to evaluate population exposure to NO2 concentration in Buenos Aires Venegas L.E. and Mazzeo N.A. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (224-238) Chronic or repeated exposure to low concentrations of NO2 may increase the incidence of respiratory infections especially in the most sensitive persons. Air pollution monitoring data obtained in Buenos Aires City reveal that sometimes NO2 Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) is exceeded. We estimate hourly background concentrations (Ch ) of NOx (expressed as NO2 ) using atmospheric dispersion models and obtain a first evaluation of the possible human exposure to NO2 in the city. This study reveals that 30% of the population (900,000 inhabitants) can be exposed to Ch > AQG during 20-30% of the year and 4% of children and 5.1% of those older than 65 years old can be exposed to this condition for more than 36 consecutive hours. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2659 PM10, CO and NOx concentrations in the Tuhobi´c road tunnel, Croatia ˇ ˇ sovi´c A. and Klai´c Z.B. International JourBeˇsli´c I., Sega K., Siˇ nal of Environment and Pollution 2005 25/1-4 (251-262) Particulate matter (PM10 particle fraction) and trace gases (CO, NO and NO2 ) have been sampled during six weeks in the Tuhobi´c road tunnel, Croatia, whose length is 2140 m. Eight mini portable air samplers (Air Metrics, USA) were placed in the centre of the tunnel at a height of 1.70-m above the ground. PM10 samples were collected on Whatman quartz filters with the diameter of 47 mm, while gases were collected in Tedlar bags. Diurnal variations of pollutant concentrations for weekends and weekdays were determined based on cumulative eight- and fourhour sampling intervals, respectively. Results revealed the dependence of air pollution levels on both, the traffic density and pollution history, i.e., traffic density in times prior to the time interval concerned. The highest correlation between PM10 and trace gases concentrations was found for NO2 , while among the trace gases NO and CO were the best correlated. Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. 2660 Monitoring and analysis of volatile organic compounds around an oil refinery Gariazzo C., Pelliccioni A., Di Filippo P. et al. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (17-38) Valle Galeria, a location in the outskirts of Rome, was selected as a case study to assess the pollution release from the industrial facilities operating in this area. For this purpose, an intensive field campaign was conducted during summer, where volatile organic compounds VOC (including benzene, toluene and xylenes) were sampled and analyzed at two different sites. A strong modulation of VOC concentrations was observed between daytime and nighttime, and alkane fraction was found to be the most abundant group, indicating the oil refinery as the major source of atmospheric hydrocarbons. Surface turbulence and upper air SODAR data were processed to investigate the relationships between meteorology and VOC levels and patterns. Atmospheric turbulence was found to be responsible for the daily modulation of VOC. In particular, the highest BTX pollution episode observed during nighttime was found to be correlated with a very strong atmospheric stability and a surface based inversion layer. The analysis of BTX ratios resulted effective in recognizing the relationship between the pollutants and their co-variance, as well as the dispersion and reaction patterns occurring during the transport across the two sites. © Springer 2005. 2661 Evaluation of the atmospheric deposition in an urban region in south Brazil Migliavacca D., Teixeira E.C., Wiegand F. et al. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (91-110) The purpose of the present study is to analyse the chemical composition of bulk and wet atmospheric deposition samples in the Guaba Hydrographic Basin (GHB), in south Brazil. Samples of bulk and wet deposition were analysed during a 1-year’s period (January to December 2002) at three different stations, i.e., 8° Distrito and CEASA stations in the city of Porto Alegre, and Charqueadas station, in Charqueadas city. Conductivity, pH, Cl- , NO3 - , F- , SO4 2- , Na+ , K+ , Mg2+ , NH4 + and Ca2+ were determined. The pH presented an average value between 4.75 and 7.45. Enrichment factor was characterised based on groups of acid (pH < 5.65) and alkaline (pH > 5.65) samples. For most of the studied ions, EF in bulk deposition was higher in alkaline samples, while in wet deposition there was little difference between acid and alkaline samples. The Multivariate Analysis technique, i.e. the Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA), determined relationships between the two different data set (chemical and meteorological), identified the source (anthropogenic or natural) of the studied variables. © Springer 2005. 2662 Evolution, sources and distribution of mineral particles and amorphous phase of atmospheric aerosol in an industrial and mediterranean coastal area G´omez E.T., Sanfeliu T., Rius J. and Jord´an M.M. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2005 167/1-4 (311-330) The aim of this work is to propose a methodology that helps to learn about the distribution of different types of solid compounds in atmospheric aerosol, collected in an industrial area located in a Mediterranean basin that produces mineral raw materials. The work is developed from TSP samples collected daily in an open area near a ceramic production facility with a High Volume TSP sampler. The sampler permits the collection of sufficient daily quantities of particulate sample for subsequent X-ray diffraction characterisation and quantification. The results have shown that atmospheric aerosol in the area are dominated by particles coming from combustion processes, mainly vehicular traffic, and dust emissions originating when raw materials are transferred and treated. Combustion particles present a seasonal evolution. Mineral particles are mainly dependent upon weekly industrial activity and their contents suffer high increases during periods of atmospheric particle accumulation which are produced when certain meteorological conditions exist. Data have also shown an approximation of the particle distribution in aerosol from different source origins (vehicular traffic, dust emissions, secondary formation, marine aerosols). During days with intermediate pollution levels (which suppose 60% of the total) combustion particles compromise around 55 to 60% of the TSP while mineral particles coming from industrial dust emissions make up 20% of the TSP. In time intervals of atmospheric particulate accumulation these particle levels in the air can reach the legislated guideline values. During these episodes, mineral contents coming mainly from dust emissions compromise more than the 50% of the aerosol. © Springer 2005. 2663 Comparison of some sigma schemes for estimation of air pollutant dispersion in moderate and low winds Essa K.S.M., Mubarak F. and Abu Khadra S. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/2 (90-96) One of the most important parameters in plume dispersion modeling is the plume growth (dispersion coefficients ). Different models for estimating dispersion parameters are discussed to establish the relative importance of one over the others. Comparisons were made between power law functions, standard, split sigma and split sigma theta methods. We use the double Gaussian expression for calculating concentration in this comparison. The METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY results show that, with low wind speed (<2 m/s), split sigma and split sigma theta methods give much better results than other methods, while, with wind speed greater than 2 m/s, the power law function methods give more plausible results. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2664 Emission standards development for an inspection/maintenance program Kazopoulo M., El Fadel M. and Kaysi I. Journal of Environmental Engineering 2005 131/9 (1330-1339) This paper presents the results of vehicle exhaust measurements that were used to establish emission standards for an inspection/maintenance (I/M) program. For this purpose, a total number of 100 private autos distributed across model years ranging between 1972 and 2002 were tested under idling conditions. The monitored indicators included air to fuel ratio (%), CO (%), CO2 (%), HC (parts per million, ppm), NOx , (ppm), and O2 (%). Private autos with model years greater than 1994 were found to be compliant with international standards and are relatively well maintained. Emissions from older models increased significantly with a lack of engine maintenance. The paper concludes with criteria for proposing I/M emission standards based on exhaust measurements taking country-specific socioeconomic characteristics into consideration. Journal of Environmental Engineering © ASCE. 2665 Organochlorine compounds in the marine atmosphere of Singapore Wurl O. and Obbard J.P. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7207-7216) Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were quantified in high-volume air samples collected on polyurethane foam (PUF) over the sea surface of Singapore during the summer monsoon period of 2004. A novel and quality assured microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) procedure for PUF was developed as an alternative to conventional Soxhlet extraction for the analysis of organochlorine compounds (OCs). Average concentrations of
PCBs,
HCHs and
DDTs in air samples were 32, 311 and 8 pg m-3 , respectively. Overall, a decline in the ocean atmospheric concentration of DDTs was noted relative to data obtained from the early 1990s, but current data are in a similar range for HCH and PCBs. Levels of OCs in the equatorial atmosphere were compared to equivalent data from temperate regions available in the literature. On a global scale, the levels of DDTs and PCBs in the atmosphere of Singapore are low, but moderate for HCHs. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2666 Tracking changes in carbon monoxide budget over Europe between 1995 and 2000 M´esz´aros T., Haszpra L. and Gelencs´er A. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7297-9306) The variation in carbon monoxide (CO) mixing ratio is of primary interest since it affects the atmospheric abundance of several trace gases, like methane, via extensive chemical feedback mechanisms. From the mid-1990s the global annual average mixing ratio of CO varied by about 0-1% yr-1 while in 1998 a great pulse of CO emission increased the global CO concentration through mid-1999 by 16% over the background level. This surplus was primarily caused by heavy forest fires in several regions of the world. Our study was performed to reveal the potential causes of changes in the European CO budget and mixing ratio between 1995 and 2000 using a simple tropospheric box model. The primary anthropogenic emission from fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes in Europe showed a fairly constant annual decrease of about 4% yr -1 between 1995 and 2000, while the secondary anthropogenic CO source strength was reduced at a rate of about 3% yr-1 . This decrease was partly balanced by sporadic pulses of European forest fire emissions. In spite of the reduction in the sources the region remained a net CO producer. The incremental change in the global CO budget caused by European sources was about 47.2 15.2 Tg CO yr-1 on average. The output of the model was validated against available observational data, both in absolute terms and with respect to the seasonal variation of the CO mixing ratio. The model revealed that the downward tendency of CO mixing ratios in Europe was temporarily offset by the contribution of large-scale forest fires in the northern 505 hemisphere through long-range atmospheric transport. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2667 Pedestrian exposure to air pollution along a major road in Central London, UK Kaur S., Nieuwenhuijsen M.J. and Colvile R.N. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7307-7320) Pedestrian exposure to PM2.5 , the loss of reflectance (‘blackness’) of the PM2.5 filters, ultrafine particle counts (particle range: 0.02-1 m) and carbon monoxide (CO) was investigated along a major road running through the DAPPLE study site in Central London, UK. During an intensive 12-day exposure measurement campaign, groups of four volunteers sampled twice in the morning and twice in the afternoon along Marylebone Road. They were randomly designated a walking direction, walking position (kerbside or buildingside) and a side of the major road to walk along. PM2.5 was sampled using high-flow gravimetric personal samplers, ultrafine particle counts were measured using TSI PTRAKs and Langans were used to measure CO exposure. PM2.5 samples were analysed gravimetrically and reflectance was measured using a smoke stain reflectometer to obtain a measure of ‘black smoke’. In total 603 acceptable samples were obtained 155 PM2.5 and reflectance, 120 ultrafine particle count and 173 CO. The average pedestrian exposure along the road was 37.7 g/m3 , 12.1 m -1 10-5 , 80 009 pt/cm3 and 1.3 ppm for PM2.5 , loss of reflectance, ultrafine particle counts and CO, respectively. PM2.5 exposure in the morning was significantly higher than in the afternoon, and there was a significant difference in exposure on the different sides of the road. For both reflectance and ultrafine particle counts, the exposure was significantly different both between the two walking positions on the pavement and the two sides of the street canyon. However there was no significant difference in CO exposure based on walking position, walking direction, canyon side or timing. Filter reflectance was significantly but weakly correlated with PM2.5 exposure (r=0.3, N=155), CO exposure (r=0.2, N=154) and ultrafine particle count exposure (r=0.7, N=108). PM 2.5 and CO personal exposure measurements were much higher than those recorded at both the local background fixed monitoring station (FMS) and a kerbside FMS, but PM2.5 personal exposure was significantly correlated with the PM2.5 concentrations at the background FMS (r=0.6, N=155). © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2668 Exposure to airborne fungi and bacteria while commuting in passenger cars and public buses Lee J.- H. and Jo W.- K. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7342-7350) The present study examined airborne microbe levels inside and outside passenger cars and public buses during two seasons (winter and summer). The prevalence level of individual fungal genera depended on the fungi and agar type, whereas a constant higher prevalence (>90%) was found for the total bacteria and total fungi. The four most prevalent fungal genera were Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria in a descending order. The major parameters associated with the airborne microbe measurements included agar type, vehicle type, and seasonal variation. When compared to the malt extract agar (MEA), the dichloran glycerol 18 agar (DG-18) was found to produce better counts for the target fungi. The summer in-vehicle bacterial concentrations were significantly higher for public buses than for the passenger cars, whereas the reverse was true for summer in-vehicle total fungal concentrations. This pattern was also consistent with summer outdoor results. In contrast, the winter in-vehicle and outdoor airborne microbe levels were similar for cars and buses. Meanwhile, summer was generally found to have higher in-vehicle fungal concentrations than winter. The current in-vehicle airborne microbe concentrations were found to be similar to residential indoor values from other reports, such as bacterial values between 10 and 103 CFU m-3 and total fungal aerosol concentrations ranging from 10 to 103 CFU m-3 . It was suggested that motor vehicles in which many individuals spend a certain percentage of their day or week for travel are also a potential microenvironment for individual exposure to airborne microbes. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 506 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 2669 Sources and concentrations of gaseous and particulate ¨ reduced nitrogen in the city of Munster (Germany) Vogt E., Held A. and Klemm O. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7393-7402) Atmospheric ammonia mixing ratios and the main inorganic ions NH +4 , NO-3 and SO4 2- of size-resolved particles in the range from 0.05 to 10 m were measured at an urban site in M¨unster, Germany. High mixing ratios of ammonia with a median of 5.2 ppb and a maximum of 50 ppb were detected. The mass fraction of submicron particles was much higher during the day than at night. At night, a greater particle mass and an increased presence of particulate nitrate was measured. Recurring patterns of particle distribution were distinguished and their characteristics analysed. In half of the measurements, the accumulation mode was clearly dominating, which is an indication of aged aerosol. In some measurements, higher concentrations of fine particles were found indicating particle formation. In these cases, a smaller particle mass and about four times greater ratios of ammonia versus ammonium concentrations were observed. These data show that ammonia contributes considerably to the formation of secondary particulate material. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2670 Fully coupled "online" chemistry within the WRF model Grell G.A., Peckham S.E., Schmitz R. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (6957-6975) A fully coupled "online" Weather Research and Forecasting/Chemistry (WRF/Chem) model has been developed. The air quality component of the model is fully consistent with the meteorological component; both components use the same transport scheme (mass and scalar preserving), the same grid (horizontal and vertical components), and the same physics schemes for subgrid-scale transport. The components also use the same timestep, hence no temporal interpolation is needed. The chemistry package consists of dry deposition ("flux-resistance" method), biogenic emission as in [Simpson et al., 1995. Journal of Geophysical Research 100D, 22875-22890; Guenther et al., 1994. Atmospheric Environment 28, 1197-1210], the chemical mechanism from RADM2, a complex photolysis scheme (Madronich scheme coupled with hydrometeors), and a state of the art aerosol module (MADE/SORGAM aerosol parameterization). The WRF/Chem model is statistically evaluated and compared to MM5/Chem and to detailed photochemical data collected during the summer 2002 NEAQS field study. It is shown that the WRF/Chem model is statistically better skilled in forecasting O3 than MM5/Chem, with no appreciable differences between models in terms of bias with the observations. Furthermore, the WRF/Chem model consistently exhibits better skill at forecasting the O 3 precursors CO and NOy at all of the surface sites. However, the WRF/Chem model biases of these precursors and of other gas-phase species are persistently higher than for MM5/Chem, and are most often biased high compared to observations. Finally, we show that the impact of other basic model assumptions on these same statistics can be much larger than the differences caused by model differences. An example showing the sensitivity of various statistical measures with respect to the treatment of biogenic volatile organic compounds emissions illustrates this impact. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2671 Contribution of unburned lubricating oil and diesel fuel to particulate emission from passenger cars Brandenberger S., Mohr M., Grob K. and Neukom H.P. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (6985-6994) In this study we determined particle-bound paraffins in the exhaust of six light-duty diesel vehicles on a chassis dynamometer for different driving cycles and ambient temperatures. The filters containing particulate matter were extracted with dichloromethane in a Soxhlet apparatus, and the paraffin analysis was performed using two-dimensional normal phase high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled on-line to gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID). The different molecular mass of lubricant and diesel paraffins facilitated the distinction between diesel and lubricant contribution to the emission. Although all vehicles were certified according to the same emission class, there were considerable variations between ve- hicles. The study showed that under cold-start conditions the organic mass fraction ranged from 10% to 30% with respect to particle mass and the paraffins from 30% to 60% with respect to the organic mass. With cold engine, falling ambient temperature increased the emission of unburned diesel fuel, whereas that from unburned lubricating oil was less affected. Under warmstart conditions, the ambient temperature had less impact on the emission of paraffins. The emissions were also affected by the operating conditions of the engine: driving cycles with higher mean load tend towards higher emissions of lubricant. The operating conditions also affected the distribution of paraffins: the emission of light paraffins seemed to be lower with higher load in the driving cycle. With an urban and a highway cycle, roughly 40% and 80% w/w, respectively, of unburned paraffins were contributed by the lubricant. Measurements of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in lubricating oil showed lubricant to be a sink for PAHs. As lubricant significantly contributes to the organic emission, as shown in this study, it can be assumed that it is also a significant source of PAH emissions. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2672 Evaluation of a Eulerian and Lagrangian air quality model using perfluorocarbon tracers released in Texas for the BRAVO haze study Schichtel B.A., Barna M.G., Gebhart K.A. and Malm W.C. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7044-7062) The Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational (BRAVO) study was designed to determine the sources of haze at Big Bend National Park, Texas, using a combination of source and receptor models. BRAVO included an intensive monitoring campaign from July to October 1999 that included the release of perfluorocarbon tracers from four locations at distances 230-750 km from Big Bend and measured at 24 sites. The tracer measurements near Big Bend were used to evaluate the dispersion mechanisms in the REMSAD Eulerian model and the CAPITA Monte Carlo (CMC) Lagrangian model used in BRAVO. Both models used 36 km MM5 wind fields as input. The CMC model also used a combination of routinely available 80 and 190 km wind fields from the National Weather Service’s National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) as input. A model’s performance is limited by inherent uncertainties due to errors in the tracer concentrations and a model’s inability to simulate sub-resolution variability. A range in the inherent uncertainty was estimated by comparing tracer data at nearby monitoring sites. It was found that the REMSAD and CMC models, using the MM5 wind field, produced performance statistics generally within this inherent uncertainty. The CMC simulation using the NCEP wind fields could reproduce the timing of tracer impacts at Big Bend, but not the concentration values, due to a systematic underestimation. It appears that the underestimation was partly due to excessive vertical dilution from high mixing depths. The model simulations were more sensitive to the input wind fields than the models’ different dispersion mechanisms. Comparisons of REMSAD to CMC tracer simulations using the MM5 wind fields had correlations between 0.75 and 0.82, depending on the tracer, but the tracer simulations using the two wind fields in the CMC model had correlations between 0.37 and 0.5. 2673 Interpretation of particulate elemental and organic carbon concentrations at rural, urban and kerbside sites Jones A.M. and Harrison R.M. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7114-7126) Concentration measurements are reported for particulate organic and elemental carbon, measured using an R&P 5400 ambient particulate carbon monitor at four sites in the United Kingdom: one roadside (London, Marylebone Road), two urban (London, North Kensington, and Belfast, Centre) and one rural (Harwell). The measurements were collected on a continuous three hourly average basis between January 2002 and mid-2004. The concentrations show no obvious seasonal cycle, except for an increase in OC/EC ratio at London, North Kensington, during the summer months consistent with a possibly greater relative contribution of secondary organic aerosol. Perhaps surprisingly this is not, however, seen at the rural Harwell site. At Belfast, both organic and elemental carbon show elevated winter concentrations, consistent with important local primary sources. Only at the roadside Marylebone Road site is there a high correlation (r2 =0.59) be- METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY tween organic carbon and elemental carbon concentrations which persists when simultaneously measured urban background concentrations from the nearby North Kensington site are subtracted; the OC/EC ratio in the traffic-related concentration increment is 0.88, well below the ratios typical of the urban background. Directional analysis of the data from the Marylebone Road street canyon shows that whilst elemental carbon concentrations are determined primarily by on-road traffic emissions, both organic carbon and PM10 derive primarily from inputs from outside the street canyon. It therefore appears that at all times of year nontraffic sources of particulate organic carbon, be they primary or secondary, are dominant over traffic emissions in the urban background. Organic compounds account for about 22% of aerosol mass, irrespective of site. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2674 A demonstration of coupled receptor/dispersion modeling with a genetic algorithm Haupt S.E. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/37 (7181-7189) A technique is presented for coupling receptor to dispersion models using a genetic algorithm to optimize the calibration factors, linking the two models. The backward-looking receptor model is based on the chemical mass balance model, but in this case, is formulated to break down pollutant contributions according to independent meteorological periods. For demonstration purposes the dispersion model is a basic Gaussian plume model, but could easily be substituted with a more refined model. The key to linking these two models is a genetic algorithm. The technique described here could prove useful for apportioning monitored pollutant to its sources, calibrating dispersion models, source position identification, monitor siting, and estimating total uncertainty. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2675 Distribution of particle-phase hydrocarbons, PAHs and OCPs in Tianjin, China Wu S.- P., Tao S., Zhang Z.- H. et al. Atmospheric Environment 2005 39/38 (7420-7432) Aliphatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were determined in the total suspended particles (TSP) collected from 13 different locations in Tianjin, China, where intensive coal burning for domestic heating in winter takes place and a large quantity of pesticides had been produced and applied. Carbon preference index (CPI), carbon number maximum (Cmax ) of n-alkane and plant wax index (%wax Cn ) indicate that n-alkanes come from both biogenic and petrogenic sources, and biogenic source contributes more n-alkanes in autumn than in winter. Petroleum biomarkers as indicators of petrogenic source such as hopanes and steranes were also detected in
both seasons’ samples. The sum of 16 PAH concentrations ( PAH16 ) ranged from 69.3 to 2170 ng m -3 in winter and from 7.01 to 40.0 ng m-3 in autumn. Seasonal variations were mainly attributed to the difference in coal combustion emission and meteorological conditions. The results of a source diagnostic analysis suggest that PAHs in TSP mainly come from coal combustion. Seven OCPs (four hexachlorohexanes (HCHs) and three dichlorodipheny-trichloroethane and metabolites (DDTs)) were detected in most samples. Concentra
tions of the sum of -,  -, - and  -HCH ( HCH) and the sum of
p,p
-DDT, p,p
-DDD and p,p
-DDE ( DDT) in autumn varied in the ranges of 0.002-0.9 ng m-3 and 0.025-2.21 ng m-3 with the average standard deviation values of 0.127
0.241 ng m
-3 and 0.239 0.546 ng m-3 , respectively. In winter, HCH and DDT in TSP ranged from 0.071 to 5.35 ng m-3 and from 0.416 to 3.14 ng m-3 with the average standard deviation values 1.05 1.88 ng m-3 and 0.839 0.713 ng m -3 , respectively. Both of the illegal application of technical HCH and DDT and the volatilization from topsoil contributed to the particle-phase contents of HCHs and DDTs in the atmosphere. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2676 Concentration, isotopic composition, and sources of lead in Southern Ocean air during 1999/2000, measured at the Cape Grim Baseline Air Pollution Station, Tasmania Bollh¨ofer A.F., Rosman K.J.R., Dick A.L. et al. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005 69/20 (4747-4757) Southern Ocean aerosols were collected at the Cape Grim Baseline Air Pollution Station from onshore air under baseline con- 507 ditions between February 1999 and April 2000. Thermal ionization techniques (TIMS) and isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS) were used to measure the isotopic composition and concentration of lead in the air giving concentrations as low as 0.6 0.1 pg  m-3 . Air collected under baseline conditions for 12 months (May 1999-April 2000) yielded an overall lead concentration of 11.0 0.2 pg  m-3 and isotopic composition of 206 Pb/ 207 Pb = 1.154, 208 Pb/207 Pb = 2.387 and 206 Pb/204 Pb = 17.93. The range in isotopic ratios was consistent with the mixing of lead from major population centers in the Southern Hemisphere in the mid to high latitudes, except for the presence of highly radiogenic lead in some samples. Contributions from radiogenic lead of up to
0.8% were observed. Three periods with the highest percentage contribution of radiogenic lead (>0.5%) were investigated in more detail, and 4-d back-trajectories and radon concentrations were used to help identify the sources. The sources are probably associated with the mining and processing of uranium rich ores in southern Africa and possibly South Australia. Copyright © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. 2677 The radiological impact from airborne routine discharges of a modern coal-fired power plant Zeevaert Th., Sweeck L. and Vanmarcke H. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2006 85/1 (1-22) In this paper the radiological impact from the airborne routine discharges of a modern coal-fired power plant at Langerlo (Belgium) is evaluated. Therefore, the natural radioactivity contents of the coal and the fly-ash discharged were measured. With a biGaussian plume model the maximum annual values of the 226 Ra concentration in the air (4.5 nBq/m3 ) and of the total deposition (1.5 mBq/m2 ) were calculated. The transfer of the radionuclides from air and soil to the biospheric media, exposing man, were modelled and the annual, individual, effective dose to the critical group, after an assumed life span of the power plant of 70 years, was evaluated at 0.05 Sv/y. This is several orders of magnitude lower than the annual doses for most power plants reported in the literature. The flue gas purification system, extended with a denitrification unit and a desulphurisation unit, was found to be the basis for this low impact. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2678 Stack emissions from desalination plants: A parametric sensitivity analysis for exposure assessment Alameddine I. and El- Fadel M. Desalination 2005 177/1-3 (1529) The desalination market has been continuously growing to augment conventional water resources in arid and semi-arid regions that are experiencing population growth, improvements in lifestyle, increased economic activity and increased contamination of existing water supplies. The introduction of desalination plants is inevitably associated with several potential environmental impacts including potential air pollution. The present study focuses on qualifying air emissions resulting from desalination plants and their potential impacts using a case study approach for an existing combined power generation and water distillation plant. The Industrial Source Complex (ISC) air dispersion model was adopted to assess sulfur dioxide concentrations at sensitive receptors under worst case meteorological conditions and full load operation for both plants. A parametric sensitivity analysis showed that receptors are exposed to concentrations exceeding international standards under most scenarios necessitating mitigation measures which were defined. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2679 Experimental technique of calibration of symmetrical air pollution models Kumar P. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth and Planetary Sciences 2005 114/5 (565-571) Based on the inherent property of symmetry of air pollution models, a Symmetrical Air Pollution Model Index (SAPMI) has been developed to calibrate the accuracy of predictions made by such models, where the initial quantity of release at the source is not known. For exact prediction the value of SAPMI should be equal to 1. If the predicted values axe overestimating then SAPMI is < 1 and if it is underestimating then SAPMI is > 1. Specific design for the layout of receptors has been suggested as a requirement for the calibration experiments, SAPMI is applicable 508 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING for all variations of symmetrical air pollution dispersion models. © Printed in India. 2680 Glaciochemical reconnaissance of a new ice core from Severnaya Zemlya, Eurasian Arctic Weiler K., Fischer H., Fritzsche D. et al. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (64-74) A deep ice core has been drilled on Akademii Nauk ice cap, Severnaya Zemlya, Eurasian Arctic. High-resolution chemical analysis has been carried out for the upper 53 m of this ice core to study its potential as an atmospheric aerosol archive, despite strong meltwater percolation. These records show that a seasonal atmospheric signal cannot be deduced. However, strong yearto-year variations have allowed the core to be dated, and a mean annual net mass balance of 0.46 m w.e.a-1 was deduced. The chemical signature of an extraordinarily high peak in electrical conductivity at 26m depth pointed clearly to the eruption of Bezymianny, Kamchatka, in 1956. However, in general, peaks in the electrical conductivity are not necessarily related to deposition of volcanogenic sulphur aerosol. In contrast, maximum sulphate and nitrate concentrations in the ice could be related to maximum SO2 and NO X anthropogenic emissions in the 1970s, probably caused by the nickel- and copper-producing industries in Norilsk and on the Kola peninsula or by industrial combustion processes occurring in the Siberian Arctic. In addition, during recent decades sulphate and nitrate concentrations declined by 80% and 60%, respectively, reflecting a decrease in anthropogenic pollution of the Arctic basin. REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING Remote sensing: primary data capture 2681 Drop axis ratios from a 2D video disdrometer Thurai M. and Bringi V.N. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (966-978) Results from an experiment to measure the drop shapes using a 2D video disdrometer (2DVD) are reported. Under calm conditions, drops were generated from a hose located on a bridge 80 m above ground, this height being sufficient to allow drop oscillations to reach a steady state. The disdrometer data had to be carefully processed so as to eliminate the drops mismatched by the instrument and to remove the system spreading function. The total number of drops analyzed was around 115 000. Their axis ratio distributions were obtained for diameters ranging from 1.5 to 9 mm. The mean axis ratio decreases with increasing drop diameter, in agreement with the upper bound of the Beard and Chuang equilibrium shape model. The inferred mode of oscillation appears to be dominated by the oblate-prolate axisymmetric mode for the diameter range of 1.5 to 9 mm. The mean axis ratio agrees well with two empirically fitted formulas reported in earlier studies. In addition, a linear fit was applied to the data for radar applications relating to rain retrievals from dual-polarization measurements. The 2DVD data taken in moderate stratiform rain were also analyzed in a similar way and the results agree with the artificially generated drop experiment, at least up to 4 mm. No data for larger diameters were available for stratiform precipitation. Finally, the fall velocity was examined in terms of drop diameter. The results closely follow an empirical formula fitted to the Gunn and Kinzer data as well as the Beard and Pruppacher data including a slight decrease in the terminal velocity with a diameter beyond 7 mm. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2682 Monitoring the reflectivity calibration of a scanning radar using a profiling radar and a disdrometer Williams C.R., Gage K.S., Clark W. and Kucera P. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (1004-1018) This paper describes a method of absolutely calibrating and routinely monitoring the reflectivity calibration from a scanning weather radar using a vertically profiling radar that has been absolutely calibrated using a collocated surface disdrometer. The three instruments have different temporal and spatial resolutions, and the concept of upscaling is used to relate the small resolution volume disdrometer observations with the large resolution volume scanning radar observations. This study uses observations collected from a surface disdrometer, two profiling radars, and the National Weather Service (NWS) Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) scanning weather radar during the Texas-Florida Underflight-phase B (TEFLUN-B) ground validation field campaign held in central Florida during August and September 1998. The statistics from the 2062 matched profiling and scanning radar observations during this 2-month period indicate that the WSR-88D radar had a reflectivity 0.7 dBZ higher than the disdrometer-calibrated profiler, the standard deviation was 2.4 dBZ, and the 95% confidence interval was 0.1 dBZ. This study implies that although there is large variability between individual matched observations, the precision of a series of observations is good, allowing meaningful comparisons useful for calibration and monitoring. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2683 Measurements of ocean surface backscattering using an airborne 94-GHz cloud radar - Implication for calibration of airborne and spaceborne w-band radars Li L., Heymsfield G.M., Tian L. and Racette P.E. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (1033-1045) Backscattering properties of the ocean surface have been widely used as a calibration reference for airborne and spaceborne microwave sensors. However, at millimeter-wave frequencies, the ocean surface backscattering mechanism is still not well understood, in part, due to the lack of experimental measurements. During the Cirrus Regional Study of Tropical Anvils and Cirrus Layers-Florida Area Cirrus Experiment (CRYSTAL-FACE), measurements of ocean surface backscattering were made using a 94-GHz (W band) cloud radar on board a NASA ER-2 high-altitude aircraft. This unprecedented dataset enhances our knowledge about the ocean surface scattering mechanism at 94 GHz. The measurement set includes the normalized ocean surface cross section over a range of the incidence angles under a variety of wind conditions. It was confirmed that even at 94 GHz, the normalized ocean surface radar cross section, o , is insensitive to surface wind conditions near a 10° incidence angle, a finding similar to what has been found in the literature for lower frequencies. Analysis of the radar measurements also shows good agreement with a quasi-specular scattering model at low incidence angles. The results of this work support the proposition of using the ocean surface as a calibration reference for airborne millimeter-wave cloud radars and for the ongoing NASA CloudSat mission, which will use a 94-GHz spaceborne cloud radar for global cloud measurements. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2684 Social organization of the Milne-Edward’s potto Pimley E.R., Bearder S.K. and Dixson A.F. American Journal of Primatology 2005 66/4 (317-330) Nocturnal prosimian primates are often seen alone during their nocturnal activities, and are therefore categorized as "solitary." Recent research has shown that these animals actually possess social networks that differ among species. Here we present new information on one of the lesser studied prosimian primates, the potto, derived from fieldwork in Cameroon that employed radiotelemetry and behavioral observations. An analysis of association patterns and home-range overlaps between animals revealed that pottos associated more frequently with conspecifics than expected for a supposedly solitary primate. Certain males and females that were seen together regularly throughout the study, but were not observed to have contact with other pottos of the opposite sex, were labeled as "pairs." These pairs were found to have higher levels of association with each other than with other conspecifics. The only affiliative and sexual behaviors observed between members of the opposite sex occurred within the pairs of pottos. Although given the secretive nature of these primates, the possibility of extrapair copulations cannot be ruled out, their relatively small testis size indicates that sperm competition is not so important for this species. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc. REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING 2685 Assessment of C-band SRTM DEM in a dense equato´ rial forest zone (French) (Evaluation du MNT SRTM bande C sur une zone e´ quatoriale foresti´ere dense) Bourgine B. and Baghdadi N. Comptes Rendus - Geoscience 2005 337/14 (1225-1234) A Digital Elevation Model issued from the SRTM mission was assessed on a study area located in a dense equatorial forest setting in French Guiana. The SRTM DEM defined on a 90-m grid was compared to three check sources: (1) airborne laser altimeter data, (2) an accurate heliborne DEM, and (3) spot heights. The paper also includes a comparison with a radargrammetric RADARSAT DEM. The results show that the accuracy of the SRTM DEM is about 10 m (standard deviation of errors). For a given slope aspect, the absolute value and the standard deviation of elevation errors increase almost linearly with the slope value. The slope aspect has a major influence on the sign of the elevation error: elevations are underestimated for slope facing SRTM signal (foreslopes, northwest), and conversely in the opposite direction (backslopes, southeast). Maximum errors are observed along these two directions. © 2005 Acad´emie des sciences. Published by Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved. Remote sensing: secondary data capture 2686 GIS-based application of resource selection functions to the prediction of snow petrel distribution and abundance in East Antarctica: Comparing models at multiple scales Olivier F. and Wotherspoon S.J. Ecological Modelling 2005 189/1-2 (105-129) Snow petrel numbers must be of the order of several millions. However, accurate population estimates are sparse although such information is necessary to monitor potential changes in the Antarctic ecosystem. A census of snow petrel nests was conducted at Casey (East Antarctica) during summer 2002-2003. Twenty percent of the ice-free areas (available nesting habitat for snow petrels) was surveyed using a "random block design". During this survey, approximately 5000 nests were located. Generalized additive and linear modelling techniques and classification trees (GAM, GLM and CT) were used to fit resource selection functions, which modelled snow petrel abundance or presenceabsence in relation to a set of environmental predictors (elevation, slope, aspect, curvature and substrate types estimated in percentage cover). The effect of spatial scale on the processes that influence habitat selection was investigated using GIS as a tool to create and test models at a hierarchical range of scales from 200 m grid-sites level to 20 m quadrats. The strong predictive value of aspect, slope and percent cover in boulder and SCREE were identified at all scales. However, the significance of environmental predictors varied with scale, indicating that spatial scale matters in detecting habitat selection processes. In general, models were improved with the addition of spatial dependence terms representing the effect of conspecific attraction (coloniality), but these models were less applicable for predictive purposes. By predicting abundance from environmental characteristics (acquired for example, using aerial photography), resource selection functions may be a useful tool to refine population estimates of several petrel species in Antarctica without requiring intensive ground surveys. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Remote sensing: geodesy 2687 Displacement rates along the faults in NE Slovenia: Campaigns from 1996, 1999 and 2002 (Serbian) (Hitrosti premikov ob prelomih v vzhodni Sloveniji: Opazovanja iz let 1996, 1999 in 2002) Pavlovˇciˇc Preˇseren P., Stopar B. and Vrabec M. Geodetski Vestnik 2005 49/3 (407-415) We describe the first results of the GPS-observation processing in three successive GPS-campaigns from 1996, 1999, and 2002 509 of the Large Geodynamic Network of the Velenje Coal Mine. We present site velocities relative to the stable Eurasian plate, from which we derive the tectonic intepretation of active movements along the faults of the Periadriatic Fault System (PFS). As the PFS is a major post-collisional feature of the Alpine orogen, the study is interesting from regional point of view, as well as for intepreting the causes of earthquake activity in the wide area of ˇ ska Valley region). Site velocthe Velenje Coal Mine (in the Saleˇ ities indicate predominately N- to NNE-directed movements in a range from 0.5 to 2mm/yr, which is consistent with the idea about the ongoing eastward extrusion of the Eastern Alpine domain at the rate of - 1.5 mm/yr, and the - 2mm/yr northward moving Adriatic microplate. PFS acts as the southern boundary of the extruding East Alpine domain, however, the deformation is not tied to a single dextral corridor but is distributed over a wide area. First results have opened new questions, due to which the geodynamic network was expanded and measured in summer 2003 for the first time and will be reoccupied this September. Results from the expanded network will hopefully provide better ˇ stanj, Smrekovec understanding of active kinematics of the Soˇ and Labot faults. 2688 Establishing local geodetic networks of high precision for monitoring crust deformations: A case study of a hydroelectric usine dam (Portuguese) (Estabelecimento de redes geod´esicas locais de alta precis˜ao para o monitoramento de deformac¸o˜ es da crosta: Estudo de caso de uma barragem de usina hidrel´etrica) Teixeira N.N. and Ferreira L.D.D. Boletim de Ciencias Geodesicas 2005 11/1 (53-70) The monitoring of crust movements using, specifically, geodetic techniques constitutes an important tool for the control and the security of structures - natural or artificial. Global Positioning System has been used in the establishment of active and passive geodetics networks of high precision for applications in geodynamics. GPS applications in the monitoring of movements of the crust can be found in the literature at global, continental, regional and local levels. Then, the involved factors in the establishment of a geodetic network of high precision for the monitoring of movements of the crust using the GPS. Results and conclusions will be presented. 2689 Airborne laser scanning strip adjustment and automation of tie surface measurement Pfeifer N. Boletim de Ciencias Geodesicas 2005 11/1 (3-22) Airborne laser scanning of the earth surface and other objects on top it yields measurements of unstructured point clouds in a strip wise manner. Often multiple length strips with a small overlap are observed, sometimes augmented by a few cross strips for validation purposes. Due to inaccurate calibration of the entire measurement system and due to the limited accuracy of direct geo-referencing (i.e., the exterior orientation determination) with GPS and IMU, including systematic errors, adjacent strips may have discrepancies in their overlap. For removing these discrepancies strip adjustment algorithms require quantification on these offsets at various locations within the overlapping zones. Different methods of strip adjustment are reviewed, followed by the presentation of a general method for determining the discrepancies automatically. This method - the core of the paper - is based on segmenting the point cloud in the overlap. In the examples, mean offsets between neighboring strips in the order of a few centimeters are reconstructed. The offsets also show substantial variation along the strip. The method developed for discrepancy determination can be applied to height or full 3D strip adjustment and for approaches using the original measurements, the coordinates of the measured points, or only the offsets between surfaces. An example of strip adjustment using discrepancy observations with the method presented and a discussion of the results conclude this paper. 2690 Off-shoring the geomatics industry and geomatics education Hazelton N.W.J. Surveying and Land Information Science 2005 65/3 (145-150) A recent trend in the U.S. has been the off-shoring of various components of business organization operations, usually in the 510 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING interest of saving money. One may think that this is unlikely to happen to the surveying/geomatics industry, but that would be wishful thinking; the industry is actually set up to make offshoring very simple, and the economic and practical arguments in favor of off-shoring are compelling. The "small firm" nature of the profession is not a barrier. The main driver for off-shoring is the growing separation between data collection skills and information handling and management skills in the U.S. industry. This allows basic data collection to be undertaken locally by low-paid technicians, while the information-handling part of the work is moved off-shore. It is becoming more widely recognized that surveying and geomatics skills outside the U.S. are far more comprehensive and advanced than inside, and that it is far easier to recruit skilled and educated young professionals there than it is within the U.S. While there may not be a significant economic advantage in terms of the amount paid to a surveyor outside the U.S., the advantages lie in the level of skills readily available and the potential for greater efficiency in operations. The consequences of off-shoring are fairly easy to see. In the short term, the recruitment problem of the profession in the U.S. is overcome, and there may also be some significant economic advantages. In the long term, however, the consequences are rather dire, including continued deterioration of the cadastre and local skills, but would not provide any significant hindrance to the development of off-shoring. With the move of the information-handling and management part of the industry off-shore, the demand for highly skilled professionals within the U.S. can be expected to decline. There will still be a need for local technicianlevel people. It is suggested that the education sector consider splitting into three segments: technical, basic professional, and advanced professional. The advanced professional education segment could then be moved off-shore to where the advanced professionals are located. Most off-shore education programs in developed countries are already at the advanced professional level, so the easiest step would be to close that segment in the U.S. The paper will consider scenarios for the surveying industry and surveying education in 2020 and beyond on the basis of this analysis of off-shoring. The role of ABET in assisting off-shoring will also be discussed. 2691 Robust estimation of variance components with application in global positioning system network adjustment Yang Y.- X., Xu T.- H. and Song L.- J. Journal of Surveying Engineering 2005 131/4 (107-112) A robust strategy for controlling the influence of outliers on model parameters and variance components is proposed based on the principle of robust M estimation. The robust estimators for parameters and variance components are derived. A practical robust estimator similar to Helmert’s one for maximum likelihood estimation is obtained. The robustness and efficiency of the new robust estimation procedure is demonstrated and compared with those of the classical least squares method by applying a practical global positioning system network in China. Journal of Surveying Engineering © ASCE. 2692 Noniterative method of solving the GPS double-differenced pseudorange equations Yang M. Journal of Surveying Engineering 2005 131/4 (130-134) The global positioning system (GPS) is a constellation of 24 navigation satellites developed and deployed by the U.S. Department of Defense to provide worldwide real-time positioning capability to its numerous users around the globe. When two or more GPS receivers operate simultaneously, the use of differential GPS positioning has been widely adopted in many engineering applications to improve the positioning accuracy by reducing common errors contained in the concurrent GPS signals. The currently adopted approach to solve the GPS double-differenced pseudorange equations is based on the least-squares principle and requires the use of an iterative procedure. In this study, an algebraic, direct solution of the double-differenced pseudorange equations is introduced. It is demonstrated by experimental data that this noniterative method provides highly compatible positioning results with the traditional least-squares approach. Journal of Surveying Engineering © ASCE. 2693 Ionospheric biases correction for coordinates derived from GPS single point positioning Gende M., Harris E.M., Brunini C. et al. Annals of Geophysics 2005 48/3 (439-444) Most GPS users employ low cost receivers. These receivers do not allow users to record the pseudorange that they observe, but the computed coordinates. This work presents an original and simple method to correct ionospheric biases introduced in GPS signals. The originality of this method is based on the fact that no pseudorange is needed to correct the biases, only the calculated coordinates are used. This distinguishes this method from other classic alternatives. This paper evaluates the efficiency of the method with the use of real data. 2694 Surface mass redistribution inversion from global GPS deformation and Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) gravity data Kusche J. and Schrama E.J.O. Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth 2005 110/9 (1-13) Monitoring hydrological redistributions through their integrated gravitational effect is the primary aim of the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission. Time-variable gravity data from GRACE can be uniquely inverted to hydrology, since mass transfers located at or near the Earth’s surface are much larger on shorter timescales than those taking place within the deeper Earth and because one can remove the contribution of atmospheric masses from air pressure data. Yet it has been proposed that at larger scales this may be achieved independently by measuring and inverting the elastic loading associated with redistributing masses, e.g., with the global network of the International GPS Service (IGS). This is particularly interesting as long as GRACE monthly gravity solutions do not (yet) match the targeted baseline accuracies at the lower spherical harmonic degrees. In this contribution (1) we describe and investigate an inversion technique which can deal jointly with GPS data and monthly GRACE solutions. (2) Previous studies with GPS data have used least squares estimators and impose solution constraints through low-degree spherical harmonic series truncation. Here we introduce a physically motivated regularization method that guarantees a stable inversion up to higher degrees, while seeking to avoid spatial aliasing. (3) We apply this technique to GPS data provided by the IGS service covering recent years. We can show that after removing the contribution ascribed to atmospheric pressure loading, estimated annual variations of continental-scale mass redistribution exhibit pattern similar to those observed with GRACE and predicted by a global hydrology model, although systematic differences appear to be present. (4) We compute what the relative contribution of GRACE and GPS would be in a joint inversion: Using current error estimates, GPS could contribute with up to 60% to degree 2 till 4 spherical harmonic coefficients and up to 30% for higher-degree coefficients. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2695 Observation of present-day tectonic motions in the Southeastern Carpathians: Results of the ISES/CRC-461 GPS measurements van der Hoeven A.G.A., Mocanu V., Spakman W. et al. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005 239/3-4 (177-184) Results are presented from GPS measurements performed in the Southeastern Carpathians between 1997 and 2004. Data from 25 stations observed during 13 campaigns were analyzed by the Department of Earth Observation and Space Systems (DEOS) of Delft University of Technology. The repeatabilities of the solutions are on the order of 1-4 mm for the horizontal, and 4-8 mm for the vertical component. The resulting velocity estimates have an uncertainty of < 1 mm/yr and < 3 mm/yr, respectively. The region southeast of the Carpathian bend zone shows a horizontal movement towards SSE of
2.5 mm/yr, while the Transylvanian Basin shows very small motions with respect to Eurasia. The vertical velocity field indicates the existence of uplift and subsidence domains in the SE Carpathians, in good agreement with Pliocene-Quaternary orogen and basin studies. Another 29 GPS stations installed in the last 3 yr will generate a denser velocity field in the coming years for this region. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING 2696 The theory of general kriging, with applications to the determination of a local geoid Reguzzoni M., Sans´o F. and Venuti G. Geophysical Journal International 2005 162/2 (303-314) Two techniques are commonly used to predict values of a random field u(t) from a vector of observations Y; one, mainly used in geodesy, is collocation, the other, mainly used in hydrology and geology, is kriging. Both techniques are based on the same optimization principle, that is minimizing the mean square prediction error, and use the same class of predictors, namely linear in Y. However, in collocation theory u(t) is assumed to have zero average and the main statistic to be used is covariance; once covariance is estimated, it is easy to switch from one functional to another, through covariance propagation. In kriging theory, on the contrary, the average of the field can be an arbitrary constant (or even a function in a suitable finite space) and the main statistic to be estimated is the variogram. Due to its shape, there is no simple rule for variogram propagation from one functional to another; for this reason kriging has mainly dealt with simple evaluations of u(t), or possibly with block averages. This paper treats the unification of the two techniques under a method called by the authors general kriging. After an introduction discussing some typical problems where such theories can be usefully applied, in Section 2 we formalize our proposal in general mathematical terms. Basically one could say that a proper functional propagation based on variograms is established. A first 1-D simulated example follows. In Section 3, our proposal is contrasted on a conceptual basis with cokriging, showing that this method solves a different problem, and step-wise collocation with parameters, recalling some conceptual drawbacks of this approach. In Section 4, numerical examples taken from the problem of estimating a local gravimetric geoid are presented. In such a problem, in fact, both hypotheses, non-zero average and change of functionals, occur and general kriging has proved to be able to deal with them. Finally a short discussion of the results and on-going problems closes the paper. © 2005 RAS. 2697 Recent vertical movements from precise levelling in the vicinity of the city of Basel, Switzerland Schlatter A., Schneider D., Geiger A. and Kahle H.- G. International Journal of Earth Sciences 2005 94/4 (507-514) The southern end of the Upper Rhine Graben is one of the zones in Switzerland where recent crustal movements can be expected because of ongoing seismotectonic processes as witnessed by seismicity clusters occurring in this region. Therefore, in 1973 a control network with levelling profiles across the eastern Rhine Graben fault was installed and measured in the vicinity of the city of Basel in order to measure relative vertical movements and investigate their relationship with seismic events. As a contribution to EUCOR-URGENT, the profiles were observed a third time in the years 2002 and 2003 and connected to the Swiss national levelling network. The results of these local measurements are discussed in terms of accuracy and significance. Furthermore, they are combined and interpreted together with the extensive data set of recent vertical movements in Switzerland (Jura Mountains, Central Plateau and the Alps). In order to be able to prove height changes with precise levelling, their values should amount to at least 3-4 mm (1 ). The present investigations, however, have not shown any significant vertical movements over the past 30 years. © Springer-Verlag 2004. 2698 GPS monitoring of vertical ground motion in northern Ardenne-Eifel: Five campaigns (1999-2003) of the HARD project Demoulin A., Campbell J., De Wulf A. et al. International Journal of Earth Sciences 2005 94/4 (515-524) We present the HARD project of GPS monitoring of vertical ground motion in NE Ardenne and Eifel (western Europe). Its main purposes are to get a better insight into the present-day rates of vertical ground motion in intraplate settings and to identify the various causes of these motions. Since 1999, we have carried out yearly campaigns of simultaneous GPS measurements at 12 sites situated so as to sample the different tectonic subunits of the study area and especially to record potential displacements across the seismogenic Hockai fault zone. Five campaigns (1999-2003) have been processed currently. Key issues of the data processing with the Gamit software are discussed and first results are 511 presented. Though temporally consistent in many cases, the obtained vertical motion rates are spatially highly variable. They are also much too high (several mm/year) to support a tectonic interpretation, and a long-term influence of groundwater level variations is proposed to account for the observed motions. This influence should be distinguished from seasonal variations and from inter-survey variations linked to the varying degree of soil and subsoil drying off during the successive spring surveys. © Springer-Verlag 2004. 2699 Continuous GPS and broad-scale deformation across the Rhine Graben and the Alps Tesauro M., Hollenstein C., Egli R. et al. International Journal of Earth Sciences 2005 94/4 (525-537) In order to study the ongoing tectonic deformation in the Rhine Graben area, we reconstruct the local crustal velocity and the strain rate field from GPS array solutions. Following the aim of this work, we compile the velocities of permanent GPS stations belonging to various networks (EUREF, AGNES, REGAL and RGP) in central western Europe. Moreover, the strain rate field is displayed in terms of principal axes and values, while the normal and the shear components of the strain tensor are calculated perpendicular and parallel to the strike of major faults. The results are compared with the fault plane solutions of earthquakes, which have occurred in this area. A broad-scale kinematic deformation model across the Rhine Graben is provided on the basis of tectonics and velocity results of the GPS permanent stations. The area of study is divided into four rigid blocks, between which there might be relative motions. The velocity and the strain rate fields are reconstructed along their borders, by estimating a uniform rotation for each block. The tectonic behaviour is well represented by the four-block model in the Rhine Graben area, while a more detailed model will be needed for a better reconstruction of the strain field in the Alpine region. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 2700 Determination of displacements in the upper Rhine graben Area from GPS and leveling data R´ozsa Sz., Heck B., Mayer M. et al. International Journal of Earth Sciences 2005 94/4 (538-549) The Upper Rhine graben is a north-northeast trending rift system, which belongs to the European Cenozoic rift system. Today, the southern part of the graben is seismically still active. Earthquakes of magnitude 5 have a recurrence time of approximately 30 years. In order to monitor and to determine the displacements in the study area, GPS measurements have been carried out in two campaigns (1999 and 2000), and observations of the available permanent stations have been processed in 2002. Owing to the small size of deformations expected, high accuracy requirements must be met by the GPS processing. In order to achieve these requirements, precise antenna modeling has been introduced into the processing. As expected the short time span has not enabled to detect significant displacements from the GPS measurements. The deformation analysis shows that the horizontal displacement rates do not exceed 1 mm/year, which is compatible with the geological information. Owing to the fact that the accuracy of positioning with GPS for the vertical coordinates is lower than for the horizontal coordinates, the determination of vertical displacements has been carried out using the leveling technique. In the area of Freiburg, first-order and second-order leveling lines have been chosen for the detection of local displacements on the Weinstetten, on the Lehen-Sch¨onberg and on the Main Border Fault (MBF). Some sections of these faults are still active today. Significant vertical displacements have been observed at the Weinstetten fault in the area of Bad Krozingen and on the MBF in Freiburg. The displacement rates (1925-1984) are 0.17 0.01 mm/year and 0.25 0.02 mm/year respectively. The results agree very well with the results of seismotectonic investigations, and show that ongoing displacements can be found on the northern part of the Lehen-Sch¨onberg fault in the vicinity of Eichstetten, and on the MBF in the vicinity of Freiburg. © Springer-Verlag 2005. 512 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING Remote sensing: numerical and image analysis 2701 Test of applicability of photoclinometry for single image restitution (Serbian) (Test uporabnosti fotoklinometrije za monoslikovno restitucijo) ˇ Triglav Cekada M. Geodetski Vestnik 2005 49/3 (395-406) Photoclinometry is a method for extraction digital elevation models from one single image on the basis of shading - in many cases it is also called shape-from-shading method. The tested program ISIS is capable of making interactive photoclinometry. ISIS is developed and used especially for photographs of different space objects. It is an open-source program, which works under the Linux operating system. In this paper, the installation, handling and capabilities of ISIS are described. In detail a module for photoclinometry is described and tested. The test is made on a photograph of a part of planet Mars. The results of photoclinometry depend greatly upon parameters of photoclinomety (albedo and the photometrical function of surface) since a small change of a parameter can cause a big change in the produced DEM. With photoclinometry very accurate DEMs can never be obtained. From the test it can be concluded that results gained with photoclinometry can be used for research or orientation purposes, but never for geodetic precision. One field of possible usage in Slovenia is the old-archive CAS images of snow-covered areas. 2702 Integrated use of spatial high resolution image and laser scanner derived hight classificator oriented to region to choose (Portuguese) (Uso integrado de imagem de alta resoluc¸a˜ o espacial e altura derivada do laser scanner na escolha do classificador orientado a regi˜ao) Botelho M.F. and Centeno J.A.S. Boletim de Ciencias Geodesicas 2005 11/1 (71-87) In this article, the results of a research about the integration of height derived from a laser scanner measurement with high resolution spatial sattelite image are presented, QUICKBIRD II, for the tematic mapping of urban areas. This research is justified, for so as not to suffice the use of orbital images, to distinguish the associated objects to the urban area mapping, in a semi-automatic way, one needs the inclusion of other auxiliary information. Therefore, it is proposed a metodology oriented to a regional analysis in the image. The gain obtained with the laser scanner derived height inclusion is compared to the resulting gain obtained from the use of spatial parameters derived from the images, through the use an artificial neural network classification algorithm (ANN) and usual classifiers (maximum likelihood and minimum distance). The results show that the altimetry information contribution is very useful in building, road and vegetation classification. From the tested algorithms, the use of an ANN including information of height derived from a laser scanner was the one which got the best results. 2703 Automatic classification of targets projected with a structured light system (Portuguese) (Classificac¸a˜ o autom´atica de padr˜oes projetados por um sistema de luz estruturada) de Carvalho Kokubum C.N., Tommaselli A.M.G. and Reiss M.L.L. Boletim de Ciencias Geodesicas 2005 11/1 (89-116) One of the main problems in Computer Vision and Close Range Digital Photogrammetry is 3D reconstruction. 3D reconstruction with structured light is one of the existing techniques and which still has several problems, one of them the identification or classification of the projected targets. Approaching this problem is the goal of this paper. An area based method called template matching was used for target classification. This method performs detection of area similarity by correlation, which measures the similarity between the reference and search windows, using a suitable correlation function. In this paper the modified cross covariance function was used, which presented the best results. A strategy was developed for adaptative resampling of the patterns, which solved the problem of deformation of the targets due to object surface inclination. Experiments with simulated and real data were performed in order to assess the efficiency of the proposed methodology for target detection. The results showed that the proposed classification strategy works properly, identifying 98% of targets in plane surfaces and 93% in oblique surfaces. 2704 Using straight features extracted from MDT obtained from laser scanning system as a control for calculating spatial resection of digital images (Portuguese) (O uso de feic¸o˜ es retas extradas do MDT gerado pelo sistema de varredura laser como apoio para o c´alculo da ressec¸a˜ o espacial de imagens digitais) Dalmolin Q., Rodrigues dos Santos D., de Lara Santos Jr. R. and B¨ahr I.- H.H.- P. Boletim de Ciencias Geodesicas 2005 11/1 (117-140) This paper deals with a method of spatial resection of digital images with the help of straight features extracted from images of laser scanning as field control. These straight features are automatically extracted from laser scanning images and from digital images, and their correspondences are determined by the operator manually. The parameters of image’s outer orientation were estimated by the Parametric Method with positioning constraint. This paper aims at presenting the availability of intensive image use as field control for spatial resection of digital image acquired from small cameras. The obtained results showed that the use of straight features gotten from laser scanning can be used in digital image spatial resection. 2705 Managing spatial uncertainty using attribute, geometric, and neighborhood measures in an empirical rule-based model approach Allan R. and Lowell K. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/2 (141-156) A rule-based model for managing uncertainty in spatial databases is presented. The overall goal of the model is to allow a user to assign to a single map class each polygon whose class is not entirely certain using more information than only the map class attributes of such polygons (that are herein termed abjects). This situation might arise when multiple map realizations of an area are available and interpreters/cartographers are not in agreement as to what class is present at a given location or when a digital image is classified by algorithmic/probabilistic means. The scale-based model developed relies on attribute, geometric, and neighborhood measures of abjects arranged in a hierarchical rulebased structure. Structural knowledge of these measures leads to the procedural knowledge that determines what action - e.g., merge, reclassify, retain - is to be taken for a given abject. The wider applicability of the model and associated methodology is also discussed. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2706 Assessing representation error in point-based coverage modeling Murray A.T. and O’Kelly M.E. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/2 (171-191) Accurately representing geographic space in a digital environment continues to confound and challenge researchers. Carrying out spatial analysis in a setting where geographic representation is subject to change poses problems to be addressed. In this paper we examine spatial representation in the context of coverage-based location modeling. A geographic region can be represented in a variety of ways. We present an evaluation of spatial representation in the location of facilities that provide coverage oriented services. The analysis shows that the modeling results are sensitive to how spatial demand for service is represented in a digital environment. We develop an approach for evaluating representational appropriateness. This research contributes to spatial analysis integrated in geographic information system environment. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2707 Improvement of satellite derived pollution maps with the use of a geostatistical interpolation method Kanaroglou P.S., Soulakellis N.A. and Sifakis N.I. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/2 (193-208) The small number of ground stations for the assessment of the spatial distribution of air pollutants motivates the search for methods that make use of satellite images. One such method, known as Differential Texture Analysis (DTA), is used to measure the Aerosol Optical Thickness in the Visible (AOTV), which correlates highly with air quality. With this method, the presence REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING of clouds and/or land cover changes produce patches of missing values. In this paper we demonstrate that universal kriging can be used to obtain reasonable estimates for these missing values. The methodology was applied to a satellite derived AOTV map of the city of Brescia (Italy). © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2708 Exposure assessment using high spatial resolution hyperspectral (HSRH) imagery Jacquez G.M., Marcus W.A., Aspinall R.J. and Greiling D.A. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (1-14) This special issue reports the findings of a specialist workshop held in the summer of 2000, in Ann Arbor, Michigan. This introduction provides background information on HSRH imagery, briefly describes the major ways in which remote sensing data have been used previously for exposure assessment, presents the salient findings of the workshop, and places the papers resulting from the workshop within the context of these findings. It concludes with a description of a ground-truthed, HSRH data set that was used by several of the researchers to evaluate and compare their methods. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2709 Considerations in collecting, processing, and analysing high spatial resolution hyperspectral data for environmental investigations Aspinall R.J., Marcus W.A. and Boardman J.W. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (15-29) This paper briefly describes the methods available for collection, atmospheric and geometric correction, and processing of hyperspectral imagery. Discussion of data capture concentrates on logistics of integrating image acquisition with field data collection. Atmospheric correction is required to use the imagery with reference spectra from field and laboratory sensors; a variety of methods for atmospheric correction are described. Geometric correction is required for integration of the image data and derived products with other geographic information. A description of methods for single and multiple feature identification is provided. These all focus on the analysis of the spectral description of surface materials provided by hyperspectral imagery; methods for multiple feature identification take advantage of high spectral dimensionality of the imagery to identify sub-pixel components. A role for spatial analysis combined with spectral analysis in interpretation of environmental features is identified. © SpringerVerlag 2002. 2710 Emerging and vector-borne diseases: Role of high spatial resolution and hyperspectral images in analyses and forecasts Wilson M.L. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (31-42) Many infectious diseases that are emerging or transmitted by arthropod vectors have a strong link to landscape features. Depending on the source of infection or ecology of the transmitting vector, micro-habitat characteristics at the spatial scale of square meters or less may be important. Recently, satellite images have been used to classify habitats in an attempt to understand associations with infectious diseases. Whether high spatial resolution and hyperspectral (HSRH) images can be useful in studies of such infectious diseases is addressed. The nature of questions that such studies address and the desired accuracy and precision of answers will determine the utility of HSRH data. Need for such data should be based on the goals of the effort. Examples of kinds of questions and applications are discussed. The research implications and public health applications may depend on available analytic tools as well as epidemiological observations. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2711 Modeling spatial dependence in high spatial resolution hyperspectral data sets Griffith D.A. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (43-51) As either the spatial resolution or the spatial scale for a geographic landscape increases, both latent spatial dependence and spatial heterogeneity also will tend to increase. In addition, the amount of georeferenced data that results becomes massively large. These features of high spatial resolution hyperspectral data present several impediments to conducting a spatial statistical analysis of such data. Foremost is the requirement of popular spatial autoregressive models to compute eigenvalues 513 for a row-standardized geographic weights matrix that depicts the geographic configuration of an image’s pixels. A second drawback arises from a need to account for increased spatial heterogeneity. And a third concern stems from the usefulness of marrying geostatistical and spatial autoregressive models in order to employ their combined power in a spatial analysis. Research reported in this paper addresses all three of these topics, proposing successful ways to prevent them from hindering a spatial statistical analysis. For illustrative purposes, the proposed techniques are employed in a spatial analysis of a high spatial resolution hyperspectral image collected during research on riparian habitats in the Yellowstone ecosystem. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2712 Adjacency selection in Markov Random Fields for high spatial resolution hyperspectral data Lagona F. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (53-68) Markov Random Fields, implemented for the analysis of remote sensing images, capture the natural spatial dependence between band wavelengths taken at each pixel, through a suitable adjacency relationship between pixels, to be denned a priori. In most cases several adjacency definitions seem viable and a model selection problem arises. A BIC-penalized Pseudo-Likelihood criterion is suggested which combines good distributional properties and computational feasibility for analysis of high spatial resolution hyperspectral images. Its performance is compared with that of the BIC-penalized Likelihood criterion for detecting spatial structures in a high spatial resolution hyperspectral image for the Lamar area in Yellowstone National Park. © SpringerVerlag 2002. 2713 Area-based tests for association between spatial patterns Maruca S.L. and Jacquez G.M. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (69-83) Edge effects pervade natural systems, and the processes that determine spatial heterogeneity (e.g. physical, geochemical, biological, ecological factors) occur on diverse spatial scales. Hence, tests for association between spatial patterns should be unbiased by edge effects and be based on null spatial models that incorporate the spatial heterogeneity characteristic of real-world systems. This paper develops probabilistic pattern association tests that are appropriate when edge effects are present, polygon size is heterogeneous, and the number of polygons varies from one classification to another. The tests are based on the amount of overlap between polygons in each of two partitions. Unweighted and area-weighted versions of the statistics are developed and verified using scenarios representing both polygon overlap and avoidance at different spatial scales and for different distributions of polygon sizes. These statistics were applied to Soda Butte Creek, Wyoming, to determine whether stream microhabitats, such as riffles, pools and glides, can be identified remotely using high spatial resolution hyperspectral imagery. These new "spatially explicit" techniques provide information and insights that cannot be obtained from the spectral information alone. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2714 Change detection thresholds for remotely sensed images Rogerson P.A. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (85-97) The detection of change in remotely sensed images is often carried out by designating a threshold to distinguish between areas of change and areas of no change. The choice of threshold is often arbitrary however. The purpose of this paper is to offer a statistical framework for the selection of thresholds. The framework accounts for the facts that one carries out multiple tests of the null hypothesis of no change, when searching for regions of change over an image with a large number of pixels. Special attention is given to global spatial autocorrelation, which can affect the selection of appropriate threshold values. © SpringerVerlag 2002. 2715 Geostatistical incorporation of spatial coordinates into supervised classification of hyperspectral data Goovaerts P. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (99-111) This paper presents a methodology to incorporate both hyperspectral properties and spatial coordinates of pixels in maximum 514 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING likelihood classification. Indicator kriging of ground data is used to estimate, for each pixel, the prior probabilities of occurrence of classes which are then combined with spectral-based probabilities within a Bayesian framework. In the case study (mapping of in-stream habitats), accounting for spatial coordinates increases the overall producer’s accuracy from 85.8% to 93.8%, while the Kappa statistic rises from 0.74 to 0.88. Best results are obtained using only indicator kriging-based probabilities, with a stunning overall accuracy of 97.2%. Significant improvements are observed for environmentally important units, such as pools (Kappa: 0.17 to 0.74) and eddy drop zones (Kappa: 0.65 to 0.87). The lack of benefit of using hyperspectral information in the present study can be explained by the dense network of ground observations and the high spatial continuity of field classification which might be spurious. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2716 Mapping of stream microhabitats with high spatial resolution hyperspectral imagery Marcus W.A. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (113126) Maximum likelihood supervised classifications with 1-m 128 band hyperspectral data accurately map in-stream habitats in the Lamar River, Wyoming with producer’s accuracies of 91% for pools, 87% for glides, 76% for riffles, and 85% for eddy drop zones. Coarser resolution 5-m hyperspectral data and 1m simulated multiband imagery yield lower accuracies that are unacceptable for inventory and analysis. Both high spatial resolution and hyperspectral coverage are therefore necessary to map microhabitats in the study area. In many instances, the high spatial resolution hyperspectral (HSRH) imagery appears to map the stream habitats with greater accuracy than our ground-based surveys, thus challenging classical approaches used for accuracy assessment in remote sensing. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2717 A geographic information science perspective on hyperspectral remote sensing Aspinall R. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/1 (127-140) This paper presents a brief review of hyperspectral imagery and its analysis from a perspective based in Geographic Information Science. The ten original research priorities of the University Consortium for Geographic Information Science from 1996 and the five emerging themes from 2000/2001 are used as a framework to examine different aspects of management, analysis and use of hyperspectral imagery. A GIScience perspective identifies a series of issues that can develop the utility of hyperspectral imagery and gives an agenda for research that integrates hyperspectral imagery into Geographic Information Science to the benefit of both GIScience and hyperspectral remote sensing. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2718 Facets of uncertainty in digital elevation and slope modeling Zhang J. and Li D. Geo-Spatial Information Science 2005 8/3 (163-170) This paper investigates the differences that result from applying different approaches to uncertainty modeling and reports an experimental examining error estimation and propagation in elevation and slope, with the latter derived from the former. It is confirmed that significant differences exist between uncertainty descriptors, and propagation of uncertainty to end products is immensely affected by the specification of source uncertainty. 2719 Quality control in digital terrain models Seco Meneses A., Ramrez Chasco F., Garca B. et al. Journal of Surveying Engineering 2005 131/4 (118-124) This article is based on digital terrain models (DTMs) and their applications in civil engineering carried out at the Public University of Navarre. One of the drawbacks of the use of these synthetic surfaces is the need to characterize their quality, a very important issue for its economic importance but difficult to determine in a nonempirical manner. We will review the techniques most commonly used to estimate the quality of the models and propose a new method for the control of the quality of DTM in applications for which a high accuracy is required. Among the advantages of this method is that no reference model is needed, and there is a possibility of estimating the errors obtained when using a DTM. The proposed method offers good results and ade- quately allows one to characterize the roughness of the surfaces evaluated. The sensitivity analysis of the model shows that the volumetric errors are highly sensitive to the density of points sampled, while the height errors remain highly stable. Journal of Surveying Engineering © ASCE. 2720 Urban classification using full spectral information of Landsat ETM+ imagery in Marion County, Indiana Lu D. and Weng Q. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 2005 71/11 (1275-1284) This paper compares different image processing routines to identify suitable remote sensing variables for urban classification in the Marion County, Indiana, USA, using a Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) image. The ETM+ multispectral, panchromatic, and thermal images are used. Incorporation of spectral signature, texture, and surface temperature is examined, as well as data fusion techniques for combining a higher spatial resolution image with lower spatial resolution multispectral images. Results indicate that incorporation of texture from lower spatial resolution images or of a temperature image cannot improve classification accuracies. However, incorporation of textures derived from a higher spatial resolution panchromatic image improves the classification accuracy. In particular, use of data fusion result and texture image yields the best classification accuracy with an overall accuracy of 78 percent and a kappa index of 0.73 for eleven land use and land cover classes. © 2005 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 2721 Assessment of very high spatial resolution satellite image segmentations Carleer A.P., Debeir O. and Wolff E. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 2005 71/11 (1285-1294) Since 1999, very high spatial resolution satellite data represent the surface of the Earth with more detail. However, information extraction by per pixel multispectral classification techniques proves to be very complex owing to the internal variability increase in land-cover units and to the weakness of spectral resolution. Image segmentation before classification was proposed as an alternative approach, but a large variety of segmentation algorithms were developed during the last 20 years, and a comparison of their implementation on very high spatial resolution images is necessary. In this study, four algorithms from the two main groups of segmentation algorithms (boundary-based and region-based) were evaluated and compared. In order to compare the algorithms, an evaluation of each algorithm was carried out with empirical discrepancy evaluation methods. This evaluation is carried out with a visual segmentation of Ikonos panchromatic images. The results show that the choice of parameters is very important and has a great influence on the segmentation results. The selected boundary-based algorithms are sensitive to the noise or texture. Better results are obtained with region-based algorithms, but a problem with the transition zones between the contrasted objects can be present. © 2005 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 2722 Geometric accuracy evaluation of the DEM generated by the Russian TK-350 stereo scenes using the SRTM X- and C-band interferometric DEMs Buyuksalih G., Kocak G. and Oruc M. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 2005 71/11 (1295-1301) TK-350 stereo-scenes covering 200 km X 300 km on the ground with a base-to-height-ratio of 0.52 have been analysed on Zonguldak testfield in the northwest of Turkey. The pixel size on the ground is 10 m. Control points digitised from 1:25 000 scale topographic maps have been used in the test. The sensor orientation was executed by the PCI Geomatica® V8.2 software package. TK-350 stereo-images can yield 3D geopositioning to an accuracy of about 10 m horizontally and 17 m vertically. Based on this orientation, DEM with 40 m cell size was generated by the related module of PCI system. For the validation of extracted DEM, matched data was checked against the interferometric DEMs from SRTM X- and C-band SAR data. Based on this comparison, the RMSE of Z values was found to be in the range of 25.6 to 36.9 m and 28.7 to 38.7 m outside and inside the forest area, respectively. However, accuracy results REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING obtained against the SRTM C-band DEM are more representative than those of X-band since the coverage of C-band DEM on the interest area is larger than the X-band. There are some systematic shifts of the TK-350 DEM against the SRTM DEMs which lie between the 3.7 m to 6.2 m which is probably due to the different sensor orientation of TK-350 and SRTM datasets. Height discrepancies are also analysed as a function of terrain slope. It was found that slope depending components were always larger in the case of C-band DEM because of its larger cell spacing. In the forest areas, more dependency upon the slope was observed against the open areas. © 2005 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 2723 Adaptive patch projection for the generation of orthophotos from satellite images Chen L.- C., Teo T.- A. and Rau J.- Y. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 2005 71/11 (1321-1327) In this paper, we describe an "Adaptive Patch Projection" scheme that can accelerate the orthorectification for satellite images without losing accuracy. The proposed scheme is comprised of two major components: (a) orbit modeling, and (b) image orthorectification. In orbit modeling, we provide a collocation procedure to determine the precise orbits. In image orthorectification, the area of interest is sequentially subdivided into four quadrate tiles until a specified threshold for terrain variations is met. The threshold of maximum terrain variation in a tile will be optimized according to the computational efficiency and the accuracy requirements. Once the ground tiles are determined, we perform adaptive patch projection to the corresponding image pixels. Test images from SPOT5 Supermode and QuickBird satellites are included. The experimental results show that this algorithm can minimize the orthorectification computation time, while the modeling error is insignificant. © 2005 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 2724 Maximum posterior probability estimators of map accuracy Steele B.M. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (254-270) Assessing the accuracy of land cover maps is often prohibitively expensive because of the difficulty of collecting a statistically valid probability sample from the classified map. Even when post-classification sampling is undertaken, cost and accessibility constraints may result in imprecise estimates of map accuracy. If the map is constructed via supervised classification, then the training sample provides a potential alternative source of data for accuracy assessment. Yet unless the training sample is collected by probability sampling, the estimates are, at best, of uncertain quality, and may be substantially biased. This article discusses a new approach to map accuracy assessment based on maximum posterior probability estimators. Maximum posterior probability estimators are resistant to bias induced by non-representative sampling, and so are intended for situations in which the training sample is collected without using a statistical sampling design. The maximum posterior probability approach may also be used to increase the precision of estimates obtained from a post-classification sample. In addition to discussing maximum posterior probability estimators, this article reports on a simulation study comparing three approaches to estimating map accuracy: 1) post-classification sampling, 2) resampling the training sample via cross-validation, and 3) maximum posterior probability estimation. The simulation study showed substantial reductions in bias and improvements in precision in comparisons of maximum posterior probability and cross-validation estimators when the training sample was not representative of the map. In addition, combining an ordinary post-classification estimator and the maximum posterior probability estimator produced an estimator that was at least, and usually more precise than the ordinary post-classification estimator. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2725 A change detection model based on neighborhood correlation image analysis and decision tree classification Im J. and Jensen J.R. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (326-340) This study introduces a change detection model based on Neighborhood Correlation Image (NCI) logic. It is based on the fact that the same geographic area (e.g., a 3  3 pixel window) on 515 two dates of imagery will tend to be highly correlated if little change has occurred, and uncorrelated when change occurs. Computing the piecewise correlation between two data sets provides valuable information regarding the location and numeric change value derived using contextual information within the specified neighborhood. Various neighborhood configurations (i.e., multi-level NCIs) were explored in the study using high spatial resolution multispectral imagery: smaller neighborhood sizes provided some detailed change information (such as a new patios added to an existing building) at the cost of introducing some noise (such as changes in shadows). Larger neighborhood sizes were useful for removing this noise but introduced some inaccurate change information (such as removing some linear feature changes). When combined with image classification using a machine learning decision tree (C5.0), classifications based on multi-level NCIs yielded superior results (e.g., using a 3-pixel circular radius neighborhood had a Kappa of 0.94), compared to the classification that did not incorporate NCIs (Kappa = 0.86). © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2726 Analysis of multiscale radiometric data collected during the Cold Land Processes Experiment-1 (CLPX-1) Tedesco M., Kim E.J., Gasiewski A. et al. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Histograms of brightness temperatures collected at 18.7 and 37 GHz over the Fraser and North Park Meso-Scale Areas during the Cold Land Processes Experiment by the NOAA Polarimetric Scanning Radiometer (PSR/ A) airborne sensor are modelled by a log-normal distribution (Fraser, forested area) and by a bi-modal distribution (North Park, patchy-snow, non-forested area). The brightness temperatures are re-sampled over a range of resolutions to study the effects of sensor resolution on the shape of the distribution, on the values of the average brightness temperatures and standard deviations. The histograms become more uniform and the spatial information in the initial distribution is lost for a resolution larger than 5000 m, in both areas. The values of brightness temperatures obtained by re-sampling the PSR-A data at 25 km resolution are consistent with those recorded by the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR-E) and Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) satellite radiometers at similar resolutions. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2727 Error estimates for assimilation of satellite sea surface temperature data in ocean climate models Richman J.G., Miller R.N. and Spitz Y.H. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) Estimating the errors in the data and model are critical aspects of data assimilation. In this paper we present a reduced state space optimal interpolation scheme to assimilate satellite remotely sensed sea surface temperature into a coarse resolution general circulation model of the North Pacific. Using statistical tests on the principal components of a multidecadal model simulation and the misfits between model simulation and the remotely sensed data, we are able to show that the model and data have a small number of independent degrees of freedom (approximately 30-40), which is much less than the dimension of the model or data. Taking the difference between the model-data misfit and a fit to the model-data misfit using the principal components of the model, we are able to estimate the model representation error. The techniques presented in this paper can be adapted for other models and data sources. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2728 Comparisons of EOS MLS cloud ice measurements with ECMWF analyses and GCM simulations: Initial results Li J.- L., Waliser D.E., Jiang J.H. et al. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) To assess the status of global climate models (GCMs) in simulating upper-tropospheric ice water content (IWC), a new set of IWC measurements from the Earth Observing System’s Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) are used. Comparisons are made with ECMWF analyses and simulations from several GCMs, including two with multi-scale-modeling framework. For January 2005 monthly and daily mean values, the spatial agreement between MLS and ECMWF is quite good, although MLS estimates are higher by a factor of 2-3 over the Western Pacific, tropical Africa 516 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING and South America. For the GCMs, the model-data agreement is within a factor of 2-4 with larger values of disagreement occurring over Eastern Pacific and Atlantic ITCZs, tropical Africa and South America. The implications arising from sampling and uncertainties in the observations, the modeled values and their comparison are discussed. These initial results demonstrate the potential usefulness of this data set for evaluating GCM performance and guiding development efforts. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2729 Validation of AVHRR- And MODIS-derived albedos of snow and ice surfaces by means of helicopter measurements Greuell W. and Oerlemans J. Journal of Glaciology 2005 51/172 (37-48) We describe the validation of surface albedos of snow and glacier ice as derived from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) satellite data. For this purpose we measured surface albedos from a helicopter over Vatnaj¨okull, Iceland, and the Kangerlussuaq transect (western part of the Greenland ice sheet) in Thematic Mapper (TM) bands 2 and 4 and AVHRR bands 1 and 2, and converted these values to ‘measured albedos’ in three MODIS bands. Relative to other validation methods, our helicopter measurements have the advantages of larger spatial coverage and of (almost) direct measurements in satellite-sensor spectral bands. We found the smallest differences between the satellite-derived and helicopter albedos for the Kangerlussuaq transect: for AVHRR data a mean difference of 0.01 in both bands (with the satellite in near-nadir position) and for two MODIS images a mean difference of 0.00-0.02 for bands 2 and 4, and 0.03 for band 1. For two AVHRR images of Vatnaj¨okull, we found mean differences of up to 0.06. Differences are primarily due to errors in the satellite-derived albedos, which, in turn, are mainly caused by errors in the calibration coefficients of the satellite sensors and insufficient knowledge of the angular distribution of the radiation reflected by snow and ice. Satellite data obtained from view zenith angles larger than
50-55° appeared to be unsuitable. GIS 2730 GIS and surveying: Future opportunities Jeffress G. Surveying and Land Information Science 2005 65/3 (169-177) The demand for accurate spatial data with known error budgets is increasing with the increased use of GIS throughout all sectors of the economy. GIS users are beginning to see that with increased reliance on GIS data and information there is a corresponding increase in the risk and liability if the data are of unknown or dubious accuracy. This paper argues that the surveying profession has the education, skills, legal understanding, and experience to minimize these risks and liabilities. But are there enough surveyors to take on the extra demand for these new uses of spatial data? Evidence is emerging that the number of surveying professionals is declining while demand for surveying services is increasing. The shortage of professional surveyors presents challenges and opportunities for both GIS and surveying professionals. 2731 Surveying, geomatics, and engineering: A "structure" for a rapidly evolving profession Hazelton N.W.J. Surveying and Land Information Science 2005 65/3 (211-222) A recent letter in P.O.B. magazine suggested that there needs to be a greater separation between Engineering and Surveying/Geomatics in the U.S. Simultaneously, surveying/geomatics education programs are moving more towards engineering in terms of accreditation. Surveying has been tied closely to civil engineering in the U.S., and most registration boards deal with both surveyors and engineers. Where should the profession and the education sector head in this situation? While basic surveying is often focused on data collection, the more advanced areas are focused on information engineering. As the data collection process becomes simpler, we have concentrated on abstraction and symbols. We deal with co-ordinates in GPS and COGO packages, rather than measurements between marks. We deal with GIS databases rather than real-world objects. We deal with abstract land records, rather than actual parcels. We are registered on the basis of the appearance of competence, rather than actual competence. We are not sure if we should move with the model of engineering advanced by ABET, or the diametrically opposite model advanced by NCEES. We risk losing touch with the reality that it is our professional obligation to determine our ultimate raison d’ˆetre. Surveying/geomatics has always struggled to decide if it is an information industry, a service industry, or both. In the U.S., it has also struggled to decide if it is a profession and, if so, how should it behave as a profession. It has existed in the thrall of engineering, convinced of its own mediocrity, believing what it was told about itself, never growing to true self-awareness. At the same time, change is sweeping through the industry at an accelerating rate, already far faster than the profession can handle. Something new is needed, before the profession and industry is largely moved off-shore, or shrinks into irrelevance or small enclaves. Models of organizational structures are largely irrelevant. What is needed is a new state of mind. In this paper, some outlines of a state of mind for 21st century geomatics are provided, with some connections back to the role of the education sector in helping to foster this. GIS: methodology 2732 Analysing regional industrialisation in Jiangsu province using geographically weighted regression Huang V. and Leung Y. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/2 (233-249) Industry is the most important sector in the Chinese economy. To identify the spatial interaction between the level of regional industrialisation and various factors, this paper takes Jiangsu province of China as a case study. To unravel the existence of spatial nonstationarity, geographically weighted regression (GWR) is employed in this article. Conventional regression analysis can only produce ‘average’ and ‘global’ parameter estimates rather than ‘local’ parameter estimates which vary over space in some spatial systems. Geographically weighted regression (GWR), on the other hand, is a relatively simple, but useful new technique for the analysis of spatial nonstationarity. Using the GWR technique to study regional industrialisation in Jiangsu province, it is found that there is a significant difference between the ordinary linear regression (OLR) and GWR models. The relationships between the level of regional industrialisation and various factors show considerable spatial variability. © Springer-Verlag 2002. 2733 Relationship of uncertainty between polygon segment and line segment for spatial data in GIS Liu C. and Tong X. Geo-Spatial Information Science 2005 8/3 (183-188) The mathematic theory for uncertainty model of line segment are summed up to achieve a general conception, and the line error band model of σ is a basic uncertainty model that can depict the line accuracy and quality efficiently while the model of m and error entropy can be regarded as the supplement of it. The error band model will reflect and describe the influence of line uncertainty on polygon uncertainty. Therefore, the statistical characteristic of the line error is studied deeply by analyzing the probability that the line error falls into a certain range. Moreover, the theory accordance is achieved in the selecting the error buffer for line feature and the error indicator. The relationship of the accuracy of area for a polygon with the error loop for a polygon boundary is deduced and computed. GIS: error, accuracy, quality, legislation 2734 Moment representation of polygons for the assessment of their shape quality Bel Hadj Ali A. Journal of Geographical Systems 2002 4/2 (209232) REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING 517 Assessing the quality of a geographical data set requires comparison with a reference data set where the positions, shapes and functions of the geographical entities involved are described more realistically, i.e., more accurately and more precisely. While positional accuracy and semantic exactitude have been much studied by GI scientists, and also (though to a lesser degree) shape quality of linear entities, very few works have been directed towards the assessment of the quality of areal entities. This paper focus on assessing shape quality of areal entities. Areal entities are usually represented in GIS by circular lists of coordinates that build polygons. This hinders the assessment of shape quality. Such a representation does not allow to easily grasp how an areal entity is structured. Areal entities are various: they may be simple polygons, complex polygons or regions (aggregates of simple or complex polygons with or without holes). Using coordinates to represent an area as a polygon does not make it easy to compare two objects that have globally the same shape with highly disturbed contours. Relevant representations for complex geographical entities are then required in order to handle the whole of their geometrical structure. This paper focuses on such a representation, which has been investigated at the COGIT laboratory of IGN (The French National Mapping Agency). This method allows the description of shapes for geographical entities by means of mathematical moments. This technique has been extensively implemented in the pattern recognition domain and in robotics for shape matching, optical character recognition (OCR), remote sensing and signature verification, among others. In our GI quality domain, the moments will be used to assess the shape quality of areal entities. This requires that groups of matched objects be first built between the reference data set and the data set to be assessed, which may be achieved by using existing matching tools. In the first part of this paper the transformation of areal entities into moments is presented. Geometrical moments, complex moments and orthogonal moments (namely, Legendre moment and Zernike moments) are all addressed. In the second part, similarity indexes and metrics in these spaces of representation are defined. Finally, we show the performance of these techniques through tests carried out on real geographical data sets and we present an example of how this new representation may be used to qualify shape between matched entities. © Springer-Verlag 2002. maps at 1: 10 000 showed bedrock geology, water supply, building materials plus tunnelling conditions, and military geology. Only a few contemporary copies of these maps were produced, hand-drawn upon printed topographical base-maps. Some are now preserved in Germany at the Bundesarchiv-Milit¨ararchiv, others in the USA at the National Archives and Records Administration. They include the only military geology maps, the earliest large-scale groundwater maps and arguably the earliest large-scale building resources maps, for any part of the British Isles. © The British Cartographic Society 2005. Map curatorship and history Cartography 2735 Coloured roads on Ordnance Survey first edition 1: 2500 plans and one-inch maps 1897-1935, and the rights of way disclaimer Hodson Y. Cartographic Journal 2005 42/2 (85-110) In 1892 a government committee of inquiry into the Ordnance Survey suggested that the Survey should make a distinction between public and private second class roads at the one-inch scale. This study is confined to England and Wales and looks at the nineteenth-century practice of colouring roads on the large-scale plans, and compares the representation of coloured rural roads on early Ordnance Survey one-inch maps with near contemporary highway records of the county of Huntingdonshire, sixteen rural district councils in six counties and an estate in Suffolk. The results show that all but four of the coloured roads on the oneinch maps in these areas are recorded as publicly maintainable highways. © The British Cartographic Society 2005. 2739 Review: MapInfo version 8.0 Thurston J. GEO: connexion 2005 4/9 (54-56) The latest version of MapInfo Professional builds on the already successful and internationally well-known core product billed as a mapping tool for complex geographic information. The popular product provides a wide range of location related business analysis functionality together with numerous data presentation options. MapInfo Professional has been designed with enterprises in mind and also enables a very high level of interoperability, due to the high level of Open Geospatial Consortium standardisation present within the product. 2736 Specialist maps of the Channel Islands prepared by German military geologists during the second world war: German expertise deployed on British terrain Rose E.P.F. Cartographic Journal 2005 42/2 (111-136) During the German occupation of the Channel Islands, military geologists produced specialist maps to support their development as part of the Atlantic Wall: the line of fortifications marking the western boundary of German-occupied Europe. For Jersey, maps showed features of groundwater and quarry sites for building materials, primarily at a scale of 1: 25 000. For Guernsey, maps at this scale were prepared to depict bedrock and superficial geology, and also maps which showed sites for building materials, water supply and features of military geology. For Alderney, 2737 Truth and accountability in geographic and historical visualizations Wallace T.R. and van den Heuvel C. Cartographic Journal 2005 42/2 (173-181) The research project Paper and Virtual Cities, financed by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and carried out by the Universities of Maastricht and Groningen, is developing new methodologies for the use of historical geographic sources in computer-assisted cartography. Manuscript and printed maps, atlases and other related texts are some of the sources we consider. One concept that is of particular interest at the onset of this project is that of the representation of ‘truth’ in geographic and historical visualizations. © The British Cartographic Society 2005. 2738 Spatial representation of Gaul according to Gregory of Tours (French) (Repr´esentation de l’espace gaulois d’apr`es Gr´egoire de Tours) Rodier X. M@ppemonde 2004 76/4 (5p) The systematic mapping of place names in Gaul from the collected works of Gregory of Tours (late 6th century) stimulated some thoughts on the modern representation of space for this period. Different cartographic tools were employed to transform the distribution of location points into a spatial image. Lastly, the proposed virtual map provides the possibility to travel around this created space and explore it. While this virtual map generated new perspectives regarding the database of Gregory, it also showed the limited use one can make of this information regarding space. 2740 An alternative to maximum contrast symbolization for classed choropleth mapping Cromley R.G. Cartographic Journal 2005 42/2 (137-144) Traditionally, choropleth maps are used to examine spatial patterns present in a data distribution rather than to examine specific data values within that distribution. The transformation of initial numeric data values into graphic values for visual display differs for classed and unclassed maps. Classed maps first group data into classification intervals and each interval is then assigned a graphic value usually using the principle of maximum contrast. Unclassed maps skip the classification step and directly assign graphic value based on the original numeric data value. The paper examines the differences in defining algebraic-to-graphic transformation lines for both classed and unclassed classed maps and especially the role of the maximum contrast principle in constructing classed choropleth maps. Results show that the maximum contrast principle increases the visual complexity of spatial patterns in a classed map over the level present in a cor- 518 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING responding unclassed map. © The British Cartographic Society 2005. 2741 Generalization of contours using deviation angles and error bands G¨okg¨oz T. Cartographic Journal 2005 42/2 (145-156) In this paper a new approach for generalization of contours is described. The aim of this approach is to obtain both simplified and smoothed contours lying on a minimum number of characteristic points and inside the error bands. Characteristic points of contours are defined in relation to the skeleton lines of the terrain and determined using the deviation angles at the contour points. Error bands for contours are constructed by means of the steepest slope lines and the mean square planimetric errors at the contour points. The new approach is compared to the Li-Openshaw algorithm according to the experimental testing results. © The British Cartographic Society 2005. 2742 Quantitative evaluation of cartographic generalization (Portuguese) (Avaliac¸a˜ o quantitativa da generalizac¸a˜ o cartogr´afica) Lazzarotto D.R., Sluter C.R. and Dalmolin Q. Boletim de Ciencias Geodesicas 2005 11/1 (23-43) This paper describes a methodology for evaluating the reduction of the number of features as a consequence of a map generalization process. Map generalization is present in any mapping activity because we always represent part of the Earth on a limited and smaller area, like a piece of paper or a computer screen. Map generalization is also a necessary task when we generate maps from maps on larger scales. Therefore the importance of this subject is well recognized by the cartographic community. The methodology presented in this paper can be applied either for derived mapping (map scale reduction) or basic mapping. In order to quantify the features reduction a basic unit for every feature is established. The level of generalization is defined as a Map Generalization Indicator which is a result of the fuzzy intersection of two others Indicators, that is, Planimetric Generalization and Altimetric Generalization. The criterion used for quantifying those Indicators is based on numerical relation between the map scales. The Indicators are processed by a Fuzzy Inference System based on the uncertainties present in the classification of the involved greatnesses. The result from the Fuzzy Inference System is a numerical index based on which the Indicators are evaluated as one of those five classes: Very great, Great, Average, Small and Very small. In order to quantify the Map Generalization Indicator the resulted class can be transformed into a numerical value by a defuzzify operation. The numerical value is considered a quantitative evaluation of the map generalization. 2743 Surveying education and technology who’s zooming who Burtch R. Surveying and Land Information Science 2005 65/3 (135-143) It is clear that technological changes are making a significant impact on the surveying and mapping profession. What is now common practice becomes outdated in only a few years. The impact of technology and instrumentation on surveying and mapping education will be explored. This paper will begin by defining the role of higher education in the surveying and mapping profession. The assertion here is that the historical role of higher education is on the brink of being compromised. This happens when technology becomes paramount and theoretical concepts become subservient to the tools. What we are experiencing is a nudge away from education towards training. In our stampede to get the newest and brightest, programs have embraced unique "partnerships." The fear here is the "small print" in the agreement and the quid-pro-quo that may be implied. A decade ago, attending a workshop on how to use a total station was deemed to be technician training. In some circles today it is referred to as continuing education. Moreover, the din against the necessity for a degree to become licensed is often based, in part, on the perception of a lack of technical skills graduates may exhibit in the workplace. There is also an inclination within the profession to provide education to "the masses." The result may be one where education programs become diluted and even devoid of theory; where tools and techniques replace conceptual issues. Education has been under fire for a number of years. There are those who call for a return to the basics - the three R’s. Surveying educators should not abandon the new and go back to what we did in the past. But, they have to be careful about how to embrace this new technology. Understanding how a laser scanner works, its limitations and advantages, and its production capabilities is important. Knowing what button to push to begin the measurement process or icon to click in order to process the data is less important, especially since this technology has a shorter life cycle than the typical college student’s tenure in a baccalaureate surveying program. 2744 Computer program for the inverse transformation of the Winkel projection Ipbuker C. and Bildirici I.O. Journal of Surveying Engineering 2005 131/4 (125-129) The map projection problem involves transforming the graticule of meridians and parallels of a sphere onto a plane using a specified mathematical method according to certain conditions. Map projection transformations are a research field dealing with the method of transforming one kind of map projection coordinates to another. The conversion from geographical to plane coordinates is the normal practice in cartography, which is called forward transformation. The inverse transformation, which yields geographical coordinates from map coordinates, is a more recent development due to the need for transformation between different map projections, especially in Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The direct inverse equations for most of the map projections are already in existence, but for the projections, which have complex functions for forward transformation, defining the inverse projection is not easy. This paper describes an iteration algorithm to derive the inverse equations of the Winkel tripel projection using the Newton-Raphson iteration method. Journal of Surveying Engineering © ASCE. Applications: atmosphere 2745 Intercomparison of O3 profiles observed by SCIAMACHY and ground based microwave instruments Palm M., Savigny C.V., Warneke T. et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2091-2098) Ozone profiles retrieved from limb scattering measurements of the SCIAMACHY instrument based on the satellite ENVISAT are compared to ground-based low altitude resolution remote sensors. All profiles are retrieved using optimal estimation. Following the work of Rodgers and Connor (2003) the retrievals of the ground-based instruments are simulated using the SCIAMACHY retrieval. The SCIAMACHY results and the results of the ´ lesund ground-based microwave radiometer in Bremen and Ny U agree within the expected covariance of the intercomparison. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2746 Alternative polarisation retrieval for SCIAMACHY in the ultraviolet Tilstra L.G. and Stammes P. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2099-2107) We introduce an alternative method for the retrieval of polarisation in the ultraviolet by the satellite spectrometer SCIAMACHY. Unlike the operational polarisation retrieval algorithm, this method does not use the Polarisation Measurement Devices (PMDs) onboard SCIAMACHY, but only requires the reflectance signal. This makes the algorithm more robust and less sensitive to calibration errors caused by either improper characterisation of the instrument’s response functions (key data) or degradation of the optical components. The alternative polarisation ret rieval is able to retrieve the full state of atmospheric polarisation in the wavelength range between 330 and 400 nm, which is essentially the wavelength region covered by SCIAMACHY’s PMD 1. This allows a direct comparison with the current operational product. When we compare the alternative polarisation algor ithm with the operational algorithm, we find in some cases agreement, but not in other cases. The alternative algorithm compares well with an analytical model of the polarisation of a cloud-free scene. Using the alternative algorithm the polarisation-sensitive feature in the SCIAMACHY reflectance around 350 nm is automatically REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING corrected for. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2747 Surface pressure retrieval from SCIAMACHY measurements in the O2 A band: Validation of the measurements and sensitivity on aerosols van Diedenhoven B., Hasekamp O.P. and Aben I. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2109-2120) We perform surface pressure retrievals from cloud-free Oxygen A band measurements of SCIAMACHY. These retrievals can be well validated because surface pressure is a quantity that is, in general, accurately known from meteorological models. Therefore, surface pressure retrievals and their validation provide important insight into the quality of the instrument calibration. Furthermore, they can provide insight into retrievals which are affected by similar radiation transport processes, for example the retrieval of total columns of H2 O, CO, CO2 and CH4 . In our retrieval aerosols are neglected. Using synthetic measurements, it is shown that for low to moderate surface albedos this leads to an underestimation of the retrieved surface pressures. For high surface albedos this generally leads to an overestimation of the retrieved surface pressures. The surface pressures retrieved from the SCIAMACHY measurements indeed show this dependence on surface albedo, when compared to the corresponding pressures from a meteorological database. However, an offset of about 20 hPa was found, which can not be caused by neglecting aerosols in the retrieval. The same offset was found when comparing the retrieved surface pressures to those retrieved from co-located GOME Oxygen A band measurements. This implies a calibration error in the SCIAMACHY measurements. By adding an offset of 0.86% of the continuum reflectance at 756 nm to the SCIAMACHY reflectance measurements, this systematic bias vanishes. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2748 Large-scale validation of SCIAMACHY reflectance in the ultraviolet van Soest G., Tilstra L.G. and Stammes P. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2005 5/8 (2171-2180) In this paper we present an extensive validation of calibrated SCIAMACHY nadir reflectance in the UV (240-400 nm) by comparison with spectra calculated with a fast radiative transfer model. We use operationally delivered near-real-time level 1 data, processed with standard calibration tools. A total of 9 months of data has been analysed. This is the first reflectance validation study incorporating such a large amount of data. It is shown that this method is a valuable tool for spotting spatial and temporal anomalies. We conclude that SCIAMACHY reflectance data in this wavelength range are stable over the investigated period. In addition, we show an example of an anomaly in the data due to an error in the processing chain that could be detected by our comparison. This validation method could be extremely useful too for validation of other satellite spectrometers, such as OMI and GOME-2. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2749 Cell detection at far ranges: Supporting Tb - Z relationships Calheiros R.V., Machado R. and Lima M.A. Atmospheric Science Letters 2005 6/1 (54-58) The Bauru radar detects inner cores of deep convective storm cells at long range, but relevant cell areas are left undetected. A procedure is in development to generate a more complete threedimensional representation of the cell structure for cost-beneficial hydrological use at larger distances. A set of satellite microwave brightness temperature (Tb ) - radar reflectivity (Z) relationships, basic to the retrieval procedure, has been derived. Copyright © 2005 Royal Meteorological Society. 2750 Combined radar and radiometer analysis of precipitation profiles for a parametric retrieval algorithm Masunaga H. and Kummerow C.D. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (909-929) A methodology to analyze precipitation profiles using the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI) and precipitation radar (PR) is proposed. Rainfall profiles are retrieved from PR measurements, defined as the best-fit 519 solution selected from precalculated profiles by cloud-resolving models (CRMs), under explicitly defined assumptions of drop size distribution (DSD) and ice hydrometeor models. The PR path-integrated attenuation (PIA), where available, is further used to adjust DSD in a manner that is similar to the PR operational algorithm. Combined with the TMI-retrieved nonraining geophysical parameters, the three-dimensional structure of the geophysical parameters is obtained across the satellite-observed domains. Microwave brightness temperatures are then computed for a comparison with TMI observations to examine if the radarretrieved rainfall is consistent in the radiometric measurement space. The inconsistency in microwave brightness temperatures is reduced by iterating the retrieval procedure with updated assumptions of the DSD and ice-density models. The proposed methodology is expected to refine the a priori rain profile database and error models for use by parametric passive microwave algorithms, aimed at the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission, as well as a future TRMM algorithms. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2751 The atmospheric radiation measurement program cloud profiling radars: An evaluation of signal processing and sampling strategies Kollias P., Clothiaux E.E., Albrecht B.A. et al. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (930-948) The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Atmospheric Radiation Measurements (ARM) program operates millimeter-wavelength cloud radars (MMCRs) in several specific locations within different climatological regimes. These vertically pointing cloud profiling radars supply the three most important Doppler spectrum moment estimates, which are the radar reflectivity (or zero moment), the mean Doppler velocity (or first moment), and the Doppler spectrum width (or second moment), as a function of time and height. The ARM MMCR Doppler moment estimates form the basis of a number of algorithms for retrieving cloud microphysical and radiative properties. The retrieval algorithms are highly sensitive to the quality and accuracy of the MMCR Doppler moment estimates. The significance of these sensitivities should not be underestimated, because the inherent physical variability of clouds, instrument-induced noise, and sampling strategy limitations all potentially introduce errors into the Doppler moment estimates. In this article, the accuracies of the first three Doppler moment estimates from the ARM MMCRs are evaluated for a set of typical cloud conditions from the three DOE ARM program sites. Results of the analysis suggest that significant errors in the Doppler moment estimates are possible in the current configurations of the ARM MMCRs. In particular, weakly reflecting clouds with low signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs), as well as turbulent clouds with nonzero updraft and downdraft velocities that are coupled with high SNR, are shown to produce degraded Doppler moment estimates in the current ARM MMCR operational mode processing strategies. Analysis of the Doppler moment estimates and MMCR receiver noise characteristics suggests that the introduction of a set of quality control criteria is necessary for identifying periods of degraded receiver performance that leads to larger uncertainties in the Doppler moment estimates. Moreover, the temporal sampling of the ARM MMCRs was found to be insufficient for representing the actual dynamical states in many types of clouds, especially boundary layer clouds. New digital signal processors (DSPs) are currently being developed for the ARM MMCRs. The findings presented in this study will be used in the design of a new set of operational strategies for the ARM MMCRs once they have been upgraded with the new DSPs. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2752 Combining microwave radiometer and wind profiler radar measurements for high-resolution atmospheric humidity profiling Bianco L., Cimini D., Marzano F.S. and Ware R. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (949-965) A self-consistent remote sensing physical method to retrieve atmospheric humidity high-resolution profiles by synergetic use of a microwave radiometer profiler (MWRP) and wind profiler radar (WPR) is illustrated. The proposed technique is based on the processing of WPR data for estimating the potential refractivity gradient profiles and their optimal combination with MWRP estimates of potential temperature profiles in order to fully retrieve 520 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING humidity gradient profiles. The combined algorithm makes use of recent developments in WPR signal processing, computing the zeroth-, first-, and second-order moments of WPR Doppler spectra via a fuzzy logic method, which provides quality control of radar data in the spectral domain. On the other hand, the application of neural network to brightness temperatures, measured by a multichannel MWRP, can provide continuous estimates of tropospheric temperature and humidity profiles. Performance of the combined algorithm in retrieving humidity profiles is compared with simultaneous in situ radiosonde observations (raob’s). The empirical sets of WPR and MWRP data were collected at the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program’s Southern Great Plains (SGP) site. Combined microwave radiometer and wind profiler measurements show encouraging results and significantly improve the spatial vertical resolution of atmospheric humidity profiles. Finally, some of the limitations found in the use of this technique and possible future improvements are also discussed. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2753 Infrared interferometric measurements of the nearsurface air temperature over the oceans Minnett P.J., Maillet K.A., Hanafin J.A. and Osborne B.J. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (1019-1032) The radiometric measurement of the marine air temperature using a Fourier transform infrared spectroradiometer is described. The measurements are taken by the Marine-Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (M-AERI) that has been deployed on many research ships in a wide range of conditions. This approach is inherently more accurate than conventional techniques and can be used to determine some of the error characteristics of the standard measurements. Examples are given from several cruises ranging from the Arctic to the equatorial Pacific Oceans. It is shown that the diurnal heating signal in radiometric air temperatures in the tropical Pacific can typically reach an amplitude of
15% of that measured by conventional sensors. Conventional data have long been recognized as being contaminated by direct solar heating and heat island effects of the ships or buoys on which they are mounted, but here this effect is quantified by comparisons with radiometric measurements. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2754 Estimated solar contribution to the global surface warming using the ACRIM TSI satellite composite Scafetta N. and West B.J. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) We study, by using a wavelet decomposition methodology, the solar signature on global surface temperature data using the ACRIM total solar irradiance satellite composite by Willson and Mordvinov. These data present a +0.047%/decade trend between minima during solar cycles 21-23 (1980-2002). We estimate that the ACRIM upward trend might have minimally contributed
10-30% of the global surface temperature warming over the period 1980-2002. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. Applications: lithosphere 2755 A possible detection of the 26 December 2004 Great Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake with solution products of the International GNSS Service Kouba J. Studia Geophysica et Geodaetica 2005 49/4 (463-483) The main goal of this work is to critically review the IGS solution products and Precise Point Positioning (PPP) in order to demonstrate their potential to contribute to studies of large earthquakes such as the one that devastated Southeast Asia on December 26th, 2004. In view of a possible detection of the Mw 9.0 Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake of December 26, 2004, position solutions, ranging from intervals of years to one second, of four International GNSS Service (IGS) stations within 3000 km of the epicenter were examined. The IGS combined, cumulative solution product (IGS04P51), consisting of epoch and station velocity solutions and based on data spans of several years prior to the earthquake, was used as a reference. Four IGS combined weekly position solutions (igs04P1301-4), two weeks before and after the earthquake, were utilized for the weekly solution resolution. PPP static and kinematic solutions with IGS Final combined orbits and clocks were used for the mean daily and instantaneous 5-min and 1-sec epoch solutions, respectively. The most significant changes, detected by both weekly and daily solutions occurred in longitude. The nearest IGS station ntus, about 1000 km east of the epicenter, moved westward about 15 mm, while the more distant Indian station iisc (
2300 km NW from the epicenter), shifted about 15 mm eastward. In spite of position errors caused by interpolation of the 5-min IGS clocks, the 1-sec solutions, based on separate data sets, available only for two stations (iisc, dgar), still showed seismic surface waves, in particular at the Indian station iisc. Precise daily IGS combined polar motion and length-of-day products, after correcting for the atmospheric effects, also likely detected, statistically significant, anomalistic excitations on December 26, 2004 that could be caused by this great earthquake. © StudiaGeo s.r.o. 2005. 2756 Analysis and interpretation of geodetic landslide monitoring data based on fuzzy systems Haberler-Weber M. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 2005 5/5 (755-760) To place high precision geotechnical sensors exactly at the boundaries between blocks with different directions and rates of movement in a sliding area, it is important to detect these boundaries in a preceding step. An automated algorithm for the block detection based on fuzzy systems is presented. Combining objective geodetic indicators with fuzzy systems gives a powerful tool for the assessment of geodetic landslide monitoring data. The example of a landsliding area shows the applicability of the algorithm. © 2005 Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License. 2757 Surface displacements and source parameters of the 2003 Bam (Iran) earthquake from Envisat advanced synthetic aperture radar imagery Funning G.J., Parsons B., Wright T.J. et al. Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth 2005 110/9 (1-23) The Mw 6.6, 26 December 2003 Bam (Iran) earthquake was one of the first earthquakes for which Envisat advanced synthetic aperture radar (ASAR) data were available. Using interferograms and azimuth offsets from ascending and descending tracks, we construct a three-dimensional displacement field of the deformation due to the earthquake. Elastic dislocation modeling shows that the observed deformation pattern cannot be explained by slip on a single planar fault, which significantly underestimates eastward and upward motions SE of Bam. We find that the deformation pattern observed can be best explained by slip on two subparallel faults. Eighty-five percent of moment release occurred on a previously unknown strike-slip fault running into the center of Bam, with peak slip of over 2 m occurring at a depth of
5 km. The remainder occurred as a combination of strike-slip and thrusting motion on a southward extension of the previously mapped Bam Fault
5 km to the east. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2758 Colorado Late Cenozoic Fault and Fold Database and Internet Map Server: User-friendly technology for complex information Morgan K.S., Pattyn G.J. and Morgan M.L. Environmental and Engineering Geoscience 2005 11/2 (155-162) Internet mapping applications for geologic data allow simultaneous data delivery and collection, enabling quick data modification while efficiently supplying the end user with information. Utilizing Web-based technologies, the Colorado Geological Survey’s Colorado Late Cenozoic Fault and Fold Database was transformed from a monothematic, nonspatial Microsoft Access database into a complex information set incorporating multiple data sources. The resulting user-friendly format supports easy analysis and browsing. The core of the application is the Microsoft Access database, which contains information compiled from available literature about faults and folds that are known or suspected to have moved during the late Cenozoic. The database contains nonspatial fields such as structure type, age, and rate of movement. Geographic locations of the fault and fold traces were compiled from previous studies at 1:250,000 scale to form a spatial database containing information such as length REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING and strike. Integration of the two databases allowed both spatial and nonspatial information to be presented on the Internet as a single dataset (http://geosurvey.state.co.us/pubs/ceno/). The user-friendly interface enables users to view and query the data in an integrated manner, thus providing multiple ways to locate desired information. Retaining the digital data format also allows continuous data updating and quick delivery of newly acquired information. This dataset is a valuable resource to anyone interested in earthquake hazards and the activity of faults and folds in Colorado. Additional geologic hazard layers and imagery may aid in decision support and hazard evaluation. The up-to-date and customizable maps are invaluable tools for researchers or the public. 2759 The geographic information system "Cenozoic Volcanic Belts of the Earth" Bogatikov O.A., Veselovsky A.V., Leksin A.B. and Meshcheryakova V.B. Doklady Earth Sciences 2005 404/7 (991-994) The GeoSINet system accomplishes not only the accumulation, processing, and storage of diverse information on volcanic belts and particular volcanoes, but also the telecommunication transfer of results and data on the state of active and potentially hazardous volcanoes. Users can work in the information field of volcanic belts on the information and computation resources of the system "Electronic Earth." Copyright © 2005 by Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 2760 Gold minerogenetic prognosis using satellite data: Case study of Paishanlou Gold Mine, Liaoning Province, China Kongola M.J.M. and Ende W. Journal of China University of Geosciences 2005 16/3 (250-255) The major scientific goal of using satellite data for mineral prospecting in the study area was two-fold; (a) mapping geology, faults and fractures that localize ore deposits; (b) recognizing hydrothermally altered rocks by interpreting their spectral signatures. The lithology, properties, and geological relations of the rocks were key to understanding such varied phenomena as convection, melting and transport mechanisms, rock deformation and alteration, the sources of magnetic anomalies, and the hydrothermal circulation and formation of gold deposits. Satellite data were enhanced using the following techniques: band combinations, ratios, directional sharpening filtering, Laplacian transform, spatial convolution, and density slicing. By mapping a larger area, the Paishanlou Gold Mine was discovered to be located within an accommodation zone, with three significant populations of faults having bearings of 95, 145, and 180 degrees. Faults bearing 145 degrees make up the faults of the main shear zone. The faults bearing 180 degrees have large sinistral offsets, typically 1. 5 km, and form a synthetic-antithetic set with the faults bearing 145 degrees, which have dextral displacements of tens of meters. In the Landsat ETM+ image composed of bands 7-4-2 RGB, gneiss rocks were clearly seen as red purple, and granitic and plagioclase bodies in pale brown/pink. The strongest alteration signature in the image was found along the detachment fault antiform located closest to the mine and the plutons responsible for the Paishanlou gold mineralization. Satellite image interpretation coupled with field surveys led to the identification of iron mineral composites, hydrothermally altered areas, fractures, and an accommodation zone. These anomalies finally resulted in the discovery of three new gold-mineralized sites. 2761 InSAR surface displacement field and fault modelling for the 2003 Bam earthquake (southeastern Iran) Stramondo S., Moro M., Tolomei C. et al. Journal of Geodynamics 2005 40/2-3 (347-353) Descending and ascending track satellite images of the new European C-band Envisat Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar have been used to detect the surface displacement field during the 26 December 2003, Mw 6.5, Bam earthquake in southeastern Iran and to determine the fault parameters. In this work, displacement field maps have been realized from interferograms for both tracks. The surface displacement pattern from InSAR revealed that slip occurred along an unknown fault. Based on modelling (Okada, 1985), fault parameters with variable slip distribution (geometric and kinematic) have been considered to better reproduce the InSAR pattern. These parameters have been also constrained by 521 the available seismological data. The modelled interferogram versus the unwrapped interferogram shows low residual values for a fault 18 km long, 12 km wide and with a top of the fault plane at 0.5 km from the surface. The best fitting strike, dip and rake are 177°, 88° and 166°, respectively. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Applications: biosphere 2762 Perspectives of Maine forest cover change from Landsat imagery and Forest Inventory Analysis (FIA) Sader S., Hoppus M., Metzler J. and Jin S. Journal of Forestry 2005 103/6 (299-303) A forest change detection map was developed to document forest gains and losses during the decade of the 1990s. The effectiveness of the Landsat imagery and methods for detecting Maine forest cover change are indicated by the good accuracy assessment results: forest - no change, forest loss, and forest gain accuracy were 90, 88, and 92%, respectively, and the good correlation of mapped areas of forest cover loss with forest inventory analysis (FIA) free size class decrease at the county level. The combination of annually collected permanent FIA plots with accurate statewide forest change maps offers a complementary perspective of Maine’s forest resource. 2763 Using multi-temporal satellite imagery to monitor the response of vegetation to drought in the Great Lakes Region Dunham S., Fonstad M.A., Anderson S. and Czajkowski K.P. GIScience and Remote Sensing 2005 42/3 (183-199) Many remote sensing applications are predicated on the fact that there is a known relationship between climate and vegetation dynamics as monitored from space. However, few studies investigate vegetation index variation on individual homogeneous land cover units as they relate to specific climate and environmental influences at the local scale. This study focuses on the relationship between the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and different vegetation types through the derivation of vegetation indices from Landsat 7 ETM+ data (NDVI, Tasseled Cap, and SAVI). A series of closely spaced through time images from 1999 to 2002 were selected, classified, and analyzed for an area in northeastern Ohio. Supervised classification of the images allowed us to monitor the response in individual land cover classes to changing climate conditions, and compare these individual changes to those over the entire larger areas. Specifically, the images were compared using linear regression techniques at various time lags to PDSI values for these areas collected by NOAA. Although NDVI is a robust indicator of vegetation greenness and vigor, it may not be the best index to use, depending on the type of vegetation studied and the scale of analysis used. A combination of NDVI and other prominent vegetation indices can be used to detect subtle drought conditions by specifically identifying various time lags between climate condition and vegetation response. Copyright © 2005 by V. H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved. 2764 Time-series analysis of land cover using landscape metrics Olsen L.M., Washington- Allen R.A. and Dale V.H. GIScience and Remote Sensing 2005 42/3 (200-223) Time series of thematic land-cover maps are used to measure changes in land cover over time. However, pixel-to-pixel comparisons of such maps are often not advisable when these maps are generated from different sources (i.e., satellite data, aerial photography, or historical land survey data). The purpose of this study was to examine the historical changes in land cover from 1827 to 1999 using landscape metrics calculated on maps created from different sources. Regression and power law analyses were conducted to identify significant trends and threshold effects associated with land-cover change at Fort Benning, Georgia. Results indicated that since 1827 the landscape has become more fragmented with the introduction of farming, military training, and forest management practices. Copyright © 2005 by V. H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved. 522 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING 2765 Mapping insect-induced pine mortality in the Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky using Landsat TM and ETM+ data Maingi J.K. and Luhn W.M. GIScience and Remote Sensing 2005 42/3 (224-250) A decision tree classifier was used to create a three-species conifer map of the Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky using Landsat TM images and ancillary data. The resulting map had an overall classification accuracy of approximately 82%. In the second part of the study, Landsat TM and ETM+ images acquired in 1995 and 2002, respectively, were used to evaluate five change-detection techniques for mapping conifer damage caused by southern pine beetle (SPB). PCA and SARV12 change-detection techniques resulted in the highest classification accuracies. Over 60% of the conifer species were killed as a result of SPB infestation. Copyright © 2005 by V. H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved. 2766 Neural network estimation of urban leaf area index Hardin P.J. and Jensen R.R. GIScience and Remote Sensing 2005 42/3 (251-274) Leaf area index (LAI) is a critical parameter for urban forest monitoring. The goal of this study in Terre Haute, Indiana, USA was to develop algorithms to model gap-fraction LAI measured on sample plots as a function of radiometric response measured by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER). Two neural networks facilitated the modeling. The first was trained to detect sites dominated by bare ground using ASTER visible, infrared, and thermal channels. The second estimated LAI as a function of vegetation indices. When the field sample sites were resubmitted to the two networks, the resulting systemwide standard error of the estimate was 1.25 LAI units. Copyright © 2005 by V. H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved. 2767 Light detection and ranging (LIDAR): An emerging tool for multiple resource inventory Reutebuch S.E., Andersen H.- E. and McGaughey R.J. Journal of Forestry 2005 103/6 (286-292) Airborne laser scanning of forests has been shown to provide accurate terrain models and, at the same time, estimates of multiple resource inventory variables through active sensing of three-dimensional (3D) forest vegetation. Brief overviews of airborne laser scanning technology [often referred to as "light detection and ranging" (LIDAR)] and research findings on its use in forest measurement and monitoring are presented. Currently, many airborne laser scanning missions are flown with specifications designed for terrain mapping, often resulting in data sets that do not contain key information needed for vegetation measurement. Therefore, standards and specifications for airborne laser scanning missions are needed to insure their usefulness for vegetation measurement and monitoring, rather than simply terrain mapping (e.g., delivery of all return data with reflection intensity). Five simple, easily understood LIDAR-derived forest data products are identified that would help insure that forestry needs are considered when multiresource LIDAR missions are flown. Once standards are developed, there is an opportunity to maximize the value of permanent ground plot remeasurements by also collecting airborne laser data over a limited number of plots each year. 2768 Identifying areas for field conservation of forages in Latin American disturbed environments Peters M., Hyman G. and Jones P. Ecology and Society 2005 10/1 (14p) This paper uses the spatial analysis tools DIVA and FloraMap to identify potential areas for the in situ conservation of a set of 10 forage species. We introduce the idea of roadside verges as conservation areas and discuss the risks and opportunities of two potential scenarios for conservation. These are the introduction of mass reservoirs outside of the original areas of collection and conservation inside the area of origin. Four potential areas for in situ conservation in Latin America are identified. Although more detailed studies using remote sensing, soil information, and field reconnaissance will be necessary for a final assessment of the suggested areas as field conservation sites, we discuss the possibilities of establishing low-maintenance communities and the potential dangers of introducing harmful weed species. We do not have final answers with regard to the permanent maintenance of genetic diversity in these areas but suggest that further studies of genetic drift in the populations would not only be scientifically useful but might also lead to identifying useful genotypes for local use. Copyright © 2005 by the author(s). 2769 Measuring the fate of plant diversity: Towards a foundation for future monitoring and opportunities for urgent action Nic Lughadha E., Baillie J., Barthlott W. et al. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences 2005 360/1454 (359-372) Vascular plants are often considered to be among the better known large groups of organisms, but gaps in the available baseline data are extensive, and recent estimates of total known (described) seed plant species range from 200 000 to 422 000. Of these, global assessments of conservation status using International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) categories and criteria are available for only approximately 10 000 species. In response to recommendations from the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity to develop biodiversity indicators based on changes in the status of threatened species, and trends in the abundance and distribution of selected species, we examine how existing data, in combination with limited new data collection, can be used to maximum effect. We argue that future work should produce Red List Indices based on a representative subset of plant species so that the limited resources currently available are directed towards redressing taxonomic and geographical biases apparent in existing datasets. Sampling the data held in the world’s major herbaria, in combination with Geographical Information Systems techniques, can produce preliminary conservation assessments and help to direct selective survey work using existing field networks to verify distributions and gather population data. Such data can also be used to backcast threats and potential distributions through time. We outline an approach that could result in: (i) preliminary assessments of the conservation status of tens of thousands of species not previously assessed, (ii) significant enhancements in the coverage and representation of plant species on the IUCN Red List, and (iii) repeat and/or retrospective assessments for a significant proportion of these. This would result in more robust Sampled Red List Indices that can be defended as more representative of plant diversity as a whole; and eventually, comprehensive assessments at species level for one or more major families of angiosperms. The combined results would allow scientifically defensible generalizations about the current status of plant diversity by 2010 as well as tentative comments on trends. Together with other efforts already underway, this approach would establish a firmer basis for ongoing monitoring of the status of plant diversity beyond 2010 and a basis for comparison with the trend data available for vertebrates. © 2005 The Royal Society. 2770 Spatially varying rules of landscape change: Lessons from a case study McDonald R.I. and Urban D.L. Landscape and Urban Planning 2006 74/1 (7-20) Land-cover and land-use change modeling have become increasingly common, and myriad different modeling techniques are now available. Many techniques assume that the rules of landscape change are the same everywhere within the study area, an assumption that contrasts with reality in many municipal regions, which have spatially varying development restrictions. In this paper, we provide a case study from the Raleigh-Durham area of North Carolina (USA) showing the consequences of using a model with a spatially homogeneous form when the rules of landscape change are spatially heterogeneous. Using classified Thematic Mapper images of 1990 and 2000, we fit two models relating probability of deforestation to a large set of potentially explanatory variables. Potential autocorrelation in the error term of our models was avoided by sampling outside the zone of spatial autocorrelation. The first model, a logistic regression (GLM), was used as an example of a simple, spatially homogeneous model, where the probability of deforestation is a function of a set of explanatory variables. The second model was a classification and regression tree analysis (CART), a spatially heterogeneous REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING model in which the data were recursively partitioned on the same explanatory variables plus spatially explicit indicator variables, to create a binary decision tree that adequately captured the pattern in deforestation. Overall, the CART model (15.2% misclassification rate) performed significantly better than the GLM model (33.1% misclassification rate). When the residuals of both models were examined spatially, the CART model appears to perform better, more accurately predicting hotspots of development and predicting the baseline proportion of deforested pixels more accurately. Our results lend support to the importance of spatial heterogeneity in the rules of landscape change, and suggest that models that attend local variability in the forces driving landscape change can provide more useful predictions than models that assume these forces operate similarly throughout the landscape. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2771 Potential monitoring of crop production using a satellite-based Climate-Variability Impact Index Zhang P., Anderson B., Tan B. et al. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005 132/3-4 (344-358) The capabilities of the MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) present some exciting possibilities for improved and timely monitoring of crop production. A quantitative index is introduced in this paper to study the relationship between remotely sensed leaf area index (LAI) and crop production. The Climate-Variability Impact Index (CVII), defined as the monthly contribution to anomalies in annual growth, quantifies the percentage of the climatological production either gained or lost due to climatic variability during a given month. By examining the integrated CVII over the growing season, this LAI-based index can provide both fine-scale and aggregated information on vegetation productivity for various crop types. Once the relationship between the CVII and crop production is developed based on the historical record, a trained statistical model can be applied to produce homogeneous production forecasts (in which the model is trained and tested for a particular region), as well as heterogeneous forecasts (in which the model is trained in a particular region and applied to a different region). Both the homogeneous and the heterogeneous model predictions are consistent with United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)/FAO estimates at regional scales. Finally, by determining the estimated production as a function of the growing-season months it is possible to determine when in the phenological cycle the predictive value of the CVII plateaus and which months within the phenological cycle provide the greatest predictive capacity. Overall, the high temporal and spatial resolution of the satellite LAI products makes the CVII a useful tool in near real-time crop monitoring and production estimation. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 2772 Agreement assessment of spatially explicit regressionderived forest cover and traditional forest industry stand type maps Metzler J.W. and Sader S.A. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 2005 71/11 (1303-1309) Forest regeneration assessment is an important forest management goal that requires accurate data about site-specific forest type and stand density. In this study, a methodology was developed to convert regression model output to maps of predicted softwood and hardwood percent cover at the scale of a Landsat ETM+ pixel. These maps provide forest type and percent cover at higher spatial scale (0.09 ha) than traditional GIS forest stand databases employ (e.g., 2 to 4 ha minimum mapping units). A modified accuracy assessment was performed between the Landsat regression derived maps and GIS type maps to evaluate their relative agreement. Two variations of the traditional error matrix were examined. The first was a "plus-one" matrix, where values next to the diagonal were included in the agreement calculations. The second variation, considered most appropriate for this study, included the use of "fuzzy logic" where the off-diagonal values were weighted for a better approximation of the GIS forest mapping criteria and forest type composition of the northern New England forest. The fuzzy logic error matrix indicated strong agreement between the regression derived and GIS forest type maps with an overall agreement ranging from 76 percent to 79 percent. Producer’s agreement from the fuzzy-logic error matrices ranged from 89 percent to 97 percent for softwood classes 523 and 72 percent to 77 percent for hardwood. User’s agreement for softwood ranged from 71 percent to 82 percent and 80 percent to 87 percent for hardwood. These results suggest that the Landsat-derived maps can provide objective and reliable site-specific forest type and percent cover information that is not dependent on subjective photo interpretation methods. These maps will be evaluated in future studies to demonstrate practical forest regeneration management applications. © 2005 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 2773 Classifying and mapping wildfire severity: A comparison of methods Brewer C.K., Winne J.C., Redmond R.L. et al. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 2005 71/11 (1311-1320) This study evaluates six different approaches to classifying and mapping fire severity using multi-temporal Landsat Thematic Mapper data. The six approaches tested include: two based on temporal image differencing and ratioing between pre-fire and post-fire images, two based on principal component analysis of pre- and post-fire imagery, and two based on artificial neural networks, one using just post-fire imagery and the other both pre- and post-fire imagery. Our results demonstrated the potential value for any of these methods to provide quantitative fire severity maps, but one of the image differencing methods (ND4/7) provided a flexible, robust, and analytically simple approach that could be applied anywhere in the Continental U.S. Based on the results of this test, the ND4/7 was implemented operationally to classify and map fire severity over 1.2 million hectares burned in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Northern Great Plains during the 2000 fire season, as well as the 2001 fire season (Gmelin and Brewer, 2002). Approximately the same procedure was adopted in 2001 by the USDA Forest Service, Remote Sensing Applications Center to produce Burned Area Reflectance Classifications for national-level support of Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation activities (Orlemann, 2002). © 2005 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 2774 Multi-platform comparisons of MODIS and AVHRR normalized difference vegetation index data Gallo K., Ji L., Reed B. et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (221-231) The relationship between AVHRR-derived normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values and those of future sensors is critical to continued long-term monitoring of land surface properties. The follow-on operational sensor to the AVHRR, the Visible/Infrared Imager/Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), will be very similar to the NASA Earth Observing System’s Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor. NDVI data derived from visible and near-infrared data acquired by the MODIS (Terra and Aqua platforms) and AVHRR (NOAA-16 and NOAA-17) sensors were compared over the same time periods and a variety of land cover classes within the conterminous United States. The results indicate that the 16-day composite NDVI values are quite similar over the composite intervals of 2002 and 2003, and linear relationships exist between the NDVI values from the various sensors. The composite AVHRR NDVI data included water and cloud masks and adjustments for water vapor as did the MODIS NDVI data. When analyzed over a variety of land cover types and composite intervals, the AVHRR derived NDVI data were associated with 89% or more of the variation in the MODIS NDVI values. The results suggest that it may be possible to successfully reprocess historical AVHRR data sets to provide continuity of NDVI products through future sensor systems. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2775 Analysis of plant colonization on an arctic moraine since the end of the Little Ice Age using remotely sensed data and a Bayesian approach Moreau M., Laffly D., Joly D. and Brossard T. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (244-253) Young moraines less than 100 years old are considered as key areas for monitoring the effects of climate change since the end of the Little Ice Age. One way of documenting this change is by recognizing and characterizing the different plant colonization stages and trends that occur on these relatively new environments. 524 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING Previous studies have shown that remotely sensed data alone are not sufficient to map the vegetation over these types of landscapes because the most significant part of the radiometric information is related to mineral landscape components. Therefore, the authors used an indirect approach which consisted in the following steps. 1. An optimized sampling procedure was used to collect georeferenced vegetation plot data. A multivariate analysis was then used to define vegetation types that could be related to different colonization stages and environmental contexts. 2. Color infrared aerial photographs were then used to produce a baseline vegetation map. This map was then integrated into a data base along with other environment factors known to control plant colonization processes, such as climate (wind, temperature), physical landscape components (habitat characteristics) and morphodynamic processes (runoff). 3. A Bayesian model using conditional probabilities was used to identify the primary environmental habitats corresponding to the different vegetation types. This protocol was tested on the fore field of the Midre Lov´enbreen (Svalbard) glacier where several vegetation belts correspond to well defined stages of deglaciation and corresponding local conditions such as microtopography, microclimate and runoff dynamics. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2776 Retrieval of leaf area index for a coniferous forest by inverting a forest reflectance model Rautiainen M. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (295303) The aim of this paper was to serve as a pilot study for running a physically based forest reflectance model through an operational forest management data base in Finnish coniferous forests. The LAI values of 250 boreal coniferous stands were retrieved with the physically based model by inversion from a SPOT HRVIR1 image. The use of three spectral vegetation indices (NDVI, RSR and MSI) in LAI estimation was tested for the same stands. Ground-truth LAI was based on an allometric model which can be applied to routine stand inventory data. Stand reflectances were computed as an average of reflectances of the pixels located within the digital stand borders. The relationships of LAI and spectral vegetation indices calculated from the SPOT data were very scattered. RSR exhibited the widest range of values (and the highest correlation with LAI), suggesting it to be more dynamic than MSI or NDVI. Inversion of the reflectance model was done twice: first using as simultaneous input three wavelength bands (red, NIR and MIR), then only the red and NIR bands. The aim was to observe whether including the MIR band in the inversion would improve the inverted LAI estimates or if using only the red and NIR bands would result in the same reliability of inverted values. The motivation for examining the influence of the MIR band resulted from several recent studies from the boreal zone which suggest that the pronounced understory effect could be minimized by the inclusion of the MIR band. The LAI values inverted by the model were slightly larger than the ground-truth LAI values. A minor improvement in LAI estimates was observed after the inclusion of the MIR band in reflectance model inversion. The errors in the ground-truth LAI were uncertain and the background understory reflectance was expected to be highly variable. Thus, the quality of the data used may be to a large extent responsible for the observed low utility of the tested channels. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2777 Canopy directional emissivity: Comparison between models Sobrino J.A., Jim´enez- Mu˜noz J.C. and Verhoef W. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (304-314) Land surface temperature plays an important role in many environmental studies, as for example the estimation of heat fluxes and evapotranspiration. In order to obtain accurate values of land surface temperature, atmospheric, emissivity and angular effects should be corrected. This paper focuses on the analysis of the angular variation of canopy emissivity, which is an important variable that has to be known to correct surface radiances and obtain surface temperatures. Emissivity is also involved in the atmospheric corrections since it appears in the reflected downwelling atmospheric term. For this purpose, five different methods for simulating directional canopy emissivity have been analyzed and compared. The five methods are composed of two geometrical models, developed by Sobrino et al. [J. A. Sobrino, V. Caselles, & F. Becker (1990). Significance of the remotely sensed thermal infrared measurements obtained over a citrus orchard. ISPRS Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 44, 343-354] and Snyder and Wan [W. C. Snyder & Z. Wan, (1998). BRDF models to predict spectral reflectance and emissivity in the thermal infrared. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 36, 214-225], in which the vegetation is considered as an opaque medium, and three are based on radiative transfer models, developed by Franc¸ois et al. [C. Franc¸ois, C. Ottl´e, & L. Pr´evot (1997). Analytical parametrisation of canopy emissivity and directional radiance in the thermal infrared: Application on the retrieval of soil and foliage temperatures using two directional measurements. International Journal of Remote Sensing 12, 2587-2621], Snyder and Wan [W. C. Snyder & Z. Wan (1998). BRDF models to predict spectral reflectance and emissivity in the thermal infrared. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 36, 214-225.] and Verhoef et al. [W. Verhoef, Q. Xiao, L. Jia, & Z. Su (submitted for publication). Extension of SAIL to a 4-component opticalthermal radiative transfer model simulating thermodynamically heterogenous canopies. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing], in which the vegetation is considered as a turbid medium. Over surfaces with sparse and low vegetation cover, high angular variations of canopy emissivity are obtained, with differences between at-nadir view and 80° of 0.03. Over fully vegetated surfaces angular effects on emissivity are negligible when radiative transfer models are applied, so in these situations the angular variations on emissivity are not critical on the retrieved land surface temperature from remote sensing data. Angular variations on emissivity are lower when the emissivity of the soil and the emissivity of the vegetation are closer. All the models considered assume Lambertian behaviour for the soil and the leaves. This assumption is also discussed, showing a different behaviour of directional canopy emissivity when a nonLambertian soil is considered. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2778 Image-based atmospheric correction of QuickBird imagery of Minnesota cropland Wu J., Wang D. and Bauer M.E. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (315-325) High spatial resolution QuickBird satellite data have provided new opportunities for remote sensing applications in agriculture. In this study, image-based algorithms for atmospheric correction were evaluated on QuickBird imagery for retrieving surface reflectance (λ ) of corn and potato canopies in Minnesota. The algorithms included the dark object subtraction technique (DOS), the cosine approximation model (COST), and the apparent reflectance model (AR). The comparison with ground-based measurements of canopy reflectance during a 3-year field campaign indicated that the AR model generally overestimated λ in the visible bands, but underestimated λ in the near infrared (NIR) band. The DOS-COST model was most effective for the visible bands and produced λ with the root mean square errors (RMSE) of less than 0.01. However, retrieved λ in the NIR band were more than 20% (mean relative difference or MRD) lower than ground measurements and the RMSE was as high as 0.16. The evaluation of the COST model showed that atmospheric transmittance (Tθλ ) was substantially overestimated on humid days, particularly for the NIR band because of the undercorrection of water vapor absorption. Alternatively, a contour map was developed to interpolate appropriate Tθλ for the NIR band for clear days under average atmospheric aerosol conditions and as a function of precipitable water content and solar zenith angle or satellite view angle. With the interpolated Tθλ , the accuracy of NIR band λ was significantly improved where the RMSE and MRD were 0.06 and 0.03%, respectively, and the overall accuracy of λ was acceptable for agricultural applications. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2779 Image masking for crop yield forecasting using AVHRR NDVI time series imagery Kastens J.H., Kastens T.L., Kastens D.L.A. et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (341-356) One obstacle to successful modeling and prediction of crop yields using remotely sensed imagery is the identification of image masks. Image masking involves restricting an analysis to a sub- REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING set of a region’s pixels rather than using all of the pixels in the scene. Cropland masking, where all sufficiently cropped pixels are included in the mask regardless of crop type, has been shown to generally improve crop yield forecasting ability, but it requires the availability of a land cover map depicting the location of cropland. The authors present an alternative image masking technique, called yield-correlation masking, which can be used for the development and implementation of regional crop yield forecasting models and eliminates the need for a land cover map. The procedure requires an adequate time series of imagery and a corresponding record of the region’s crop yields, and involves correlating historical, pixel-level imagery values with historical regional yield values. Imagery used for this study consisted of 1km, biweekly AVHRR NDVI composites from 1989 to 2000. Using a rigorous evaluation framework involving five performance measures and three typical forecasting opportunities, yield-correlation masking is shown to have comparable performance to cropland masking across eight major U.S. region-crop forecasting scenarios in a 12-year cross-validation study. Our results also suggest that 11 years of time series AVHRR NDVI data may not be enough to estimate reliable linear crop yield models using more than one NDVI-based variable. A robust, but suboptimal, all-subsets regression modeling procedure is described and used for testing, and historical United States Department of Agriculture crop yield estimates and linear trend estimates are used to gauge model performance. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2780 Estimating light absorption by chlorophyll, leaf and canopy in a deciduous broadleaf forest using MODIS data and a radiative transfer model Zhang Q., Xiao X., Braswell B. et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (357-371) In this paper, we present a theoretical and modeling framework to estimate the fractions of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) absorbed by vegetation canopy (FAPARcanopy ), leaf (FAPARleaf ), and chlorophyll (FAPARchl ), respectively. FAPARcanopy is an important biophysical variable and has been used to estimate gross and net primary production. However, only PAR absorbed by chlorophyll is used for photosynthesis, and therefore there is a need to quantify FAPARchl . We modified and coupled a leaf radiative transfer model (PROSPECT) and a canopy radiative transfer model (SAIL-2), and incorporated a Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method (the Metropolis algorithm) for model inversion, which provides probability distributions of the retrieved variables. Our two-step procedure is: (1) to retrieve biophysical and biochemical variables using coupled PROSPECT + SAIL-2 model (PROSAIL-2), combined with multiple daily images (five spectral bands) from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor; and (2) to calculate FAPARcanopy , FAPARleaf and FAPAR chl with the estimated model variables from the first step. We evaluated our approach for a temperate forest area in the Northeastern US, using MODIS data from 2001 to 2003. The inverted PROSAIL-2 fit the observed MODIS reflectance data well for the five MODIS spectral bands. The estimated leaf area index (LAI) values are within the range of field measured data. Significant differences between FAPARcanopy and FAPARchl are found for this test case. Our study demonstrates the potential for using a model such as PROSAIL-2, combined with an inverse approach, for quantifying FAPAR chl , FAPARleaf , FAPARcanopy , biophysical variables, and biochemical variables for deciduous broadleaf forests at leafand canopy-levels over time. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2781 Assessing vineyard condition with hyperspectral indices: Leaf and canopy reflectance simulation in a row-structured discontinuous canopy Zarco- Tejada P.J., Berj´on A., L´opez- Lozano R. et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (271-287) Methods for chlorosis detection and physiological condition monitoring in Vitis vinifera L. through accurate chlorophyll a and b content (Cab ) estimation at leaf and canopy levels are presented in this manuscript. A total of 24 vineyards were identified for field and airborne data collection with the Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI), the Reflective Optics System Imaging Spectrometer (ROSIS) and the Digital Airborne Imag- 525 ing Spectrometer (DAIS-7915) hyperspectral sensors in 2002 and 2003 in northern Spain, comprising 103 study areas of 10  10 m in size, with a total of 1467 leaves collected for determination of pigment concentration. A subsample of 605 leaves was used for measuring the optical properties of reflectance and transmittance with a Li-Cor 1800-12 Integrating Sphere coupled by a 200 m diameter single mode fiber to an Ocean Optics model USB2000 spectrometer. Several narrow-band vegetation indices were calculated from leaf reflectance spectra, and the PROSPECT leaf optical model was used for inversion using the extensive database of leaf optical properties. Results showed that the best indicators for chlorophyll content estimation in V. vinifera L. leaves were narrow-band hyperspectral indices calculated in the 700-750 nm spectral region (r 2 ranging between 0.8 and 0.9), with poor performance of traditional indices such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Results for other biochemicals indicated that the Structure Insensitive Pigment Index (SIPI) and the Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI) were more sensitive to carotenoids Cx+c and chlorophyll-carotenoid ratios Cab / Cx+c than to chlorophyll content Cab . Chlorophyll a and b estimation by inversion of the PROSPECT leaf model on V. vinifera L. spectra was successful, yielding a determination coefficient of r2 = 0.95, with an RMSE = 5.3 g/cm2 . The validity of leaf-level indices for chlorophyll content estimation at the canopy level in V. vinifera L. was studied using the scaling-up approach that links PROSPECT and rowMCRM canopy reflectance simulation to account for the effects of vineyard structure, vine dimensions, row orientation and soil and shadow effects on the canopy reflectance. The index calculated as a combination of the Transformed Chlorophyll Absorption in Reflectance Index (TCARI), and the Optimized Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (OSAVI) in the form TCARI/OSAVI was the most consistent index for estimating Cab on aggregated and pure vine pixels extracted from 1 m CASI and ROSIS hyperspectral imagery. Predictive relationships were developed with PROSPECT-rowMCRM model between Cab and TCARI/OSAVI as function of LAI, using fieldmeasured vine dimensions and image-extracted soil background, row-orientation and viewing geometry values. Prediction relationships for Cab content with TCARI/OSAVI were successfully applied to the 103 study sites imaged on 24 fields by ROSIS and CASI airborne sensors, yielding r2 = 0.67 and RMSE = 11.5 g/cm2 . © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2782 The added value of spaceborne passive microwave soil moisture retrievals for forecasting rainfall-runoff partitioning Crow W.T., Bindlish R. and Jackson T.J. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-5) Using existing data sets of spaceborne soil moisture retrievals, streamflow and precipitation for 26 basins in the United States Southern Great Plains, a 5-year analysis is performed to quantify the value of soil moisture retrievals derived from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI) X-band (10.7 GHz) radiometer for forecasting storm event-scale runoff ratios. The predictive ability of spaceborne soil moisture retrievals is objectively compared to that obtainable using only available rainfall observations and the antecedent precipitation index (API). The assimilation of spaceborne observations into an API soil moisture proxy is demonstrated to add skill to the forecasting of land surface response to precipitation. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2783 Remote monitoring of regional inundation patterns and hydroperiod in the greater everglades using synthetic aperture radar Bourgeau- Chavez L.L., Smith K.B., Brunzell S.M. et al. Wetlands 2005 25/1 (176-191) Understanding the hydrologic patterns in vast wetland ecosystems has proven to be a difficult task. Most of the world’s wetland ecosystems are not adequately monitored for water level, flow, or discharge, and where these are monitored, gauges are usually located on the largest rivers or lakes and canals rather than in the seasonally flooded areas. Even those wetlands that have the most extensive networks of gauges are not sufficiently covered to understand the finer-scale spatial dynamics of hydrologic condition. However, high-density in situ monitoring of stage, 526 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING flow, and discharge of vast wetland complexes would be prohibitively expensive, even in a region such as south Florida, USA where considerable resources are devoted to water management. Several techniques are presented that were developed to use Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellite imagery to remotely detect, monitor, and map regional scale spatial and temporal changes in wetland hydrology. This study shows that SAR imagery can be used to create inundation maps of relative soil moisture and flooding in non-woody wetlands. A comparison of in situ water-level data collected from 1997 to 1999 at 12 test sites to SAR imagery revealed that relative backscatter within a site does vary in a linear fashion with changes in water levels. Using SAR imagery collected between 1997 and 1999, inundation maps were created at approximately bi-monthly periods for the south Florida region. This time series of inundation/soil moisture maps (1997-1999) reveals the spatial and temporal variation in degree of flooding in the Greater Everglades, which is information previously unavailable from ground-based observations alone. In addition, hydroperiod maps were created based on a temporal series of 14 months of SAR imagery. © 2005, The Society of Wetland Scientists. 2784 The relationship between plant stable carbon isotope composition, precipitation and satellite data, Tibet Plateau, China Guo G. and Xie G. Quaternary International 2005 144/1 (68-71) Stable carbon isotope composition ( 13 C) of C3 plant leaves from the Tibet Plateau was analyzed to detect the relationship between stable carbon isotope composition ( 13 C) and precipitation. In northern Tibet, 13 C increases by 0.46‰ with an increase of 100 mm in precipitation, while in the southern plateau 13 C decreases by 1.82‰ with an increase of 100 mm in precipitation. Because field sampling is limited by funds and traffic conditions, while remote sensing has no limitations, satellite data was introduced as a new data source to study the relationship between 13 C and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). NDVI has the same trend with 13 C, as does precipitation. So NDVI can be used to indicate 13 C approximately. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. Applications: hydrosphere 2785 The Second SeaWiFS HPLC Analysis Round-Robin Experiment (SeaHARRE-2) Hooker S.B., Van Heukelem L., Thomas C.S. et al. NASA Technical Memorandum 2005 -/212785 (1-112) Eight international laboratories specializing in the determination of marine pigment concentrations using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were intercompared using in situ samples and a variety of laboratory standards. The field samples were collected primarily from eutrophic waters, although mesotrophic waters were also sampled to create a dynamic range in chlorophyll concentration spanning approximately two orders of magnitude (0.3-25.8 mg m-3 ). The intercomparisons were used to establish the following: a) the uncertainties in quantitating individual pigments and higher-order variables (sums, ratios, and indices); b) an evaluation of spectrophotometric versus HPLC uncertainties in the determination of total chlorophyll a; and c) the reduction in uncertainties as a result of applying quality assurance (QA) procedures associated with extraction, separation, injection, degradation, detection, calibration, and reporting (particularly limits of detection and quantitation). In addition, the remote sensing requirements for the in situ determination of total chlorophyll a were investigated to determine whether or not the average uncertainty for this measurement is being satisfied. The culmination of the activity was a validation of the round-robin methodology plus the development of the requirements for validating an individual HPLC method. The validation process includes the measurements required to initially demonstrate a pigment is validated, and the measurements that must be made during sample analysis to confirm a method remains validated. The so-called performance-based metrics developed here describe a set of thresholds for a variety of easily-measured parameters with a corresponding set of performance categories. The aggregate set of performance parameters and categories es- tablish a) the overall performance capability of the method, and b) whether or not the capability is consistent with the required accuracy objectives. 2786 Determination of the absolute rate of sea level by using GPS reference station and tide gauge data Jiao W., Guo H., Fu Y. and Wei Z. Geo-Spatial Information Science 2005 8/3 (220-224) The absolute rate of mean sea level of Xiamen area is derived from the data of Xiamen tide gauge station and Xiamen GPS fiducial station of crustal movement observation network of China (CMONC). The height variation is discussed deeply in this paper. It is shown that height has periodic variations. So the rate of vertical land movement can not be precisely obtained only from several GPS campaigns. It is pointed out that the vertical crustal movement of tide gauge station should be monitored by using long-term continuous GPS observations. 2787 Simultaneous measurement of ocean winds and waves with an airborne coherent real aperture radar Plant W.J., Keller W.C. and Hayes K. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (832-846) A coherent, X-band airborne radar has been developed to measure wind speed and direction simultaneously with directional wave spectra on the ocean. The coherent real aperture radar (CORAR) measures received power, mean Doppler shifts, and mean Doppler bandwidths from small-resolution cells on the ocean surface and converts them into measurements of winds and waves. The system operates with two sets of antennas, one rotating and one looking to the side of the airplane. The rotating antennas yield neutral wind vectors at a height of 10 m above the ocean surface using a scatterometer model function to relate measured cross sections to wind speed and direction. The side-looking antennas produce maps of normalized radar cross section and line-of-sight velocity from which directional ocean wave spectra may be obtained. Capabilities of CORAR for wind and wave measurement are illustrated using data taken during the Shoaling Waves Experiment (SHOWEX) sponsored by the Office of Naval Research. Wind vectors measured by CORAR agree well with those measured by nearby buoys. Directional wave spectra obtained by CORAR also agree with buoy measurements and illustrate that offshore winds can produce dominant waves at an angle to the wind vector that are in good agreement with the measurements. The best agreement is produced using the Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP) parameterizations of the development of wave height and period with fetch. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2788 Measurement of directional wave spectra using aircraft laser altimeters Sun J., Burns S.P., Vandemark D. et al. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2005 22/7 (869-885) A remote sensing method to measure directional oceanic surface waves by three laser altimeters on the NOAA LongEZ aircraft is investigated. To examine feasibility and sensitivity of the wavelet analysis method to various waves, aircraft motions, and aircraft flight directions relative to wave propagation directions, idealized surface waves are simulated from various idealized aircraft flights. In addition, the wavelet analysis method is also applied to two cases from field measurements, and the results are compared with traditional wave spectra from buoys. Since the wavelet analysis method relies on the "wave slopes" measured through phase differences between the time series of the laser distances between the aircraft and sea surface at spatially separated locations, the resolved directional wavenumber and wave propagation direction are not affected by aircraft motions if the resolved frequencies of the aircraft motion and the wave are not the same. However, the encounter wave frequency, which is directly resolved using the laser measurement from the moving aircraft, is affected by the Doppler shift due to aircraft motion relative to wave propagations. The wavelet analysis method could fail if the aircraft flies in the direction such that the aircraft speed along the wave propagation direction is the same as the wave phase speed (i.e., the aircraft flies along wave crests or troughs) or if two waves with different wavelengths and phase speed have the same encountered wavelength from the aircraft. In addition, REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING the data noise due to laser measurement uncertainty or natural isotropic surface elevation perturbations can also affect the relative phase difference between the laser distance measurements, which in turn affects the accuracy of the resolved wavenumber and wave propagation direction. The smallest waves measured by the lasers depend on laser sampling rate and horizontal distances between the lasers (for the LongEZ this is 2 m). The resolved wave direction and wavenumber at the peak wave from the two field experiments compared well with on-site buoy observations. Overall, the study demonstrates that three spatially separated laser altimeters on moving platforms can be utilized to resolve two-dimensional wave spectra. © 2005 American Meteorological Society. 2789 Unsupervised spectral characterization of shallow lagoon waters by the use of Landsat TM and ETM+ data Maselli F., Massi L., Melillo C. and Innamorati M. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 2005 71/11 (1265-1274) Assessing the conditions of coastal and shallow lagoon waters is a top priority among environmental monitoring activities, due the high ecological and economic importance of relevant resources. Satellite remote sensing offers great potential for this scope, although the interpretation of the spectral responses of shallow areas is complicated by the mixed signal coming from the water column and the bottom. This is particularly the case when using satellite data taken in few wide spectral channels, such as those of the Landsat TM and ETM+ sensors, which were not specifically designed for marine applications. Relying on the hypothesis that these data are anyway informative on shallow water conditions, an unsupervised procedure was developed to separate the spectral contributions of seawater and bottom on the basis of simple approximations. The procedure is based on the simulation of different water/bottom multispectral configurations up to find out that which best fits the observed data. The validation of the procedure was carried out by its application first to synthetic images and next to two TM and one ETM+ scenes taken over the Orbetello Lagoon in Central Italy. The outputs produced in the latter case were evaluated by comparison to existing ground references. In particular, correlation analyses were performed between the original and decomposed spectral signatures and the concentrations of optically active water constituents (pigments and yellow substance) measured "in situ" at dates close to those of the satellite data acquisitions. These analyses demonstrated the potential of the methodology, while also highlighting some limitations which could be overcome through the use of imagery taken by sensors with enhanced spectral and radiometric features. © 2005 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 2790 Modeling spectral reflectance of optically complex waters using bio-optical measurements from Tokyo Bay Feng H., Campbell J.W., Dowell M.D. and Moore T.S. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (232-243) This study presents an approach for optimally parameterizing a reflectance model. A parameterization scheme is realized based on a comprehensive bio-optical data set, including subsurface downwelling and upwelling irradiance spectra, absorption spectra of particle and dissolved substances, as well as chlorophyll and total suspended matter concentrations at 45 stations near Tokyo Bay between 1982 and 1984. The irradiance reflectance model is implemented with three-component inherent optical property submodels. In this parameterization scheme, an unsupervised classification was applied in the hyper-spectral space of reflectance, leading to three spectrally distinct optical water types. The reflectance model was parameterized for the entire data set, and then parameterized for each of the water types. The three sets of type-specific model parameters, which define corresponding IOP submodels, are believed to accommodate differences in the optical properties of the in-water constituents. The parameterized reflectance model was evaluated by both reconstructing measured reflectance spectra and solving for the nonlinear inverse problem to retrieve in-water constituent concentrations. The model accuracy was significantly improved in the forward direction for classified waters over that of nonclassified waters, but no significant improvement was achieved in the retrieval accuracy (inverse direction). A larger data set with greater resolution of constituent inherent optical properties 527 would likely improve the modeling results. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2791 Influence of lake morphology and clarity on water surface temperature as measured by EOS ASTER Becker M.W. and Daw A. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005 99/3 (288-294) Relationships between lake morphometric parameters and nighttime lake surface temperatures were investigated in North American temperate lakes using the ASTER kinetic temperature (AST08) product. Nighttime ASTER kinetic temperature measurements were found to be a good analogue for nighttime surface temperatures. Linear regression between ASTER and buoy-measured temperatures in a test lake were better during the evening (R2 = 0.98) than the day (R2 = 0.90), presumably due to the greater influence of radiation and latent heat fluxes during daylight hours. Nighttime lake surface temperatures measured in three ASTER scenes were significantly correlated to logarithm of lake area, maximum lake depth, Secchi depth (a measure of lake clarity) and lake order (a measure of lake connection with surface drainage), during October and November. Nighttime lake surface temperatures were significantly correlated only with lake area in July. We hypothesize that morphology was more strongly related to surface temperature in the fall months due to lake turnover during that season. This study suggests that satellite derived thermal data may be useful for calculation of lake heat budgets and evaporation rates, provided surface temperatures are measured in well-mixed lakes. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2792 GRACE-derived terrestrial water storage depletion associated with the 2003 European heat wave Andersen O.B., Seneviratne S.I., Hinderer J. and Viterbo P. Geophysical Research Letters 2005 32/18 (1-4) The GRACE twin satellites reveal large inter-annual terrestrial water-storage variations between 2002 and 2003 for central Europe. GRACE observes a negative trend in regional water storage from 2002 to 2003 peaking at
7.8 cm in central Europe with an accuracy of 1 cm. The 2003 excess terrestrial water storage depletion observed from GRACE can be related to the recordbreaking heat wave that occurred in central Europe in 2003. We validate the measurements from GRACE using two independent hydrological estimates and direct gravity observations from superconducting gravimeters in Europe. All datasets agree well with the GRACE measurements despite the disparity of the employed information; the difference between datasets tends to be within GRACE margin of error. The April-to-August terrestrial water storage depletion is found to be significantly larger in 2003 than in 2002 from both models and observations. Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union. 2793 A GIS based hydrogeomorphic approach for identification of site-specific artificial-recharge techniques in the Deccan Volcanic Province Ravi Shankar M.N. and Mohan G. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth and Planetary Sciences 2005 114/5 (505-514) The Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP) of India, as a whole, faces a severe shortage of water despite receiving a high annual rainfall, this is primarily due to excess runoff and lack of water conservation practices. In this study, an attempt is made to identify zones favourable for the application and adaptation of site-specific artificial-recharge techniques for augmentation of groundwater through a Geographical Information System (GIS) based hydrogeomorphic approach in the Bhatsa and Kalu river basins of Thane district, in western DVP. The criteria adopted for the GIS analysis were based on the hydrogeomorphological characteristics of both basins extracted from the IRS-1C LISS-III data supported by information on drainage pattern, DEM derived slope, lineament density, drainage density, and groundwater condition. The integrated study helps design a suitable groundwater management plan for a basaltic terrain. © Printed in India. 528 REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND MAPPING 2794 Drainage morphometry using satellite data and GIS in Raigad district, Maharashtra Das A.K. and Mukherjee S. Journal of the Geological Society of India 2005 65/5 (577-586) Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques are being effectively used as tools in morphometric analysis of watersheds. In the present study an attempt has been made to analyze the drainage characteristics of all the fifteen watersheds of Raigad district, Maharashtra, in terms of their morphology and related parameters. The results suggest that the ratio between cumulative stream length and stream order is constant throughout the successive orders of the drainage basins. The low values of bifurcation ratio and drainage density indicate that drainage in the study area has not been affected by structural disturbances and also the area is mostly underlain by resistant and permeable rocks with a dense vegetative cover. The higher groundwater levels in some of the watersheds are correlated to the low values of drainage density, stream frequency and infiltration number. The detailed morphometric analysis also led to the conclusion that eight of the watersheds with low infiltration numbers have high infiltration capacity and thus better scope for artificial recharge. © Geol. Soc. India. Applications: human 2795 Markov chain in the land-use change and assignment analysis (Spanish) (Las cadenas de Markov en el ana´ lisis de cambios y asignaci´on de usos de la tierra) Brice˜no Valera F. Revista Geografica Venezolana 2005 46/1 (3545) The development of automated systems for the capture of space information and for the analysis process development has allowed that the visualization and modeling of land-use changes over time can be performed by summarizing the total quantity, types and places of change. In the same way, instruments have been developed to investigate the spatial pattern of changes inside of, or within the use categories and coverages of land. In this work, how a well-known stochastic process known as Markov chain turns out to be a potential descriptive and predictive model for the land use change analysis and for future distributions or assignments of uses is demonstrated. Also, the use of an automated interface is shown for the analysis of these changes where the utilization of a Geographical Information System (GIS) in raster format as well as an application that facilitates the construction and spatial analysis of the change mechanisms is performed. The tool for the spatial analysis is applied to a sector of the low land areas of the Trujillo State, using the software Idrisi for Windows and information from satellite images for the years 1988 and 1996. 2796 Participatory simulation of land-use changes in the northern mountains of Vietnam: The combined use of an agent-based model, a role-playing game, and a geographic information system Castella J.- C., Trung T.N. and Boissau S. Ecology and Society 2005 10/1 (32p) In Vietnam, the remarkable economic growth that resulted from the doi moi (renovation) reforms was based largely on the rural households that had become the new basic unit of agricultural production in the early 1990s. The technical, economic, and social changes that accompanied the decollectivization process transformed agricultural production, resource management, land use, and the institutions that defined access to resources and their distribution. Combined with the extreme biophysical, technical, and social heterogeneity encountered in the northern mountains, these rapid changes led to the extreme complexity of the agrarian dynamics that today challenges traditional diagnostic approaches. Since 1999, a participatory simulation method has been developed to disentangle the cause-and-effect relationships between the different driving forces and changes in land use observed at different scales. Several tools were combined to understand the interactions between human and natural systems, including a narrative conceptual model, an agent-based spatial computational model (ABM), a role-playing game, and a multiscale geographic information system (GIS). We synthesized into an ABM named SAMBA-GIS the knowledge generated from the above tools applied to a representative sample of research sites. The model takes explicitly into account the dynamic interactions among: (1) farmers’ strategies, i.e., the individual decision-making process as a function of the farm’s resource profile; (2) the institutions that define resource access and usage; and (3) changes in the biophysical and socioeconomic environment. The next step consisted of coupling the ABM with the GIS to extrapolate the application of local management rules to a whole landscape. Simulations are initialized using the layers of the GIS, e.g., land use in 1990, accessibility, soil characteristics, etc., and statistics available at the village level, e.g., population, ethnicity, livestock, etc. At each annual time step, the agrarian landscape changes according to the decisions made by agent-farmers about how to allocate resources such as labor force, capital, and land to different productive activities, e.g., crops, livestock, gathering of forest products, off-farm activities. The participatory simulations based on SAMBA-GIS helped identify villages with similar land-use change trajectories to which the same types of technical and/or institutional innovations could be applied. Scenarios of land-use changes were developed with local stakeholders to assess the potential impact of these changes on the natural resource base and on agricultural development. This adaptive approach was gradually refined through interactions between researchers and the local population. Copyright © 2005 by the author(s). 2797 Influencing domain of peripheral sources in the urban heavy pollution process of Beijing Xu X., Zhou L., Zhou X. et al. Science in China, Series D: Earth Sciences 2005 48/4 (565-575) The effect of city’s peripheral pollution sources is one of the key issues urgent to be solved in the decision-making of Beijing’s environmental pollution control. This paper comprehensively analyses the surface observations, and the satellite remote sensing data of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) during the Beijing City Atmospheric Pollution Experiment (BECAPEX) from January to March, 2001, presents an "upstream" wind field resultant vector method for tracing peripheral pollution sources, and finds that the features of the urban heavy pollution processes of Beijing are significantly correlated with the impact of the emission sources of southern peripheral cities, and the pollutants transferred northwards from distant upstream sources are retarded by the U-shaped "Valley" topography in Beijing’s periphery. The two factors are responsible for the formation of the S-N zonal influencing domain of pollutants from the southern peripheral areas to Beijing. The paper also comprehensively analyses the features of flow field in the heavy pollution process in the Beijing region, and compares the heavy pollution process with samples of good air-quality days from January to March, 2001. The experiment of Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory model (HYSPLIT-4) further reveals the diffusion trajectory of pollutants of the cities in Hebei and Shandong provinces and Tianjin city in the heavy pollution process of Beijing, and the simulations of the Regional Atmosphere Model System (RAMS) confirm the possible contribution of peripheral sources to the exceptionally heavy pollution process of the urban area of Beijing, thus revealing that the input of pollutants from southern peripheral cities is one of the important factors responsible for aggravating urban heavy pollution processes. Copyright by Science in China Press 2005. 2798 GIS-based detachment susceptibility analyses of a cut slope in limestone, Ankara - Turkey Oztekin B. and Topal T. Environmental Geology 2005 49/1 (124132) Due to the rapidly growing population of the city of Ankara (Turkey) and increased traffic congestion, it has become necessary to widen the Ankara-Eskis¸ehir (E-90) highway connecting the newly built areas west of the city to the city center. During widening, several cut slopes were formed along the highway route. As a result, some instability problems (small-sized rock falls/sliding, sloughing, raveling) produced detachment zones along a cut slope in highly jointed, folded and sheared limestone, causing local degradation of the cut slope. Identification of the areas that are likely to detach from the cut slope in the future is considered to be very important for the application of remedial GENERAL TEXTS measures. For this purpose, the relationships between the existing detachment zones and various parameters (e.g., point load strength index, weathering, block size, daylighting, shear zone) were investigated using GIS-based statistical detachment susceptibility analyses in order to predict the further aerial extension of the detachment zones with time. During the overlay analyses, statistical index and weighting factor methods were used. The outcomes of the analyses were compared and evaluated with the field observations to check the reliability of the methods and to assess the detachment zones that may develop in the future. The detachment susceptibility map without the block-size layer gives the best result and indicates some risky zones where detachments are likely to occur in the future. Recommendations on remedial measures of the cut slope should consider these risky zones. © Springer-Verlag 2005. GENERAL TEXTS 2799 Basis for the continued future development of the Japanese geomorphological Union: A brief review of the JGU’s activities during the past 25 years (Japanese) Suzuki T. Chikei/Transactions, Japanese Geomorphological Union 2005 26/4 (371-394) The Japanese Geomorphological Union (JGU), founded in Kyoto (an old capital of Japan) on October 6, 1979, celebrated its 25th Anniversary in May 2005. The establishment of the JGU was preceded by an informal Research Group of Experimental Geomorphology (RGEG) which had been formed by nine young geomorphologists in 1975. Most of the members directed their attention to the quantitative study of earth surface processes and landforms from a variety of points of view including geomorphology, geology, geophysics, civil engineering and sabo engineering among others. They passionately discussed various problems involved with making geomorphology more scientific at meetings that were held twice a year in an informal atmosphere with drinks. In the context of the RGEG, a "Kyoto Symposium" entitled "Experimental Approaches in Geomorphology" was held at the Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, on October 6 and 7, 1979. Attendance included 63 scientists and engineers who represented a wide variety of geomorphologyrelated topics. Toward the end of the banquet, which was held at the TERADAYA, an historically famous inn, on the evening of October 6, Professor Eiju Yatsu issued a manifesto proposing the establishment of the JGU. Immediately, the JGU was founded with the agreement of all participants who cheered loudly. The 529 multi-di sciplinary character of the JGU is shown by the composition of its regular members (nearly 660 including about 10 % from overseas, as of 2005) who are involved not only in geomorphology (36 %) but also in geology (11 %), geophysics/hydrology (7 %), civil engineering (6 %), sabo engineering (9 %), Quaternary research, geochemistry, pedology, ecology, etc. The JGU has held its annual meetings twice a year. They have included symposia, excursions and technical seminars. The main themes of the symposia have included such topics as process geomorphology, geomorphic disasters, land-transformation and environment as well as methodology. The number of presentations at the annual meetings totals about 70. The Transactions of the Japanese Geomorphological Union (TJGU) is issued quarterly. Each volume has about 400 pages, excepting the additional special issues. Most of the papers in the TJGU are written in Japanese with English abstracts and illustrations; some are in English. Internationally the JGU cooperates with the International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG). A JGU member served on the IAG’s Executive Committee for three terms (1989-2001). In addition, the JGU organized the Fifth International Conference of the IAG in Tokyo, 2001, and has joined with other Asian countries including China (Taipei), Korea, China (Yunnang) and Thailand in holding miniconferences on geomorphic problems. Following on these achievements, the JGU is destined to continue as one of the most active and unique societies of geomorphology in the world. 2800 The Japanese Geomorphological Union at 25: A viewpoint from abroad Walker H.J. Chikei/Transactions, Japanese Geomorphological Union 2005 26/4 (395-403) On October 6, 1979, the day the Japanese Geomorphological Union (JGU) was founded, Professor Eiju Yatsu stated that he was "... firmly convinced that October 6th and 7th, 1979 will be remembered as important days in the history of geomorphology in the world" (Walker 1979, 109). In May, 2005, some 25 years later, it can be categorically stated that Yatsu’s prophesy is indeed being realized. His statement was made at the closing of Japan’s first symposium on experimental geomorphology, Although the symposium itself was a complete success, Yatsu affirmed that the "... most dramatic event of the symmposium was the establishment of the Japanese Geomorphological Union". One of the reasons for this feeling on the part of Professor Yatsu is because Our Union, the establishment of which has long been desired, brings together geomorphologists, geophysicists, geochemists, agricultural engineers, civil engineers, pedologists, and others with common geomorphological interests (Walker 1979, 109). SUBJECT INDEX The subject indexing is based on American spelling rather than British spelling: e.g. behavior (not behaviour) centralization (not centralisation) aging (not ageing) tire (not tyre) fiber (not fibre) abandoned land 2210. absorption 1824, 2780. abundance 1803, 1810, 1961, 2686. accretion 1873, 2024. accretionary prism 1654. accuracy assessment 1916, 2442, 2481, 2685, 2718, 2720, 2721, 2722, 2723, 2724, 2772, 2792. acetaldehyde 2543. acidification 1729, 2137, 2198, 2294. acidity 1905. acid mine drainage 2198. acid soil 1730. acid water 1756, 2149. Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler 2029, 2115. actinide 2223. active fault 2308. adaptive management 1872. adsorption 1731, 1735, 1829, 1831, 1842, 2214. advection-diffusion equation 2155, 2175. aerial photograph 2686. aerial photography 1860. aerodynamics 2649. aerosol 1517, 2082, 2438, 2483, 2513, 2525, 2559, 2560, 2561, 2564, 2568, 2570, 2572, 2574, 2575, 2580, 2584, 2585, 2587, 2592, 2593, 2597, 2598, 2602, 2606, 2607, 2608, 2609, 2610, 2611, 2614, 2620, 2637, 2662, 2669, 2670, 2673, 2676, 2680, 2747. aerosol composition 2437, 2577, 2582, 2590, 2591, 2600, 2601, 2603. aerosol formation 2542, 2565, 2569, 2573, 2581, 2594, 2605. aerosol property 2558, 2567, 2571, 2586, 2588, 2589, 2596, 2604. afforestation 2244, 2245, 2252, 2253. aggradation 2009. aggregate size 1792. aggregate stability 1706, 1716. agricultural application 2778. agricultural catchment 1724, 2028, 2092, 2125. agricultural ecosystem 1878. agricultural emission 1840, 2546, 2550, 2551, 2632, 2639. agricultural land 1560, 1870, 2208, 2246. agricultural modeling 2796. agricultural practice 2211. agricultural runoff 2076, 2083, 2084. agricultural soil 1406, 1691, 1744, 1748, 1760, 1777, 1798, 1812, 1831. agroforestry 1866. air-sea interaction 1449, 2368, 2369, 2370, 2375, 2379, 2383, 2384, 2385, 2386, 2387, 2388, 2389, 2390, 2392, 2393. air-water interaction 2220. airborne sensing 2289, 2526, 2533, 2689, 2729. airflow 2340, 2341, 2343, 2353, 2656. airglow 2324. air mass 2402, 2518, 2567, 2588, 2593. air quality 2517, 2520, 2530, 2552, 2568, 2575, 2604, 2612, 2613, 2614, 2617, 2618, 2623, 2630, 2631, 2634, 2640, 2641, 2645, 2650, 2654, 2655, 2658, 2670, 2672. air sampling 2521, 2522, 2523, 2534, 2561, 2566, 2574, 2575, 2579, 2583, 2584, 2594, 2595, 2598, 2631, 2634, 2640, 2659, 2662, 2665. air temperature 2289, 2291, 2329, 2352, 2363, 2483, 2492, 2496, 2511, 2753. albedo 2298, 2299, 2300, 2302, 2606, 2729. aldehyde 2525. algal bloom 2145. algorithm 1969, 1985, 2136, 2288, 2403, 2431, 2469, 2474, 2746, 2750, 2751. aliphatic hydrocarbon 2675. alkalinity 2146, 2198. alkane 2598. alkene 2541. Allerod 1470. alluvial deposit 1663, 1864, 2024. alluvial plain 1423, 1477. alternative fuel 2627. aluminum 2104. ambient air 2582, 2583, 2634. ammonia 1743, 2550, 2551, 2599. ammonification 1743. ammonium 1740, 2669. ammonium nitrate 2619. ammonium sulfate 2602. analytical method 1542. Andisol 1696, 1701, 1799. Andosol 1701. angular momentum 2285. anisotropy 1575. anomaly 1493, 1885, 2217, 2373, 2374, 2391, 2392. anoxia 1652. anoxic conditions 2041. anthropogenic aspects and related phenomena 2420. anthropogenic effect 1468, 1559, 1561, 1562, 1564, 1565, 1568, 1642, 1680, 1880, 1995, 2252, 2263, 2270, 2335. anthropogenic source 1836, 2092, 2625, 2666. antibiotics 1691, 1825. anticline 1425. anticyclone 2334. aquatic ecosystem 1934, 2110. aquatic organism 2102. aquatic vegetation type 2147. aquifer 1463, 2150, 2177, 2180, 2182, 2185, 2187, 2226, 2234, 2238. aquifer characterization 2186. aquifer pollution 2178, 2179, 2183, 2196, 2197, 2211, 2223, 2227, 2230, 2233. arbuscular mycorrhiza 1812, 1849. archaeological evidence 1470, 1557, 1560. Arctic Oscillation 2382, 2415, 2416, 2419, 2490. arid environment 1563, 1698, 1864, 2275. aridification 1510. aridity 1527. arid region 1918, 2261, 2262. arsenate 1835. arsenic 1677, 1846, 1851, 2193, 2201, 2205, 2206, 2214, 2230, 2236, 2237. arsenite 1835. artificial intelligence 2271. artificial neural network 1938, 1969, 1973, 1979, 1986, 2015, 2035, 2241, 2523, 2766, 2773. artificial recharge 2793. assessment method 2126, 2431. ASTER 1580, 2766, 2791. atmosphere 2527. atmosphere-biosphere interaction 2367. atmosphere-ocean coupling 2371, 2376, 2377, 2488, 2499, 2502. atmospheric chemistry 1883, 1909, 2259, 2519, 2520, 2521, 2522, 2524, 2525, 2526, 2528, 2529, 2530, 2531, 2532, 2533, 2534, 2535, 2536, 2537, 2538, 2539, 2540, 2541, 2542, 2543, 2544, 2545, 2546, 2547, 2548, 2549, 2550, 2551, 2552, 2553, 2554, 2560, 2645, 2670, 2745, 2747. atmospheric circulation 1473, 1491, 1517, 2293, 2326, 2387, 2413, 2414, 2419, 2466. atmospheric correction 2709, 2778. atmospheric deposition 1737, 2401, 2520, 2522, 2539, 2548, 2549, 2562, 2580, 2597, 2636, 2649, 2661. atmospheric dynamics 2375, 2400, 2404, 2406, 2407, 2408, 2409, 2410, 2411, 2414, 2416, 2417, 2418, 2420, 2425, 2434, 2535, 2536. atmospheric electricity 2303, 2304, 2305, 2306, 2570. atmospheric forcing 2382, 2392, 2415. atmospheric general circulation model 2381, 2397, 2408, 2412. atmospheric modeling 2405, 2407, 2419, 2480. atmospheric moisture 2387. atmospheric particle 2565. atmospheric plume 2573, 2646, 2663. atmospheric pollution 2612, 2614, 2615, 2616, 2617, 2618, 2619, 2620, 2621, 2622, 2624, 2625, 2626, 2627, 2628, 2629, 2630, 2631, 2632, 2633, 2634, 2635, 2637, 2639, 2640, 2641, 2642, 2643, 2644, 2645, 2646, 2647, 2648, 2649, 2650, 2651, 2652, 2653, 2654, 2655, 2656, 2657, 2658, 2659, 2660, 2661, 2662, 2663, 2664, 2665, 2666, 2667, 2668, 2669, 2670, 2671, 2673, 2674, 2675, 2676, 2677, 2678, 2679, 2680, 2707. atmospheric transport 1606, 2518, 2567, 2572, 2638. atmospheric wave 2284, 2396, 2401, 2421, 2423, 2464. 1 atrazine 1826. aurora 2309, 2310, 2321, 2323. autotrophy 1743. avalanche 1454, 1573, 1582, 1587, 1588, 1589, 1590, 1591, 1592, 1593, 1594, 1595, 1596. AVHRR 2299, 2729, 2774, 2779. backarc basin 1670. background level 2216, 2527. backscatter 2683. bacterial disease 2203. bacterium 1790, 2668. badlands 1867. bank erosion 2014, 2026, 2034. bar 1639. barium 1541. baroclinic instability 2421. baroclinic motion 2365, 2398, 2410, 2419. baroclinic wave 2464. barotropic mode 2416. barotropic motion 2415. barrier island 1430, 1431. basal ice 1577. baseflow 2070, 2125. baseline conditions 1683. basin management 2072, 2109, 2267. bathymetry 1433. bauxite 1837. bay 1605. Bayesian analysis 2468. beach morphology 1429, 1432. beach profile 1429. bedform 2006, 2009, 2010, 2019, 2026, 2030. bedload 1611, 2006, 2019, 2020, 2022, 2023. bedrock 1457, 1697, 2154, 2270. bed roughness 2009, 2030, 2036. beetle 1505. benthic foraminifera 1535, 1545. benthos 2096. bentonite 1690. benzene 2613. beryllium isotope 1618, 1911, 2527, 2580. best management practice 1970, 2011, 2086. bioaccumulation 1749, 1834, 2117. bioassay 1828, 1838, 2205. bioavailability 1741, 1832, 1835, 1836, 2124. biochemistry 1742. biochronology 1480. bioclimatology 1434. biodegradation 1734, 1738, 1839, 1850, 2057, 2183. biodiversity 1447, 1785, 1798, 1804, 1805, 1927, 2102, 2769. biofilm 2095. biogenic emission 1406, 2517. biogeochemical cycle 1407, 1779, 1785. biogeochemistry 1752. biogeography 1503. bioindicator 1694, 1802, 2126. biological control 2069. biological uptake 1912, 2170, 2635. biomanipulation 2069. biomarker 1776, 2083, 2112. biomass 1791, 1799, 1802, 1811. biomass burning 2518, 2576, 2591, 2632. biomineralization 1832. biomonitoring 2112, 2117. bioreactor 1783. bioremediation 1827, 1837, 1843, 2159, 2201, 2227. biosphere 1830. biostratigraphy 1509. biota 2276. biotransformation 1691, 1733, 2065, 2112. bivalve 1495, 1536, 2294. black carbon 1778, 2573. bog 2050. boreal forest 1804, 2500. borehole logging 2177. boron 2232. boron isotope 1654. bottom current 1534. boulder 2021. boundary layer 2281, 2337, 2339, 2340, 2342, 2343, 2349, 2354, 2358, 2365, 2405, 2455, 2540, 2547. Boussinesq equation 2175. Bowen Bowen ratio 1921. breakthrough curve 2152. breccia 1464. brightness temperature 1887, 2726, 2749. BTEX 2660. buffer zone 2084. burning 1706, 1759. burrowing organism 1607. C3 plant 1563. C4 plant 1563. cadmium 1757, 1824, 2138. Calabrian 1475. calcareous soil 1739. calcite 1512, 1655. calcium 1504. calcrete 1655. calibration 1693, 1953, 1963, 1978, 1980, 2058, 2091, 2679, 2682, 2683, 2689. calorimetry 2358. canal 1919. canonical analysis 2001, 2661. canopy 1914. canopy architecture 2356. canopy exchange 1913, 2355, 2359, 2360, 2362, 2367. canopy reflectance 2776, 2778, 2781. capillarity 1723. capillary pressure 1723. carbon 2131. carbonate 1478, 1645. carbonate rock 1463. carbon budget 1409. carbon cycle 1779, 1788. carbon dioxide 1408, 1490, 1533, 1709, 1740, 1752, 2105, 2355, 2357, 2360, 2362, 2532, 2545, 2546, 2578. carbon dioxide enrichment 2372, 2486, 2488, 2491, 2506. carbon flux 1409. carbon isotope 1512, 1544, 1563, 1648, 1797, 2784. carbon monoxide 2532, 2618, 2633, 2642, 2655, 2659, 2666, 2667. carbon sequestration 1763, 1764. carbonyl compound 2521. carboxylic acid 2565, 2598. cartography 2739, 2740, 2741, 2742, 2744. catchment 1518, 1603, 1976, 1983, 2274. cation exchange capacity 1732, 1746. cave 2221. cave deposit 1512, 1635. cemetery 2215. Cenozoic 1443, 2758, 2759. cesium 1673, 1749. cesium isotope 1911. chalk 2169. channel change 1418, 1423, 2034. channel flow 1968, 2019, 2030. channel hydraulics 2003, 2010, 2020, 2022, 2023, 2025, 2030, 2034, 2035, 2036. channel morphology 1418, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1423, 1617, 2012, 2026, 2251. charcoal 1506, 1524, 1558, 1567. chemical analysis 1910, 2074, 2141, 2521, 2565, 2576. chemical composition 1756, 1905, 1907, 1910, 2127, 2231, 2404, 2520, 2526, 2542, 2543, 2559, 2565, 2576, 2581, 2584, 2588, 2590, 2591, 2595, 2600, 2601, 2603, 2628, 2633, 2637, 2661. chemical control 2069. chemical mass balance 2563. chemical pollutant 2101. chemical reaction 2524, 2605. Chi-Chi earthquake 1999 1455. chloride 2234. chlorinated hydrocarbon 1839, 2180. chlorophyll 2136, 2433. chlorophyll a 2785. chromium 2202. cirrus 2437, 2441, 2448, 2452. citric acid 1754. classification 1958, 2050, 2617, 2724. clast 1613. clastic dike 1553. clathrate 1544. clay mineral 1412, 1502, 1657, 1826. clay soil 1778. clearcutting 1759. clear sky 2465. climate change 1401, 1482, 1484, 1485, 1486, 1487, 1490, 1498, 1499, 1500, 1511, 1523, 1558, 1579, 1816, 1956, 1960, 2377, 2483, 2484, 2486, 2488, 2489, 2490, 2491, 2492, 2496, 2497, 2498, 2499, 2500, 2501, 2502, 2503, 2504, 2505, 2506, 2508, 2509, 2511, 2512, 2513, 2514, 2515, 2516, 2775. climate conditions 2763. climate effect 1412, 1559, 1569, 1781. climate forcing 1993, 2332, 2371, 2385, 2428, 2505, 2536, 2602. climate modeling 1483, 1886, 1996, 2282, 2293, 2298, 2391, 2480, 2481, 2486, 2493, 2494, 2503, 2507, 2510, 2512, 2536, 2555, 2727. SUBJECT INDEX climate variation 1496, 1540, 1885, 1939, 1987, 2253, 2326, 2375, 2379, 2390, 2419, 2487, 2493, 2510. climatology 1993, 2334, 2430. cloud 2295, 2440. cloud condensation nucleus 2437, 2438, 2457, 2589. cloud cover 2443, 2458, 2485. cloud droplet 2444, 2449, 2450, 2451. cloud microphysics 2404, 2437, 2438, 2444, 2446, 2447, 2448, 2449, 2450, 2451, 2452, 2453, 2454, 2539, 2589. cloud radiative forcing 2439, 2441, 2442, 2683, 2751. cloud to ground lightning 2303, 2305, 2306, 2313. cluster analysis 1761, 2097, 2567, 2572. coal-fired power plant 2677. coarse woody debris 1772. coastal erosion 1613, 1642. coastal evolution 1432. coastal lagoon 2789. coastal morphology 1428, 1431. coastal sediment 1638. coastal water 2033, 2790. coastal zone 2333, 2334, 2343, 2552, 2580, 2628. coexistence 1813. cohesive sediment 2034. cold air 2348. cold front 2306. cold pool 2371. coliform bacterium 2179. collapse structure 1464. collision 2450. colonization 2775. combustion 2632. community composition 1812, 1817. community dynamics 1808. community structure 1806, 1807, 1808, 2145. compaction 1872. comparative study 1886, 1990, 2295, 2521, 2558, 2728, 2773. complexation 1767. compost 1765, 1770, 1783. composting 1702, 1771, 1782, 1784, 1848. compressive strength 1457. computational fluid dynamics 2340, 2341, 2418, 2653, 2654. computer simulation 2744. computer vision 2703. concentration (composition) 1904, 2523, 2568, 2611. cone penetration test 1634. conference proceeding 1615, 1616, 1617, 1618, 1619, 1620, 1621, 1622, 1623, 1624, 1625, 1626, 1627, 1628, 1629, 1630, 1631, 1632, 1633, 1634. confined aquifer 1466, 2184, 2231. conflict management 2265, 2271. coniferous forest 1710, 2357, 2599, 2765, 2776. connectivity 1422. conservation planning 2768. conservation status 2769. constructed wetland 2044, 2048, 2277. contaminated land 1673, 1682, 1683, 1841, 1845. continental shelf 1619, 1670. contour map 2741. control system 1955, 2070. convection 2519, 2607. convective boundary layer 2286, 2338, 2344, 2348, 2406, 2648. convective cloud 2445, 2539. convective system 2306, 2333, 2425, 2429, 2456, 2749. convergence 2333, 2387. cooling 2483. cooperative behavior 2264. coordinate 2744. copper 1735, 1757, 1767, 2066, 2138. coral 1472, 1530, 1646, 2485. coral reef 1531. corrosion 2522, 2544. coseismic process 1445, 1450. cosmic ray 2458. cosmogenic radionuclide 1586. cost 1841. covariance analysis 2363, 2384. crater lake 1756, 2149. critical flow 2003. crop 1756, 2778. crop production 1917, 2771. crop residue 1777. crop yield 2497, 2771, 2779. crude oil 2196. cruise report 1601. crustal deformation 1443, 2688, 2694, 2699, 2700, 2757, 2761. crustal movement 2695, 2698. cryosphere 1403. cryoturbation 1571. crystalline rock 1475, 2156, 2224. crystallization 1585. crystal structure 1655. cultivation 1564, 1568. cumulus 2439, 2442, 2453. current velocity 2033, 2389. 2 cutting 1453. cyanide 2278. cyanobacterium 2060, 2065, 2145. cyclic sedimentation 1669. cyclogenesis 2461. cyclone 2425, 2431. dam 1413, 1414, 1415, 1416, 2252. dam construction 1418, 1419, 1423, 2005, 2270. dam failure 1456. dam removal 1420, 1421. Dansgaard-Oeschger cycle 1528. data acquisition 2292. data assimilation 2301, 2465, 2475, 2557, 2638. database 2758. data interpretation 1681. data management 2705. data processing 1659, 2732. data quality 1909, 2734. data set 2493. dating method 1442, 1471, 1474, 1586, 1697. day length 2145. DDT 2675. debris flow 1458, 1601. decadal variation 1584, 1926, 2490, 2498, 2556. Deccan Traps 2793. deciduous forest 1913. deciduous tree 2635. decision making 1896, 2329, 2796. decision support system 2271. decomposition 1768, 1779, 1780, 1781, 1796, 1809, 1810, 2215. deep-sea sediment 1656. deep sea 1646. deforestation 1468, 2244, 2252, 2762, 2770. deglaciation 1555, 1586, 1599. degradation 1776, 1844, 2062, 2065, 2075. dehydration 1647. delta 1430. deltaic deposit 1529, 1554, 1642, 1645, 1667, 1668, 1669. deltaic sedimentation 1615, 1616, 1617, 1618, 1619, 1620, 1621, 1622, 1623, 1624, 1625, 1626, 1627, 1628, 1629, 1630, 1631, 1632, 1633, 1634. dendrochronology 1471, 1486. dendroclimatology 1501, 1515, 2514. denitrification 1498, 1772, 2052, 2095, 2122, 2159, 2207. denudation 1440. deposition 1611, 1640, 1651, 2621. depositional environment 1528, 1666, 1667, 1668. depositional sequence 1635. deposition velocity 1911, 2580. depth determination 1900, 2495. desalination 2678. desertification 1468, 1469, 1864, 2513. desorption 1736, 1831, 2140. detection method 2060, 2141, 2714, 2725. dew 1904. dewatering 1401. diabatic process 2422. diagenesis 1645, 1646, 1647, 1653, 1654. diatom 1526, 1538. diet 2149. diffusion 2035. digital elevation model 1440, 1580, 1855, 1941, 2240, 2685, 2701, 2718, 2722, 2793. digital image 1593, 2704. digital photogrammetry 2703. digital terrain model 2719. dilution 2578. dimethylsulfide 2639. discharge 1919, 1936, 2241, 2783. disease control 1771. dispersion 2054, 2343, 2359, 2529, 2618, 2620, 2623, 2638, 2646, 2647, 2648, 2650, 2651, 2653, 2654, 2656, 2658, 2663, 2672, 2674, 2678, 2679. dissipation 2445. dissolution 1465, 1466, 1467, 2160, 2231. dissolved gas 2105. dissolved inorganic nitrogen 2100. dissolved matter 1906. dissolved organic carbon 1770, 2081, 2104, 2105, 2147. dissolved organic matter 1735, 1828, 2128, 2140. dissolved oxygen 2125. disturbance 1447, 1685. diurnal variation 2303, 2319, 2435, 2507, 2509, 2530, 2603. doline 1466. dolomite 2221. Doppler lidar 2651. Doppler radar 1895, 2426, 2751, 2787. dose-response relationship 2643. downcutting 1627. downwelling 2790. drag 2354, 2417, 2459. drainage 1411, 2242. drainage basin 1424, 1662, 1663, 1965, 1994, 2013, 2127, 2794. drainage network 1956. drainage water 2089. SUBJECT INDEX Gypsum drawdown 2150, 2187. drinking water 2144, 2232, 2235. drip irrigation 1714, 1720. drizzle 2438. droplet 1897, 2446, 2681. drought 1435, 1486, 1796, 2273, 2394, 2514, 2763, 2771. dry deposition 2548, 2549, 2597, 2649. dry season 2170. dune 1434, 1639, 1811. dune field 1435, 1436, 1550. dust 1493, 1606, 1640, 1873, 2085, 2513, 2581, 2586, 2596, 2600, 2607. dust storm 2624. dynamic analysis 1781. evaporation 1915. evaporite 1660. evapotranspiration 1916, 1917, 1918, 1920, 1921, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1949, 1952, 1964, 2172, 2173, 2253, 2356, 2777. evergreen forest 1521. excretion 2138. exhaust emission 2563, 2578, 2613, 2615, 2618, 2664, 2671. experimental design 2006. experimental study 2163, 2537, 2785. extra-pair copulation 2684. extraction method 1690, 2068. extratropical environment 2410. extreme event 1573, 1981, 2377, 2428, 2568. freezing 2457. F region 2320. frequency analysis 1898, 1899, 1937, 1940, 1965. freshwater ecosystem 1960. freshwater input 2499. freshwater sediment 2143. friction 1452. frontal feature 2334. frontogenesis 2334. fulvic acid 1767. functional group 1949. fungicide 2094. fungus 1790, 2668. fuzzy mathematics 1969, 2288, 2756. earthquake 1445, 1450, 1456, 2319, 2320, 2757, 2761. Earth tide 2154. earthworm 1797, 1801, 1804, 1810, 1843. ecohydrology 1934, 1949, 2253. ecological approach 2069. ecological footprint 2361. economic analysis 1714. economic growth 2796. ecophysiology 1792. ecosystem function 1805, 1878. ecosystem health 1694, 1804, 2126, 2170. ecosystem management 2260. ecosystem modeling 1779. ecosystem response 1960, 2260. ecotone 1725, 2053. ectomycorrhiza 1813. eddy 2432. eddy covariance 2360, 2361, 2362, 2364, 2545. education 2690, 2730, 2731. Eemian 1490. effluent 1720, 2111. eigenvalue 2283, 2416, 2711. eighteenth century 1501. electrical conductivity 1704, 1910, 2177, 2200. electric field 2190, 2308. electrochemical method 2207. electrojet 2321, 2395. electrokinesis 1846. electromagnetic field 2317, 2319. electromagnetic method 1689. electron density 2310, 2312, 2314, 2320. electron spin resonance dating 1481. elevation 1816. El Nino 1536, 2370, 2386. El Nino-Southern Oscillation 1908, 1939, 2325, 2373, 2376, 2380, 2390, 2391, 2393, 2394, 2413. emission 1784, 2259. emission control 2664. emission inventory 2551, 2576, 2619, 2640. emissivity 2777. empirical analysis 1981. endoparasite 1794. endosulfan 2065. energy balance 1576, 1726, 1921, 2240, 2415. energy budget 1915. energy dissipation 2033, 2037. ensemble forecasting 1971, 1975, 1977, 2461, 2474, 2479, 2506. entrainment 1588, 2453. environmental assessment 2769. environmental change 1802, 1950. environmental disturbance 2768. environmental fate 2063, 2110. environmental gradient 1816. environmental impact 1413, 1414, 1415, 1416. environmental monitoring 2769. environmental planning 2268. environmental policy 2122. Envisat-1 2745. enzyme 1789. enzyme activity 1761, 1775, 1799, 1800, 1877. Eocene 1645. eolian deposit 1435, 1446, 1664. eolian process 1436, 1513, 1606, 1612, 1640. ephemeral stream 2015, 2026, 2266. epidemiology 2710. equilibrium line 1579. E region 2316, 2324. erosion 1587, 2006. erosion control 1854, 1856, 1861, 1876, 2014. erosion rate 1426, 1440. error analysis 1541, 1884, 1895, 2282, 2283, 2345, 2461, 2466, 2579, 2706, 2727, 2733. estimation method 1689, 1693, 1887, 1889, 1890, 1892, 1942, 2291, 2346. estrogenic compound 2110. estuarine dynamics 1628. estuarine environment 1604, 2033, 2095. estuarine pollution 1674, 1680. estuarine sediment 1639. estuary 1433. eukaryote 2060. eutrophication 1648, 2056, 2067, 2075, 2112, 2118, 2131, 2136, 2143, 2144, 2294. eutrophic environment 1671, 2138. factor analysis 2116, 2208. failure analysis 1460. fault displacement 1439, 2687, 2761. faulting 1638. fault slip 2308. fault zone 1442, 2152, 2758. feasibility study 2475. fecal coliform 1720. feedback mechanism 2384. feeding behavior 1801. fertilizer application 1404, 1728, 1769. filter 1820. filtration 2193. fine grained sediment 1619. finite element method 2161. fire 1695. fire history 1485, 1552, 1566, 2500. firn 2534. flash flood 1986, 1989, 1990. flocculation 1628. flood 1618, 1970, 2023. flood control 1717, 1935. flood deposit 1621. flood forecasting 1896, 1946, 1969, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1986. flood frequency 1965. flooding 1482, 1844, 1932, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1973, 1995, 2021, 2249, 2394. floodplain 1417, 1958, 1961, 1966, 2031. flood routing 1962, 2028. floristics 2768. flow field 2648. flow measurement 1953. flow modeling 1575, 1881, 1954, 1968, 1971, 1973, 1979, 2086, 2161, 2166, 2172, 2173, 2177, 2405, 2648. flow over surface 2417. flow pattern 1871, 2048, 2168, 2171, 2654, 2657. flow regulation 2266, 2275, 2276. flow structure 2353. flow velocity 1584, 1610, 2007, 2029, 2033, 2035, 2115, 2163. fluid flow 1654. flume experiment 1610, 1611, 2032. fluorescence 2099. fluvial deposit 1482, 1658, 1675. fluvial geomorphology 1413, 1414, 1415, 1416, 1417, 1422, 1423, 1425, 1427, 1665. Fluvisol 1773. flux measurement 1913, 1922, 2363, 2364, 2529, 2545, 2550, 2551. fly ash 1679. fog 1907, 1910, 2475. food web 1803, 1806, 2135. foraminifera 1653. forecasting method 1594, 1595, 1596, 1893, 1925, 1955, 1969, 1971, 1979, 1986, 1989, 1994, 2040, 2042, 2306, 2311, 2462, 2465, 2466, 2467, 2469, 2470, 2471, 2472, 2473, 2476, 2478, 2482, 2630, 2645, 2670, 2779. foreland basin 1662. forest 1758, 2246, 2366, 2685. forest canopy 1903, 1923, 2361, 2364, 2529, 2777, 2780, 2781. forest clearance 1474. forest cover 2766, 2772. forest ecosystem 1409, 1816. forested catchment 1717, 1964, 1999, 2008, 2018, 2073, 2078, 2167, 2244, 2247. forest edge 1725. forest fire 2307, 2666. forest floor 1836, 2551. forest health 2765. forest inventory 2762, 2767, 2776. forest management 2247, 2772. forest soil 1411, 1695, 1710, 1718, 1746, 1773, 1776, 1780, 1786, 1808, 1814, 1872. formaldehyde 2543. formation mechanism 1613, 2050, 2608. fossil 1503, 1504. fractal analysis 1665, 1710. fractured medium 2152, 2162, 2163, 2169. fracture flow 2162. fracture mechanics 1589. fracture propagation 1593. gas exchange 2353. gas hydrate 1654. gastropod 1496. general circulation model 2293, 2375, 2376, 2392, 2440, 2502, 2508, 2728. genetic algorithm 2039, 2058, 2482, 2674. genetically modified organism 1702. geochemical survey 1681, 1682, 1683. geochemistry 1520, 1648, 1654, 1659, 1660, 1684, 2183, 2199, 2233. geochronology 1474, 1476, 1477, 1478, 1479, 1510, 1624. geodesy 2689, 2690, 2691, 2695, 2696, 2697, 2756. geodetic network 2687, 2688, 2691. geographical distribution 2768, 2769. geography education 2743. geoid 2696. geological mapping 1438, 2736, 2758. geomagnetic field 2309, 2314, 2318. geomagnetic storm 2315, 2316, 2322. geomorphological mapping 1438, 1476. geomorphological response 1403. geomorphology 1424, 1437, 2799, 2800. geophysical method 2186. geopotential 2556. geostatistics 1600, 1760, 2127, 2329, 2696, 2707, 2711, 2718. geostrophic flow 2411. germination 1838. GIS 1760, 1878, 1920, 1962, 2090, 2116, 2255, 2583, 2686, 2706, 2710, 2713, 2717, 2730, 2731, 2732, 2733, 2734, 2739, 2744, 2758, 2759, 2769, 2793, 2794, 2795, 2796, 2798. glacial-interglacial cycle 1498, 1539. glacial deposit 1481, 1554. glacial environment 1711, 2775. glacial hydrology 1927, 2239, 2241, 2242, 2243. glacial lake 2243. Glacial Lake Agassiz 1556. glaciation 1503. glacier advance 1553, 1572. glacier dynamics 1572, 1577, 1579, 1583, 1597. glacier flow 1577. glacier mass balance 1580. glacier retreat 1580, 1586, 1598. global change 1401, 1402, 1403, 1409. global warming 2420, 2424, 2496, 2507, 2546. glyphosate 2093, 2218. GNSS 2755. gold 2760. golf course 2094. GPS 1580, 1862, 2292, 2687, 2688, 2691, 2692, 2693, 2694, 2695, 2698, 2700, 2786. grain size 2008, 2020, 2022, 2036, 2460. granite 2123. granular medium 1582, 1587, 1590, 1591. grassland 1474, 1758, 1922, 2082, 2363. grassland soil 1793, 1794. gravel 1605. gravel bed stream 1421, 1611, 2009, 2019, 2022, 2025, 2031, 2032. gravity anomaly 2694. gravity wave 2397, 2414, 2421. greenhouse gas 1411, 1764, 2484, 2546. ground-based measurement 2553. groundwater 1708, 1949, 2151, 2170, 2192, 2193, 2203, 2209, 2216, 2217, 2218, 2224, 2225, 2235, 2260, 2276, 2280. groundwater-surface water interaction 2164, 2208. groundwater abstraction 2279. groundwater control 2153. groundwater flow 1467, 2152, 2154, 2161, 2163, 2164, 2165, 2169, 2171, 2172, 2173, 2174, 2184, 2185, 2190, 2191, 2198, 2226. groundwater pollution 2158, 2159, 2199, 2200, 2201, 2202, 2204, 2205, 2206, 2207, 2208, 2210, 2212, 2213, 2214, 2215, 2219, 2228, 2229, 2236, 2237, 2278. groundwater resource 2186, 2269. growth 1494. growth form 1472. growth rate 1488. growth response 1770, 2514. gully erosion 1561, 1721, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 1866, 1868, 1871. gypsum 1464, 1465, 1466, 1647. 3 Habitat habitat quality 2008, 2096, 2115. habitat restoration 2052. habitat selection 2686. habitat type 2716. hail 2460. hazard assessment 1448, 1453, 1454. hazard management 1935. haze 2672. HCH 2675. headwater 2073, 2123. health impact 2622. health risk 2232, 2643. heat balance 2346. heat budget 2791. heat flux 2358, 2362, 2369, 2485, 2777. heating 2336, 2414. heat island 2343. heat transfer 1708, 2365, 2653. heavy metal 1493, 1672, 1676, 1678, 1834, 1847, 1852, 1906, 2077, 2106, 2112, 2135, 2612, 2636. height determination 2295. Heinrich event 1492. herbicide 1798, 2068, 2084. heterogeneity 1447, 2174, 2179, 2182, 2187, 2209, 2406, 2711, 2713. heterogeneous medium 2161, 2177. highstand 1528, 1531, 1623. hillslope 1603, 1862, 1863, 1871, 2012, 2013, 2175. histogram 2726. historical cartography 2735, 2736, 2737, 2738. historical perspective 2764. Histosol 1411. Holocene 1428, 1435, 1437, 1441, 1442, 1482, 1483, 1484, 1487, 1491, 1494, 1495, 1497, 1499, 1507, 1508, 1511, 1515, 1516, 1518, 1522, 1523, 1524, 1526, 1528, 1529, 1540, 1543, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1550, 1551, 1557, 1558, 1559, 1560, 1561, 1562, 1564, 1566, 1567, 1569, 1570, 1572, 1597, 1615, 1624, 1630, 1660, 1667, 1870. human activity 1518, 1560, 1570, 1685. human settlement 1558, 1567, 1568, 1569. humic acid 1731, 2223. humic substance 1767, 1773, 1775, 2114, 2610. humidity 1786, 2363, 2369, 2381, 2443, 2531, 2544, 2595, 2752. hurricane 1428, 1432, 2292, 2424, 2433, 2471, 2472. hydraulic conductivity 1451, 1600, 1711, 1713, 1717, 2167, 2169, 2174, 2183, 2189. hydraulic head 2174. hydraulic property 1644, 1721, 2161, 2181, 2186. hydrocarbon 1849, 2278. hydrochemistry 1881, 2053, 2074, 2123, 2192, 2204, 2221, 2224, 2231. hydrodynamics 1467, 1644, 1868, 2048, 2449. hydroelectric power 1948. hydroelectric power plant 2070. hydrogen sulfide 2517. hydrogeochemistry 2191, 2209, 2234, 2238. hydrogeology 1463, 2162, 2177. hydrograph 1957, 1962, 1967, 1968, 1980, 2005. hydrological change 1948. hydrological cycle 2248, 2489. hydrological modeling 1891, 1892, 1894, 1914, 1919, 1925, 1933, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1941, 1946, 1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1962, 1963, 1967, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1993, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2054, 2090, 2175, 2247. hydrological regime 1482, 1881, 1934, 1942, 1951, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1966, 1991, 1993, 1996, 2005, 2040, 2125, 2244, 2245, 2270, 2275, 2783. hydrological response 1961, 2245, 2247, 2249, 2266. hydrology 1882, 2051, 2053. hydrolysis 1774. hydrometeorology 1885, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1896, 1900, 1925, 1926, 1939, 1940, 1943, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1993, 2040, 2041, 2467, 2468, 2477, 2479, 2495, 2498. hydrothermal alteration 2760. hydrothermal plume 2043. hydroxyl radical 2537, 2542. hygroscopicity 2588. hypersaline environment 1636. hypolimnion 2041. hyporheic zone 2010, 2276. hysteresis 2017, 2018, 2028. ice 1484. ice cap 1473. ice core 1493, 1517, 1578, 1581, 2534, 2680. ice cover 2593. ice crystal 1585, 2436, 2437, 2441, 2444, 2452, 2457, 2728. ice drift 2389. ice field 1597. ice flow 1575, 1584. ice margin 1489, 1598, 1599. ice sheet 1574, 1575, 1576, 1599, 2484, 2488. ice stream 1584. IKONOS 2721. SUBJECT INDEX image analysis 1860, 2709, 2710, 2712, 2713, 2714, 2715, 2716, 2717, 2721, 2723, 2725. image classification 2702, 2703, 2705, 2715, 2765. image processing 2707, 2720, 2773. image resolution 2702. impoundment 1858. incised valley 1425, 1627. index method 1694, 2025. Index of Biotic Integrity 1804. industrial district 2566, 2577. industrial emission 2640, 2647, 2660, 2662, 2666, 2675, 2678. industrialization 2732. inertia 2432. infectious disease 2710. infill 1638, 1865. infiltration 1711, 1854, 1970, 2087, 2168. infiltrometer 1721. inflow 2038. infrared imagery 2328. infrared spectroscopy 1687. ingestion rate 2130. inorganic compound 2074, 2134. inorganic nitrogen 1775, 2095. insecticide 2119. in situ measurement 1688, 2103, 2528, 2785. instrumentation 2292, 2295, 2313. insurance industry 2460. intensive agriculture 2272. interception 1914, 1964. interferometry 2753, 2757, 2761. interglacial 1480, 1540. intermediate water 1539. interspecific interaction 1794. interstadial 1492. interstitial environment 2007. intertidal environment 1613, 1677. intertropical convergence zone 2383. intramontane basin 1637. inversion layer 2547, 2660. ion exchange 2231. ionosphere 2308, 2309, 2311, 2312, 2314, 2315, 2316, 2317, 2318, 2320, 2321, 2322, 2324, 2395, 2693. iron 1405, 1649, 1650, 1656, 1671, 1750, 2206. iron-reducing bacterium 1832. irrigation 1469, 1756, 1916, 1918, 2149, 2235, 2248, 2250, 2261, 2262. irrigation system 1715. isoprene 2608. isostasy 1574. isotopic analysis 1881. isotopic composition 1404, 1530, 1563, 2676, 2784. isotopic fractionation 1478. jet flow 2429. jet stream 2403, 2421. Kalman filter 1953. karst 1465. karst hydrology 1463, 1467, 1675, 2176, 2222, 2225. karstification 1463, 1466. kinematics 1871, 1968, 2003. kinetic energy 2423. kinetics 2081, 2605. kriging 1760, 1890, 1974, 1983, 2219, 2329, 2696, 2707, 2715. laboratory method 1452, 1587, 1591, 2159. lacustrine deposit 1407, 1492, 1518, 1519, 1526, 1549, 1550, 1637, 1641, 1645, 1649, 1650, 1651. Lagrangian analysis 2338, 2359, 2672. lake 1401. lake dynamics 1643, 2043. lake level 1550, 1556. lake pollution 2135, 2142, 2144. lake water 1648, 2040, 2041, 2137, 2140, 2141, 2145, 2350, 2791. land classification 2720, 2774. land cover 1707, 2075, 2724, 2764, 2770, 2774. land degradation 1468, 1873. landfill 2099. landform 1722. landform evolution 1442, 1445, 1624, 1625, 1664, 1699. land management 1859. Landsat 2762. Landsat thematic mapper 2720, 2763, 2765, 2772, 2773, 2789. landscape change 1469, 2770. landscape ecology 1422, 1878, 1879. landscape evolution 1465, 1561. landscape planning 2267. landscape structure 2001. landslide 1449, 1450, 1455, 1456, 1458, 1459, 1462, 1571, 1809, 2013, 2042, 2756. land surface 1915, 2406, 2650, 2777. land use 1559, 1707, 1763, 1847, 1966, 2001, 2090, 2116, 2251. land use change 1778, 1859, 1861, 1865, 1866, 1869, 1874, 1951, 2244, 2245, 2246, 2248, 2249, 2253, 2764, 2795, 2796. land use planning 1454. 4 large eddy simulation 2338, 2344, 2353, 2365, 2405, 2439, 2442, 2455. laser induced fluorescence 2528. laser method 2689. Last Glacial 1519, 1527, 1529, 1546. Last Glacial Maximum 1538, 1599. Last Interglacial 1490. late glacial 1505, 1586. latent heat flux 2346, 2363, 2388, 2791. latitude 1745. leachate 2044, 2099. leaching 1686, 1731, 2094, 2199, 2218. lead 1836, 1842, 2563, 2621, 2676. lead isotope 1606, 1614, 1643, 1737, 2527, 2580, 2621. leaf area index 2356, 2766, 2771, 2776. leaf litter 1768, 1772, 1796. leakage 2184, 2212, 2213, 2231. least squares method 2692. legislation 2616. leveling 2697, 2700. lichenometry 1598, 2021. lidar 1455, 2435, 2535, 2586, 2767. ligand 1842. lightning 2304, 2307, 2313, 2519. light scattering 2590. limestone 2129, 2221, 2798. liquefaction 1444. liquid chromatography 1690, 2785. lithofacies 1666. litter 1781, 1807, 1808, 1809, 1810. Little Ice Age 1495, 1597, 1598, 2775. livestock farming 2639. loading 1553. loam 1713. loess 1500, 1513, 1520, 1864. long-term change 2494, 2495, 2536. long range transport 2572, 2591, 2600, 2614, 2672. longshore transport 1605. low flow 1932, 1937, 1987. low pressure system 2425. macroinvertebrate 2126. macrophyte 2112. Madden-Julian oscillation 2409, 2466. magmatism 1441. magnesium 1504, 1655. magnetic property 1852. magnetic susceptibility 1534, 1853. magnetohydrodynamics 2318. management practice 2094, 2264. manganese 1671. mangrove 1547. manure 1766, 1769, 1854, 2550. map generalization 2742. mapping 1681, 1682, 1683, 2724, 2735, 2738, 2743. mapping method 1443, 1663, 1684, 2719, 2740, 2744, 2773. marine atmosphere 2305, 2381, 2387, 2446, 2447, 2471, 2478, 2524, 2532, 2540, 2584, 2589, 2590, 2593, 2597, 2601, 2665. marine environment 2290. marine isotope stage 1492, 1540. marine sediment 1507, 1533, 1652. Markov chain 2331, 2795. Mars 1446. mass balance 1419, 1576, 1579, 1581, 2131, 2165. mass spectrometry 1690, 2582. mass transfer 1747, 2160, 2330. mass wasting 2246. mathematical analysis 2033, 2034, 2036, 2162, 2185, 2344, 2407, 2411, 2459, 2461. maximum likelihood analysis 2715, 2716. measurement method 1585, 1687, 1902, 2352, 2689. Medieval 1471. Mediterranean environment 1753. meltwater 2165, 2239, 2242, 2243. mercury (element) 1651, 1818, 1840, 2127, 2540. meridional circulation 2400. mesocosm 2054. Mesolithic 1557. mesosphere 2400. mesotrophic environment 2151. metabolite 1825. metal 2107. metallogenesis 2760. meteor 2296. meteoric water 2165. meteorology 2462. methane 1404, 1405, 1407, 1408, 1410, 1544, 1621, 2227, 2532, 2546. methanogenesis 2196. methodology 1686, 1925, 2064, 2367, 2691. metropolitan area 2538, 2583. microalga 2138. microbial activity 1406, 1693, 1700, 1773, 1791, 1799, 1800, 1802, 1814, 1815, 1877. microbial community 1792, 1793, 1794, 1795, 1796, 1817, 1843, 2203, 2204. microclimate 2366. micrometeorology 2361. microorganism 2205. SUBJECT INDEX microwave imagery 2750, 2782. microwave radiometer 2752. midlatitude environment 2531. military application 2736. mineralization 1652, 1709, 1742, 1772, 1845. mineralogy 2577. mine waste 1845. mining industry 2127. mite 1796, 1807, 1813. mitigation 2273, 2678. mixed forest 1710. mixed layer 2382. mixing 2157, 2338, 2530, 2547, 2600, 2651, 2657. mixing ratio 2439, 2666, 2669. mobility 1836. model 1990. modeling 1458, 1868, 1869, 2120, 2148, 2367. model validation 2091, 2470, 2679, 2729. MODIS 2558, 2592, 2604, 2729, 2771, 2774, 2780, 2791. moisture content 1723. moisture flux 1726, 1923. mollusc 1480, 1504, 2117. momentum transfer 2408, 2409, 2423, 2427, 2459. monitoring system 2311, 2554, 2604, 2756. monoterpene 1734, 2605. monsoon 1502, 1513, 1526, 1532, 1908, 2326, 2393, 2404, 2423, 2477. montmorillonite 1656. moraine 1598. mortality 2622, 2765. mountain environment 1726, 1879, 1986. mountain region 2265. mountain stream 2018, 2021, 2026. multicriteria analysis 2273. multispectral image 2725. multivariate analysis 1659, 2116, 2204, 2208, 2402, 2631. municipal solid waste 1770, 1848. naphthalene 2057, 2063. nappe 1475. natural analog 1521. natural attenuation 2182, 2202, 2210, 2215. natural gas 2627. natural hazard 1995. nature-society relations 1859. Navier-Stokes equations 2287, 2340. navigation 2692. NDVI 1952, 2763, 2774, 2776, 2779, 2784. near infrared 2444. nematode 1694, 1791, 1794, 1795. Neogene 1662. neotectonics 1439, 1441, 1442, 1443, 1444. net ecosystem exchange 2361. niche partitioning 1813. nineteenth century 2735. nitrate 1692, 1740, 2052, 2069, 2194, 2200, 2207, 2225, 2594. nitric acid 2522, 2544, 2599. nitric oxide 2519, 2642. nitrification 1740, 2095. nitrogen 1772, 1845, 2072, 2076, 2120, 2123, 2131, 2277, 2548. nitrogen cycle 1779. nitrogen dioxide 2635, 2643, 2658. nitrogen isotope 1498, 1538, 2067. nitrogen oxides 2528, 2548, 2552, 2605, 2626, 2633, 2641, 2652, 2659. nitrous oxide 1406, 1408, 1411, 1709, 1769, 2532, 2645. NOAA satellite 2726. noctilucent cloud 2435. nocturnal activity 2684. nonaqueous phase liquid 1821, 1841, 2160. nonlinearity 2407. nonpoint source pollution 2061, 2084, 2086, 2087, 2092, 2108, 2208. normal fault 1441. North Atlantic Oscillation 1449, 2294, 2490, 2493, 2498, 2510. Northern Hemisphere 1517, 2379, 2419, 2495, 2629. Northridge earthquake 1994 1450. nowcasting 1893, 1896, 1901, 2467, 2468. nuclear magnetic resonance 1774. nucleation 2436, 2457, 2575. numerical method 1462, 1899, 1901, 1997, 2038, 2187, 2286, 2333, 2418, 2475, 2692. numerical model 1430, 1528, 1576, 1588, 1590, 1592, 1595, 1664, 1782, 1841, 1887, 1954, 1957, 2004, 2019, 2073, 2155, 2178, 2188, 2219, 2315, 2337, 2339, 2344, 2368, 2391, 2421, 2459, 2462, 2473, 2478, 2480, 2499, 2504, 2505, 2571, 2618, 2620, 2622, 2630, 2646, 2647, 2663, 2674, 2679. nutrient 2056. nutrient availability 1709. nutrient cycling 1739, 1746, 1785, 1803, 1805, 1806, 1811. nutrient dynamics 1758, 2100. nutrient enrichment 2075, 2108, 2143, 2222. nutrient loss 1695, 2078. nutrient use 1728. Precipitation observational method 2554. ocean color 2790. Ocean Drilling Program 1654. oceanic current 1539, 2389. oil production 2045. open channel flow 2027. ophiolite 1475. optical depth 2436, 2558, 2568, 2586, 2596, 2604. optical property 2300, 2441, 2451, 2567, 2571, 2601, 2790. optimization 2064, 2261, 2262, 2412. orbital forcing 1483, 1502, 1524, 1537, 1540. ore deposit 2760. organic acid 1739. organic carbon 1543, 1614, 1648, 1763, 1764, 1773, 2124, 2561, 2573, 2609, 2628, 2673. organic compound 1820, 1823, 2074, 2098, 2117, 2281, 2524, 2534, 2564, 2574, 2587. organic matter 1409, 1410, 1545, 1636, 1780, 1785, 1824. organic nitrogen 1774, 2124. organochlorine 2059, 2064, 2141, 2665. organophosphate 1850. orogeny 1475. orographic effect 2347, 2419, 2456. orography 2418, 2473. orthophoto 2723. oscillation 2370. ostracod 1514. otolith 1497. outburst 2239. outflow 1604, 2628. overgrazing 1468. overland flow 1957, 1968, 2012, 2078, 2083. oxalate 1676. oxidation 1744, 2160, 2193, 2199, 2524, 2539, 2540, 2608, 2609. oxygen isotope 1494, 1495, 1497, 1512, 1516. ozone 1402, 2402, 2518, 2523, 2533, 2535, 2538, 2541, 2547, 2552, 2553, 2554, 2557, 2641, 2645, 2745. ozone depletion 2420, 2556. paddy farming 1568. paddy field 1405, 1410. PAH 1829, 1832, 2085, 2210, 2562, 2566, 2585, 2625, 2631, 2632, 2671, 2675. paleoatmosphere 1473. paleobiogeography 1506, 1508. paleobotany 1506. paleoceanography 1530, 1531, 1532, 1533, 1534, 1535, 1536, 1538, 1539, 1540, 1541, 1543, 1544, 1653. paleochannel 1424. paleoclimate 1482, 1483, 1484, 1485, 1487, 1488, 1489, 1490, 1491, 1492, 1493, 1494, 1495, 1496, 1497, 1500, 1501, 1502, 1505, 1507, 1508, 1510, 1511, 1514, 1515, 1516, 1518, 1519, 1520, 1522, 1523, 1525, 1526, 1527, 1530, 1544, 1547, 1564, 2496. paleoecology 1522, 1523. paleoenvironment 1437, 1499, 1502, 1505, 1511, 1517, 1545, 1555, 1563, 1569. paleohydrology 1489, 1514. paleokarst 1464. paleolimnology 1514, 1566. Paleolithic 1470. paleoproductivity 1537, 1538, 1541. paleoseismicity 1442, 1444, 1445, 1507. paleosol 1500, 1520, 1551. paleotemperature 1494, 1496, 1504, 1515, 1542. palynology 1487, 1509, 1521, 1522, 1523, 1524, 1525, 1526, 1527, 1546, 1547, 1548, 1552, 1559, 1562, 1564, 1567, 1568. parameterization 1933, 1938, 1972, 1976, 1997, 2002, 2019, 2181, 2298, 2397, 2408, 2440, 2602, 2649, 2790. parent material 1696. participatory approach 2796. particle motion 1608. particle size 1513, 2011, 2023, 2085, 2438, 2562. particulate matter 1688, 1906, 2483, 2520, 2560, 2561, 2566, 2569, 2572, 2576, 2577, 2578, 2581, 2583, 2587, 2591, 2594, 2595, 2596, 2597, 2598, 2599, 2604, 2612, 2614, 2615, 2616, 2619, 2624, 2627, 2628, 2630, 2631, 2633, 2634, 2640, 2643, 2659, 2662, 2667, 2668, 2669, 2670, 2671, 2673. particulate organic matter 2590. partition coefficient 2281, 2525. pasture 1741, 1787. pathogen 2226. PCB 1672, 1819, 1833, 2629, 2665. PCP 1738. peak discharge 1965, 1992, 2477. peak flow 1932, 1967, 1973, 2031. peat 1565, 1729, 1762. peatland 1566, 1737, 2049, 2050, 2051, 2053. peat soil 2081. pedogenesis 1513, 1696, 1697, 1698, 1699, 1873. Penman-Monteith equation 1916, 1917. performance assessment 2313. permafrost 1461, 1571. 5 permeability 2162, 2169, 2187. peroxyacetyl nitrate 2548. persistence 1691, 1844, 2093. pest damage 2765. pesticide 1712, 1736, 1790, 1831, 2121, 2141, 2142, 2178, 2211, 2222, 2620. pesticide residue 1844, 1850. petroleum hydrocarbon 1838, 2183, 2197. pH 1732, 1837, 1905, 2145, 2146, 2147. Phaeozem 1745. phenanthrene 1829, 2063. phenol 1827, 2062. phosphate 1748. phosphorite 2076. phosphorus 1520, 1533, 1652, 1730, 1745, 1758, 1766, 1931, 2049, 2055, 2072, 2092, 2118, 2131, 2143. photochemistry 2541, 2542, 2552, 2608. photogrammetry 2723. photograph 2701. photolysis 2054, 2537, 2541. photometer 2533, 2596. photosynthetically active radiation 2780. phreatic zone 2167. phyllosilicate 1645. physical property 1759, 1951. physicochemical property 2103. phytolith 1428. phytoplankton 2138, 2139, 2145. phytoremediation 1834, 1839, 1849, 2139. phytotoxicity 1828. piedmont 1664. pipeline 2254, 2255. pixel 2709, 2712, 2714, 2715, 2721, 2722, 2764. place name 2738. planetary atmosphere 2284, 2336, 2399. planetary landform 1446. planetary wave 2407. planktonic foraminifera 1532. plant 2259. plantation 1814, 1815. plant community 1807. plasma 2309, 2318. playa 1660, 1664, 1915. Pleistocene 1436, 1476, 1477, 1480, 1485, 1489, 1492, 1500, 1510, 1512, 1519, 1540, 1543, 1544, 1547, 1555, 1556, 1571, 1599, 1623, 1667, 1670, 2165. Pliocene 1670. plume 1539, 1622. Podzol 1746. point source pollution 2072, 2092, 2118, 2131. polar front 1534. polarization 2301, 2317, 2746. polar region 2534. polar stratospheric cloud 2535. polar vortex 2420. policy analysis 2268. pollen 1549, 2500. pollutant removal 1818, 1834, 1839, 2048, 2139, 2159, 2179, 2193, 2201, 2206, 2230. pollutant source 2070, 2071, 2083, 2088, 2089, 2212, 2213, 2621, 2623, 2641, 2669, 2671, 2674, 2677, 2797. pollutant transport 1629, 2063, 2111, 2155, 2156, 2157, 2158, 2160, 2178, 2179, 2180, 2181, 2182, 2226, 2343, 2538, 2620, 2641, 2649. pollution 1821, 1823, 2055. pollution control 2061, 2069, 2086, 2118, 2122, 2153, 2159, 2616. pollution effect 2622. pollution exposure 2112, 2620, 2643, 2658, 2667, 2668, 2678. pollution monitoring 2101, 2103, 2111, 2117, 2119, 2136, 2629, 2641, 2672. polonium isotope 2527, 2530. polygon 2713, 2733, 2734. polymer 1688. pond 2146, 2147. population estimation 2686. population modeling 2686. population size 1791. pore pressure 2154, 2155. pore space 2156. porewater 2194. porosity 2154, 2169, 2181. porous medium 2161, 2181. Postglacial 1555, 1625. postglacial rebound 1574. potassium 1404. potential flow 2648. potential vorticity 2461. precipitable water 2408. precipitation assessment 1884, 1885, 1886, 1889, 1890, 1891, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1909, 1962, 2331, 2681, 2750. precipitation (chemistry) 1893, 2209. precipitation (climatology) 1486, 1892, 1902, 1911, 1940, 1995, 2288, 2319, 2327, 2456, 2463, 2467, 2468, 2473, 2474, 2494, 2498, 2505, 2512, 2784. precipitation intensity 1887, 1888, 1895, 1898, 1899, Precipitation 2477, 2479. precipitation quality 1903, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910. precision agriculture 1704, 1715. prediction 1594, 1971, 1977, 2462, 2465, 2475, 2476, 2477, 2478, 2479, 2480, 2604. preferential flow 1711, 2163, 2171, 2209. primary production 1533, 1643, 2067, 2515. primate 2684. principal component analysis 1692. probability 2307, 2430. progradation 1430, 1529. protozoan 1803. provenance 1502, 1662. proxy climate record 1472, 1484, 1488, 1495, 1497, 1499, 1513, 1530, 1542, 1653, 2294, 2485. public health 2203, 2624, 2710. pumping 2150, 2186, 2188, 2190. pyrite 1729. pyroclastic deposit 1638. quality control 1681, 2719. quantitative analysis 1672, 1710. quasi-biennial oscillation 2422. Quaternary 1427, 1439, 1444, 1473, 1478, 1479, 1498, 1504, 1505, 1506, 1509, 1520, 1521, 1525, 1527, 1531, 1532, 1534, 1535, 1537, 1545, 1552, 1554, 1631, 1635, 1637, 1655, 1699, 2234. radar 1888, 1889, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1897, 2288, 2296, 2297, 2682, 2749, 2752. radar imagery 2324. radiative forcing 2404, 2444, 2446, 2447, 2448, 2513, 2571, 2592, 2601, 2602, 2606, 2607. radiative transfer 2301, 2440, 2441, 2442, 2454, 2571, 2590, 2748, 2777, 2780, 2781. radioactive pollution 1749, 1830, 2647, 2663. radioactivity 2216, 2217, 2527, 2530. radiocarbon dating 1437, 1472, 1492, 1562, 1572, 1624. radiometer 2750. radionuclide 1912, 2527, 2638, 2677. radionuclide migration 1679, 1751. radiosonde 2443. radiotelemetry 2684. radium isotope 1830. radon 1755, 2195, 2217. rainband 2333. raindrop 2445, 2459. rainfall 1449, 1725, 1886, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1893, 1895, 1898, 1899, 1901, 1931, 1943, 1954, 1988, 2082, 2327, 2328, 2373, 2390, 2404, 2428, 2456, 2469, 2470, 2479, 2507, 2570. rainfall-runoff modeling 1867, 1881, 1891, 1938, 1944, 1946, 1953, 1955, 1962, 1970, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1983, 1991, 1992, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2089, 2164. rainforest 1524, 1525, 1548, 1907, 2359, 2360. raingauge 1886, 1890, 1894, 1902. rainwater 1907, 1910, 2543. raised bog 1559. rangeland 1873, 2272. rare earth element 1653, 1657. rating curve 2017. Rayleigh wave 1608. reactive barrier 2159, 2209, 2230. reactive transport 2178, 2181, 2182. real time 1955, 2311. recharge 1708, 2151, 2165, 2176, 2280. reclaimed land 2249. Red List 2769. redox conditions 1649, 1650, 1752, 2053, 2202. redox potential 1750. red soil 1761. reduction 1750. refining industry 2660. reflectance 2747, 2748. reflectivity 2288, 2682, 2749. reforestation 1522. regeneration 2772. regional climate 2326, 2327, 2328, 2331. regionalization 1983. regional pattern 1994. regression 2523. regression analysis 2409, 2642. relative abundance 1535. reliability analysis 1451. remediation 1820, 1821, 1830, 1833, 1841, 1846, 1851, 2202, 2214, 2228, 2230, 2278. remote sensing 1617, 1887, 1920, 1952, 1984, 2136, 2263, 2303, 2304, 2558, 2592, 2642, 2651, 2657, 2683, 2701, 2708, 2709, 2710, 2711, 2712, 2714, 2715, 2716, 2717, 2721, 2722, 2724, 2725, 2726, 2727, 2728, 2729, 2745, 2746, 2747, 2748, 2749, 2750, 2751, 2753, 2754, 2760, 2763, 2764, 2765, 2766, 2767, 2768, 2770, 2771, 2772, 2773, 2774, 2775, 2776, 2777, 2778, 2779, 2780, 2781, 2782, 2783, 2784, 2785, 2788, 2789, 2790, 2791, 2792, 2794, 2795, 2797. repository 2154. research 2274. research work 2737. SUBJECT INDEX reservoir 1602, 1661, 1858, 1967, 2038, 2039, 2041, 2042, 2081, 2136, 2138, 2271, 2280. residence time 1881, 2040. resolution 2463, 2726. resource assessment 2767. resource management 1661, 2266, 2269, 2272, 2273. resource selection 2686. resource use 2264, 2275. respiration 1409. restoration ecology 1875, 1878, 2272, 2329. resuspension 1407, 1641, 1650. return period 1988. revegetation 1873. rewetting 2049. rhizobacterium 1798. rhizosphere 1738, 1739, 1842, 1850. rhythmite 1489. rice 1410. Richards equation 1724. riparian forest 1808. riparian vegetation 1921, 1949, 1961, 2025, 2031, 2251. riparian zone 2170. risk assessment 1402, 1595, 1956, 1963, 2049, 2059, 2119, 2200, 2232. river 2115, 2126. river bank 2263. river basin 1860, 1902, 1920, 1926, 1933, 1939, 1940, 1947, 1959, 1964, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1993, 1996, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2028, 2072, 2109, 2164, 2248, 2252, 2269, 2327, 2479. river channel 1423, 2013, 2016, 2024, 2025, 2033, 2036. river discharge 1604, 1620, 1622, 1627, 1633, 1939, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1972, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2022, 2035, 2246, 2270. river engineering 1417, 1423. river flow 1665, 1942, 1945, 1971, 1979, 1985, 2004, 2035. river management 1422, 2252, 2268. river plume 2059. river pollution 1675, 2065, 2099, 2101, 2107, 2111, 2112, 2117, 2118, 2120, 2122, 2131, 2132, 2294. river system 1960, 2014, 2266. river water 2059, 2062, 2100, 2114, 2121, 2128, 2129, 2133, 2134, 2250. road 2735. road construction 2798. road pricing 2623, 2644. roadside environment 1676, 2011, 2085, 2089, 2562, 2578, 2603, 2615, 2626, 2633, 2635, 2642, 2652, 2659, 2667, 2673, 2768. rockfall 1448, 1453. root system 1788. Rossby wave 2414. runoff 1603, 1716, 1722, 1857, 1859, 1867, 1875, 1876, 1936, 1944, 1954, 1959, 1964, 1984, 1985, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2007, 2011, 2012, 2078, 2080, 2082, 2085, 2087, 2088, 2090, 2092, 2094, 2119, 2489. rural-urban comparison 2594. rural area 1737, 2626. rural atmosphere 2559, 2575, 2602. rutting 1872. sabkha 1636. saline lake 1424. salinity 2095, 2125, 2191, 2192, 2220, 2224, 2233. salinization 1401, 2274. salmonid 2007. saltation 1612. sampling 1681, 2113, 2283, 2325. sand 1639. sandbank 1433. sandstone 2180. sandy soil 1690, 1735, 1829. saprolite 1697. satellite altimetry 2471, 2788. satellite data 2290, 2465, 2469, 2470, 2557, 2727, 2728, 2754, 2778. satellite imagery 1597, 2302, 2328, 2378, 2443, 2702, 2708, 2709, 2710, 2711, 2712, 2714, 2716, 2717, 2720, 2721, 2723, 2729, 2760, 2761, 2763, 2782, 2789, 2792, 2794, 2797. satellite sensor 2755. saturated medium 1752, 2172, 2173, 2179, 2181. saturation 2220. Saturn 2336. savanna 1487, 1666. scale effect 1452. scanning electron microscopy 1488, 1768. scattering 2436, 2606. scatterometer 2290. scavenging (chemistry) 2539, 2570. scour 1871, 2009. seabird 2686. seafloor 1601. sea ice 1585, 2299, 2382. sea level 2786. sea level change 1528, 1529, 1531, 1567, 1623, 1630, 1631, 1667, 2484, 2488. sea level pressure 2345, 2387, 2416. 6 sea salt 1517, 2582, 2589, 2593. seasonality 1494, 2381, 2396, 2487. seasonal variation 1618, 1811, 2017, 2073, 2303, 2346, 2373, 2385, 2481, 2494, 2516, 2527, 2549, 2553, 2599, 2601, 2603, 2613, 2675. sea surface 2300, 2683. sea surface temperature 1530, 1532, 1536, 1540, 2369, 2370, 2373, 2374, 2375, 2378, 2380, 2384, 2385, 2390, 2391, 2392, 2487, 2727. seawater 2062. SeaWiFS 2785. secondary flow 2029. secondary forest 1685, 1814, 1875, 1924. sediment 1671, 1874, 1998. sedimentary basin 1636. sedimentary sequence 1668. sedimentary structure 1433, 1554, 1670. sedimentation 1420, 1441, 1519, 1602, 1636, 1637, 1638, 1642, 1650, 1661, 1858, 1865, 2024, 2037, 2139. sedimentation rate 1604, 1614, 1620, 1643, 1667, 2008. sediment budget 1604, 1619, 1642, 1870, 2014, 2018, 2023. sediment chemistry 1648, 1649, 1651, 1652, 1653, 1656, 1657, 1658, 1660, 1677. sediment core 1407, 1491, 1519, 1535, 1539, 1541, 1542, 1545. sedimentology 1446, 2026. sediment pollution 1672, 1673, 1674, 1676, 1678, 1679, 2063, 2118, 2127. sediment transport 1419, 1421, 1430, 1534, 1543, 1583, 1601, 1602, 1603, 1604, 1605, 1606, 1607, 1608, 1609, 1610, 1611, 1612, 1616, 1617, 1629, 1635, 1639, 1661, 2007, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2026, 2027, 2028, 2029, 2032, 2033, 2043. sediment trap 2016. sediment yield 1602, 1603, 2013, 2032, 2247, 2252. seedling 1838. seepage 1708, 2151. segmentation 2721. seismic hazard 1444. seismic stratigraphy 1616, 1626, 1631. seismotectonics 2697, 2698, 2699, 2700. selenium 1753, 2074. self potential 2190. semiarid region 1602, 1709, 1722, 1753, 1885, 1922, 1961, 2012, 2015. sensible heat flux 1915, 2346, 2364. sensitivity analysis 1641, 1933, 1943, 2121, 2358, 2638, 2678. sensor 2289, 2352. sequence stratigraphy 1625. settlement history 1557, 1558, 1562, 1569, 1570. severe weather 2425, 2429, 2430. sewage 1757. sewage outfall 2098. sewer network 1954, 1955, 1957, 2071, 2088, 2091, 2212, 2213. sexual behavior 2684. shading 2356, 2701. shallow-water equation 2399. shallow water 1641, 2789. shape analysis 1897. shear stress 2027, 2030. shell 1494, 1497, 1504, 2294. shipborne measurement 2351, 2532. shore (nonmarine) 2151. shortwave radiation 2300. signal processing 2751. simulated annealing 2219. simulation 2796. size distribution 1513, 2438, 2441, 2445, 2451, 2566, 2575, 2581, 2584, 2585, 2588, 2589, 2591, 2596, 2603, 2633. slope 1705, 1787, 2685. slope angle 1452, 1457. slope dynamics 1447. slope failure 1461. slope stability 1451, 1452, 1453, 1460, 1589, 2042, 2798. sludge 1727, 1757, 2076. slumping 1461. slurry 1767. smallholder 2250. smectite 1826. smoke 2525, 2632. snow 2298. snow accumulation 1581, 1900, 1906, 2333, 2495. snow cover 1592, 1737, 2240, 2374, 2502. snowmelt 1930, 1963, 2240, 2241. snowpack 2495. snow water equivalent 1900, 2240. social behavior 2684. social organization 2684. sodium chloride 2436. softening 1462. software 2739. soil 1820, 1821, 1823. soil-vegetation interaction 1726, 1793. SUBJECT INDEX soil aggregate 1706, 1710. soil amendment 1410, 1727, 1757, 1767, 1769, 1771, 1775, 1801, 1837, 1856, 2076. soil analysis 1696. soil biota 1789, 1791, 1805, 1807, 1808, 1813. soil carbon 1742, 1762, 1780, 1781, 1788, 1795, 1816, 1817. soil chemistry 1684, 1692, 1734, 1737, 1741, 1752, 1753, 1754. soil conservation 1872, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1879. soil crust 1716. soil drainage 1716, 1724. soil ecosystem 1685, 1731, 1806. soil emission 1404, 1405, 1408, 1410, 1411, 1709, 1769, 1840, 2546, 2551. soil erosion 1561, 1854, 1855, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1860, 1866, 1867, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1880, 1931, 2001, 2012. soil fauna 1804, 1809. soil fertility 1759, 1761. soil gas 1755. soil management 1763. soil mechanics 1462, 1705. soil microorganism 1685, 1785, 1788, 1790, 1802, 1803, 1808, 1811, 1815. soil moisture 1687, 1707, 1725, 1787, 1943, 1964, 1984, 2782. soil nitrogen 1728, 1742, 1795. soil nutrient 1411, 1759, 1760, 1814. soil organic matter 1717, 1733, 1763, 1764, 1766, 1768, 1770, 1776, 1777, 1778, 1792, 1801. soil pollution 1560, 1818, 1819, 1825, 1826, 1827, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853. soil profile 1551, 1607, 1699, 1707. soil property 1685, 1687, 1695, 1696, 1698, 1701, 1706, 1877. soil quality 1694. soil remediation 1822, 1827, 1834, 1837. soil respiration 1786, 1787, 1788, 1802, 1816, 1843, 2357. soil structure 1700, 1854. soil survey 1681. soil temperature 1707, 1708, 1786, 1787, 1816, 2516. soil texture 1812, 2253. soil type 1698. soil water 1410, 1689, 1700, 1711, 1718, 1719, 1720, 1722, 1723, 1724, 1747, 1923, 1945, 2170, 2220, 2346. solar cycle 2422, 2754. solar radiation 2291, 2302, 2332. solute transport 1686, 1712, 1734, 2010, 2124, 2171. solution feature 1464. soot 2525, 2561. sorption 1673, 1719, 1732, 1736, 1748, 1825, 1826, 2063, 2093, 2094, 2140, 2143, 2157, 2201. source-sink dynamics 1633, 2367. source parameters 2757. Southern Hemisphere 1483, 1510, 1525. spatial analysis 1901, 2708, 2709, 2713, 2740. spatial data 1994, 2705, 2706, 2733, 2739, 2740. spatial distribution 1725, 1803, 1885, 1940, 2123, 2305, 2329, 2512, 2707, 2784. spatial resolution 2704, 2708, 2709, 2710, 2711, 2712, 2713, 2716, 2717, 2720, 2721, 2725, 2778. spatial variation 1424, 1760, 1800, 1890, 2097, 2373, 2583, 2732. spatiotemporal analysis 1577, 1581, 1860, 1863, 1985, 2100, 2323, 2395. spawning ground 2007. speciation (chemistry) 1671, 1766, 2074, 2540, 2600. species diversity 1803, 1807, 1812, 1813. species richness 1805. spectral analysis 1991, 2310, 2394, 2789. spectral reflectance 2790. spectrometer 2746. spectrophotometry 2586. spectroscopy 1692, 1824. speleology 1516. speleothem 1488, 1512. spherical harmonics 2694. spring water 2195, 2217, 2225. stable isotope 1409, 1536, 1881, 1908, 2277, 2516. stakeholder 2061. stand structure 1914, 1924. statistical analysis 1410, 1418, 1573, 1926, 1988, 2204. stemflow 1913. steppe 1499. sterol 2083. stochasticity 1686, 1896, 2039, 2153, 2168. stomatal conductance 1490. storm 1931, 2428, 2432, 2460. storm surge 1428, 1429, 1432. storm track 1491, 2432, 2469, 2470, 2482, 2503, 2504. stormwater 1956, 1970, 2006, 2011, 2070, 2077, 2080, 2086, 2087, 2088, 2091. strait 1614. strandline 1556. Vegetation stratification 2004, 2027, 2349. stratified flow 2418. stratiform cloud 2438. stratigraphy 1470, 1475, 1547. stratocumulus 2444, 2446, 2455. stratosphere 2335, 2396, 2413, 2420, 2422, 2510, 2556. stratosphere-troposphere interaction 2402, 2526. stream 2056. stream bed 1439, 1600, 2008, 2032. stream channel 2009. streamflow 1881, 1925, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1947, 1960, 1961, 1968, 1977, 1987, 1994, 2008, 2009, 2029, 2035, 2039, 2097, 2245, 2251. streamwater 2096, 2104, 2106, 2113, 2116, 2119, 2124, 2127, 2716. street canyon 2337, 2340, 2341, 2353, 2652, 2653, 2654, 2655, 2656, 2657. stress 1610. strike-slip fault 1439. strontium isotope 1654. structural change 2148. subarctic region 1705. subglacial deposit 1583. subglacial environment 1553, 2242, 2243. submerged vegetation 2054. subsidence 2279, 2695. subsurface flow 1724, 2164, 2166, 2175, 2277, 2516. subtropical convergence 2425. subtropical region 2414. suburban area 1903, 2634. succession 1817. sulfate 1909, 2539, 2579, 2581, 2589, 2594. sulfate-reducing bacterium 1733. sulfur 1744. sulfur dioxide 2517, 2549, 2643, 2678. sulfur emission 2529. Sumatra earthquake 2004 2755. summer 2041, 2326, 2327. supercell 2429, 2430, 2454. supercritical flow 1833. surface flux 2357, 2364, 2365, 2406. surface roughness 2339, 2354. surface temperature 2508, 2729, 2754, 2777. surface water 2055, 2064, 2066, 2068, 2071, 2142. surface wave 1608. surface wind 2290, 2347, 2378. surfactant 1821, 2610. survey 1827. surveying 2719, 2730, 2731, 2743. survival 1503, 2203. suspended load 2037, 2089, 2091. suspended particulate matter 2147, 2563, 2600, 2637, 2675. suspended sediment 1534, 1543, 1609, 1620, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2027, 2028, 2029, 2031, 2077, 2088. sustainable development 2265, 2268, 2272. swath bathymetry 1599. synoptic meteorology 2334. synthetic aperture radar 2757, 2783. tectonic setting 1459. teleconnection 1483, 2373, 2374, 2379, 2386, 2393, 2394, 2415. temperature 2293, 2314, 2335, 2493, 2494, 2506, 2509, 2556. temperature anomaly 2390, 2487, 2496. temperature effect 1750. temperature gradient 1511, 2358. temperature profile 1708. tempestite 1668. temporal analysis 1932. temporal distribution 2123. temporal variation 1718, 1787, 1945, 2634. tephra 1632. tephrochronology 1473, 1559. terracing 1879. terrain 2736, 2741. territory 2738. testing method 1589. textile industry 2130. texture 2720. thawing 1461. thematic mapping 2770. thermocline 1538, 2371, 2377, 2380. thermodynamics 1582, 2382, 2569. thermogravimetry 1778. thermohaline circulation 2383, 2499. three-dimensional flow 2168. three-dimensional modeling 1634. throughfall 1903, 1913. throughflow 1537, 1944. thunderstorm 1891, 2304, 2430, 2448, 2454, 2519, 2570. tidal flat 2517. tide gauge 2786. till 1481, 1711. tillage 1703, 1789, 1854. timber harvesting 1408. time domain reflectometry 1857. 7 time series 1972, 2225, 2622, 2779. time series analysis 1932, 1971, 2000, 2764. toluene 2542, 2613. tomography 2156. top of atmosphere 2300, 2592. topographic effect 2347, 2415, 2417, 2428. topographic mapping 2719, 2722, 2741. toposequence 1751. topsoil 1818. tornado 2287, 2426, 2429, 2431. total organic carbon 1814. toxicity 1838, 2057, 2059, 2096. toxicology 2130. trace element 1658, 1751, 2133, 2584. trace metal 1651, 1674, 1675, 1903, 2597. tracer 1467, 1618, 2067, 2152, 2162, 2182, 2226, 2529, 2578, 2672. traffic congestion 2644. traffic emission 2623, 2626, 2627, 2633, 2642, 2644, 2652, 2655, 2656, 2659, 2673. trajectory 2518, 2567, 2572, 2593, 2676. transform fault 1443. transient flow 2157. transition zone 1604. transmissivity 2150, 2187. transpiration 2355. transportation planning 2644. tree ring 1486, 2514. trend analysis 1940, 2327, 2483, 2509, 2511, 2523, 2579, 2629. trichloroethylene 2227. trigger mechanism 1449, 1455, 1456, 2458. tritium 2158. trophic interaction 1806. trophic status 2102. tropical cyclone 2326, 2330, 2424, 2469, 2470, 2482. tropical environment 2375. tropical forest 1810. tropical meteorology 2414. tropical region 1887, 1951, 2507. troposphere 2297, 2403, 2410, 2413, 2423, 2427, 2458, 2518, 2531, 2541, 2555, 2556, 2588, 2608, 2609, 2611. tsunami 1644. tundra 1795. turbidite 1601. turbidity 1628, 2136. turbidity current 2043. turbulence 2344, 2353, 2354, 2365, 2405, 2406, 2434, 2530. turbulent boundary layer 2286, 2341, 2359, 2660. turbulent diffusion 2338. turbulent flow 1609, 2027, 2450. turbulent mixing 2455. twentieth century 1836, 2148, 2483, 2494, 2498. twenty first century 2503, 2515. typhoon 2330, 2425, 2478, 2504. Ultisol 1748, 1789. ultraviolet radiation 2746, 2748. uncertainty analysis 1950, 1980, 2579, 2602, 2646, 2705, 2718, 2733. unconfined aquifer 2188, 2189, 2233. unconformity 1623. underwater camera 1601. unsaturated flow 1719, 2172, 2173. unsaturated medium 1451, 1747, 2168, 2169, 2171, 2174. unsteady flow 2184. upland region 1474, 1808. uplift 1440, 2695, 2697. upper ocean 2371. upwelling 2372, 2433, 2790. uranium 1754, 2139, 2199. uranium series dating 1478, 1479, 1646. urban area 1676, 1682, 1683, 1847, 1928, 1929, 1954, 1956, 1957, 2080, 2087, 2090, 2132, 2213, 2366, 2626, 2720, 2766, 2797. urban atmosphere 2337, 2339, 2341, 2342, 2343, 2520, 2528, 2538, 2545, 2564, 2573, 2582, 2583, 2587, 2595, 2603, 2613, 2621, 2623, 2636, 2637, 2641, 2650, 2652, 2653, 2655, 2656, 2658, 2669, 2670, 2673. urban drainage 1894, 1955, 1957, 1992, 2006, 2071, 2087. urbanization 2133, 2251. urban region 2661. urea 1743, 1799. vadose zone 1777, 2167, 2170, 2171, 2220. valley fill 1627. variogram 1994. varve 1651. vascular plant 1776. vector 2403, 2710. vegetation 1402, 1722, 1758, 1875, 1876, 1877, 2501. vegetation cover 1447, 1880, 1923. vegetation dynamics 1434, 2762, 2763. vegetation history 1485, 1487, 1492, 1522, 1526, 1527, 1546, 1548, 1552, 1562, 1563, 1565, 1567, 1570. vegetation index 2781. Vegetation vegetation mapping 2762, 2768, 2775. vegetation structure 2491. velocity profile 1591, 2004, 2027, 2029, 2342. Venus 2399. vertical distribution 2389, 2586. vertical mixing 2348, 2378. vertical movement 2154. vertical profile 1892, 2292, 2443, 2444, 2595. Vertisol 1700. videography 1578, 2681. vineyard 2781. virus 2181, 2226. visibility 2568, 2628. visualization 2737. volatile organic compound 1747, 1765, 1839, 1904, 2259, 2552, 2569, 2609, 2639, 2660. volcanic ash 1701. volcanic eruption 1493, 1548, 1570, 1632, 2536. volcanic rock 2150. volcanic soil 1696. volcano 2759. vortex 2287, 2535, 2607. vorticity 2411. warming 1501, 1544, 2484, 2508, 2509, 2510, 2511, 2516, 2754. warm pool 2383. warning system 1592, 1935, 1981, 1982, 2624. waste facility 1840. waste treatment 2044. wastewater 1720, 2045, 2057, 2071, 2072, 2096, 2109, 2110, 2113, 2213. water availability 1563, 1947, 2038. water budget 1726, 1923, 1998, 2051, 2346. water chemistry 2073, 2097, 2116, 2134, 2147. water content 1700. water depth 2350. waterfall 1426. water flow 2167, 2783. SUBJECT INDEX water level 2146, 2783. water management 1722, 1877, 1879, 1970, 2000, 2061, 2086, 2153, 2250, 2254, 2256, 2257, 2258, 2261, 2262, 2264, 2265, 2267, 2268, 2271, 2280, 2783, 2793. water planning 2269, 2273. water pollution 2059, 2062, 2063, 2069, 2071, 2079, 2080, 2098, 2108, 2110, 2130, 2139, 2148, 2222. water quality 1966, 2052, 2057, 2058, 2060, 2061, 2070, 2072, 2078, 2081, 2089, 2090, 2091, 2092, 2096, 2097, 2098, 2099, 2100, 2102, 2103, 2104, 2109, 2112, 2121, 2123, 2125, 2128, 2129, 2132, 2133, 2139, 2141, 2144, 2145, 2146, 2147, 2148, 2200, 2208, 2209, 2212, 2213, 2225, 2235, 2276. water resource 1661, 2266, 2272, 2273, 2792. watershed 1874, 2000, 2251, 2267. water storage 1967, 2269. water supply 2038, 2250, 2254, 2255, 2256, 2257, 2258, 2265. water table 1792, 2185. water temperature 2145, 2791. water treatment 2114, 2207, 2277, 2278. water use 2356. water use efficiency 2253. water vapor 2330, 2355, 2402, 2439, 2465, 2531, 2555. water wave 2042. wave direction 2351, 2788. wave height 2476. wavelet analysis 2000, 2754. wave modeling 2472. wave spectrum 2788. weather 1718. weather forecasting 1594, 1974, 1975, 1978, 1982, 2463, 2464, 2467, 2468, 2471, 2473, 2474, 2475, 2479, 2480, 2630. weathering 1412, 2129, 2183. weather station 2291. 8 well testing 2187. wet deposition 1883, 1912, 1913, 2539, 2543, 2544, 2548, 2661. wetland 1551, 1565, 1750, 1817, 1921, 2045, 2046, 2047, 2049, 2051, 2052, 2054, 2278, 2783. wetland management 2274, 2275. wettability 2180. wetting-drying cycle 1406. wheat 2497. wildfire 1706, 2591, 2773. wind-driven circulation 2372, 2433, 2538. wind-driven current 2368. wind-wave interaction 2472, 2476. wind direction 2647. wind erosion 1434, 1612, 1873. wind field 2325, 2337, 2368, 2403. wind forcing 2472, 2538. wind measurement 2290, 2787. wind profile 2529, 2651. wind shear 2440. wind stress 2372, 2388. wind tunnel 1640, 2339, 2342, 2353, 2354, 2656, 2657. wind velocity 1612, 2290, 2341, 2342, 2347, 2389, 2426, 2663. wind wave 2350, 2351, 2476, 2787. winter 2390, 2560, 2619. woodland 1998. woody debris 2037. X-ray diffraction 1412. xylene 2613. zenith angle 2447. zero tillage 1764, 1774. zinc 1543, 1735. zonal flow 2398, 2410, 2495. zonal wind 2385, 2396, 2420, 2427. zoning 1448. REGIONAL INDEX Alps 1721, 1816, 1867, 2241, 2501, 2699 Eastern Alps Dinaric Alps 2127. Amazon Basin 2359. Amazonia 1662. Andes 1572, 1598 Cordillera Central [Andes] 1910. Appalachians Great Smoky Mountains 2559. Arctic and Antarctic Antarctica 1599, 2299, 2420, 2535 Amery Ice Shelf 1578 Casey Station 2686 Dome Concordia 1473, 2534 East Antarctica 1581, 2243 McMurdo Dry Valleys 1803 Arctic 1819, 1900, 2506, 2535 Greenland 2347, 2534 Greenland Ice Sheet 1574 Iceland 1441, 1495, 1559 Kongsfjorden 1795 Midre Lovenbreen 2775. Ardennes [Western Europe] 2698. Argentina 1572, 1798, 2119, 2253 Buenos Aires [Argentina] 2658 Lake Chascomus 1678 Cordoba [Argentina] 2112 Pampas 2020. Asia 1410, 2330, 2373, 2571. Australia 1417, 1606, 2126, 2275, 2390 New South Wales Hunter River 2276 Murrumbidgee River 2014 Northern Territory 2170 Queensland 1524, 2077, 2097 Brisbane 1962. Nice 1512 Rhone-Alpes Rhone 1437 Rhone Delta 1624, 1625, 1626. Caspian Basin 2059. Caspian Sea 1504, 1630. Gabon Ogooue-Ivindo Lope Reserve 1487. Chile 1425, 1509, 1789 Atacama Desert 1915. China 1520, 1563, 1745, 1814, 1946, 1976, 2279, 2327, 2332 Beijing 2574, 2581, 2585, 2600, 2797 Gansu 1469, 2549 Heihe Basin 1726, 1787, 2272, 2329 Guizhou 1516 Hong Kong 2013, 2642 Jiangsu Nanjing 2564 Kunlun Mountains 1439 Liaoning 2760 Loess Plateau 1685, 1722, 1725, 1862, 1874, 1998, 2001 North China Plain 2200 Qilian Mountains 1515, 2329 Qinghai-Xizang Plateau 1461, 2346, 2363, 2556, 2784 Sichuan Min Basin [Sichuan] 1999, 2000 Xizang Qiangtang Basin 1680 Yunnan Chenghai Lake 1643. Columbia River 1942. Ganges Basin 1427, 2558. Gangetic Plain 2546. Germany 1554, 1737, 1952, 2498 Baden-Wurttemberg 2116 Bavaria 1561 Munich 2583 Ems River 2122 Hesse Kassel 2102 Lusatia 1852 Mecklenburg-West Pomerania 2049 Neckar River 1973 North Rhine-Westphalia Munster [North Rhine-Westphalia] 2669 Saale River 2132 Saxony Dresden 2213 Saxony-Anhalt Halle 2132. Great Lakes 2142, 2763 Lake Michigan 1550, 2348. Greece 1696 Attica Athens [Attica] 2634 Peloponnese 1492 Thessaly Pinios River 2101. Congo Brazzaville 2331. Croatia 2195, 2659 Kastela Bay 1679. Czech Republic 2148 Moravia 1447. Himalayas 1594, 1947. Denmark 1549, 1921. Hungary 1457, 2263. Austria Upper Austria Linz 2212. Dniester River 1672. Iberian Peninsula 1429. Dominican Republic 1546. Azerbaijan 1504. Eastern Hemisphere Eurasia 2495, 2680. Bangladesh 1438, 1699, 1935. Egypt 1647. Belgium 1830, 1865, 1870, 2361, 2677 Flanders 1923. Elbe River 1987, 2103, 2148. India 1547, 1909, 2107, 2259, 2404, 2509, 2606 Andhra Pradesh Anantapur 2235 Chhattisgarh 2237 Deccan 2793 Delhi 2643 Gujarat 1655 Maharashtra 2794 Pune 2483 Orissa 2186 Uttaranchal Nainital 1637 Uttar Pradesh Kanpur 2612. Bolivia 1598. Brazil 1602, 1856, 2111, 2216, 2518, 2560, 2621, 2661 Rio de Janeiro [Brazil] Rio de Janeiro [Rio de Janeiro (STT)] 1676 Rio Grande do Sul 2631 Sao Paulo [Brazil] Barra Bonita Reservoir 2138. Cameroon 2684. Canada 1776, 1781, 2548 British Columbia 2025 New Brunswick Catamaran Brook 2008 Nunavut Devon Island 2534 Ellesmere Island 2242 Ontario 1712, 1804, 2053 Quebec [Canada] 2007, 2189. Carpathians 2695. Ethiopia 1859. Europe 1409, 1978, 2218, 2479, 2602, 2666. Far East 1513. Indonesia East Java 1756, 2149 Kalimantan 1566, 1729. Finland 1730, 2307, 2591 Etela-Suomen Helsinki 2633. Iran Kerman [Iran] Bam 2757, 2761. France 1505, 1571, 1919, 1990, 2128, 2176, 2232, 2738 Alsace Haut-Rhin 1474 Aquitaine Bordeaux 2110 Durance River 2016 Ile-de-France Paris 2573, 2636 Languedoc-Roussillon Aude 1628 Herault 1628 Paris Basin 2619 Provence-Alpes-Cote d’Azur 1 Iraq Arbil 1436. Ireland 1762 Connacht Galway 1979. Israel Haifa [Israel] Mount Carmel 2026 Southern District Negev Highlands 1864. Italy Japan 1668, 1703, 1816, 2093, 2273, 2588 Calabria 1468, 1860 Lazio 2343 Rome 2660 Po Basin 1982, 2249 Po Plain 1615 Po Valley 2575 Tuscany Orbetello Lagoon 2789 Veneto Po Delta 1616, 1618, 1620, 1621. Japan 1592, 1799, 2330, 2362, 2517 Honshu 2333 Biwa Lake 1511, 2562 Chiba 2227 Kanto 2425 Kyoto 2146 Mizorogaike Pond 2147 Osaka [Kinki] 2595 Kyushu Aso Volcano 1426 Ryukyu Islands Iriomote 1677 Shikoku Kagawa 2123 Kochi 2136. Jordan 1905. Jordan River 1966. Jura Mountains 1484. Kenya Mount Kenya 2250. Korea 1648 South Korea Cheju [Cheju (PRV/ISL)] 2150. Lake Constance 1407. Laos 1863, 1869. Lebanon 1675, 2240. Luxembourg [Benelux] 2056. Madagascar 2224. Malawi 1666. Meuse River 1980. Mexico [North America] Chiapas 1709 Federal District [Mexico] Mexico City 2538, 2545, 2637 Lake Chapala 2040 Lerma Valley 1523. Moldova 1672. Mongolia 1645. Morocco 1635. Nepal 1501. New Caledonia 1552. New Zealand 1543, 1606, 1695, 1892, 1893 South Island Christchurch 1928, 1929 Fiordland 1596 Lake Tekapo 1873. Niagara River 2117. Nigeria REGIONAL INDEX Rhine Graben 1480, 2191, 2234, 2699, 2700. Edo Benin [Edo] 1950 Oyo Ibadan 2044. Rhine River 2122. Nile Basin 1859, 1993, 2264. Rio Grande 1418, 1423. Norway 1471, 1503. Occupied Territories Golan Heights 2270. Russian Federation 2553, 2554 Kamchatka 2516 Moscow [Russian Federation] 2041 Saint Petersburg [Russian Federation] 2494. oceanic regions Arctic Ocean 2382 Barents Sea 1555, 2389 Greenland Sea 1544, 2389 Laptev Sea 2389 Atlantic Ocean 2374, 2510 Archipelago Sea 1652 Atlantic Ocean (North) 1540, 2476 Atlantic Ocean (Northeast) 1646 Atlantic Ocean (Northwest) 2472 Atlantic Ocean (Tropical) 2369, 2371, 2384 Baltic Sea 2389 Bay of Biscay 1489 Brazilian Shelf 2378 Canary Basin 1601 Gulf of Mexico 1428, 2305, 2433 Indian Ocean 1531, 2376, 2380, 2385, 2390 Bay of Bengal 1535 Indian Ocean (Tropical) 2377, 2381 Mahanadi Basin 2129 Mediterranean Sea 1539, 2540 Adriatic Sea 1528, 1619, 1622, 1623, 2368 Amvrakikos Gulf 1631 Gulf of Lion 1627, 1629 Gulf of Naples 1632 Levantine Sea 2597 Majorca 2028 Mediterranean Region 1991, 2021, 2552, 2584, 2586, 2601 Mediterranean Sea (East) 2590 Pacific Ocean 1496, 1657, 2320, 2524 Banda Sea 1532 Costa Rican Margin 1656 Easter Island 1866 Gulf of Carpentaria 1526 Hydrate Ridge 1654 Maui 2428 Oahu 1658 Pacific Ocean (East) 2383 Pacific Ocean (Equatorial) 1541, 2753 Pacific Ocean (North) 2387, 2478 Pacific Ocean (Southeast) 1653 Pacific Ocean (Tropical) 2370. Shenyang 2366. Oder Basin 2024. Siberia 1500, 2611. Orinoco Basin 1959. Sichuan 1944. Pacific Northwest 1701. Sierra Nevada [California] 2357. Papua New Guinea 1548, 1570. Singapore [Southeast Asia] 2665. Patagonia 1499, 1580, 1597. Sistema Central 1964. Peru 1536. Slovakia 2221. Poland 2374 Malopolskie Dobczyce Reservoir 1671. Slovenia 1974, 2687. Portugal 1506, 2645 Lisboa [Portugal] Lisbon 1449, 1507 Porto [Portugal] Douro Estuary 2095. Sonora 2267. San Pedro Basin [(RVB) North America] 1961, 2267. Sao Paulo [Brazil] 2560. Sapporo 1755. Sarawak 1568. Saskatchewan 2139. Saxony 2599. Scotland 1560, 1881. Sea of Galilee 2217. Sea of Japan 2333. Sea of Okhotsk 2593. Seattle 2108. Sebou River 2125. Serbia and Montenegro Kosovo 2199. Sevilla 1847. Shelikof Strait 1614. Shenandoah National Park 2579. Solheimajokull 1553. South America 1491, 1908, 1939, 2386, 2487. South Australia 2497. Puerto Rico 1808, 1810. South China Sea 1502, 1533, 2485. Pyrenees 1751, 2018. South Dakota 1556. Rhenish Schiefergebirge Eifel 1519. Southeast Asia 2 REGIONAL INDEX 2567, 2610. Southern Africa 1665. Southern Alps 1440, 1579. Southern Ocean 1534, 1538, 2676. Spain 1706, 1753, 1934, 2015, 2017, 2023, 2364, 2596, 2616 Andalucia 1633 Huelva [Andalucia] 2577 Malaga [Andalucia] 2580 Asturias 1470 Castilla y Leon 2229 Catalonia Lake Banyoles 2043 Llobregat River 1634 Ebro Basin 2022. Spitsbergen 1464. Sporades 1529. Sundsvall 1906. Sweden 1411, 1508, 1684, 2048, 2055, 2615 Norrbotten Lulea 1906 Vastra Gotaland Goteborg 2582. Switzerland 1448, 1812, 2092, 2501 Basel-Stadt 2697. Sydney 2460. Syrian Arab Republic 1443. Taipei 2523. Taiwan 1809, 1811, 2326, 2614. Tallapoosa River 2115. Tarai 2236. Tasmania 1695. Texas 2233, 2247, 2551, 2604, 2672. Thailand 1748. Thar Desert 1660. Thermaikos Gulf 1529, 1642. Three Gorges 2252. Tianjin 2675. Tien Shan 1481. Timor Sea 1537. Tokyo Bay 2790. Tonga 1567. Toronto 2520. Zhujiang Transantarctic Mountains 2239. Oklahoma [Oklahoma (STT)] 2426 Osage County [Oklahoma] 2197 Platte River 1600 Tennessee Polk County [Tennessee] 1663 Washington [United States] Grays Harbor 1605 Hanford 1673 Wyoming Grand Teton National Park 1416. Trujillo 2795. Tsukuba 1903. Tunisia 1636, 1885, 2238, 2248. Turkey 1466, 1486, 2109, 2135, 2222 Ankara [Turkey] Ankara [Ankara (PRV)] 2798 Erzurum [Turkey] 1883. Urumqi 1920. Utah 2473. Uganda 1558. Valais 1583. United Kingdom 1482, 1682, 1683, 1931, 2572, 2673 Channel Islands [United Kingdom] 2736 England 1408, 1613, 2527 Leeds [England] 2623 London [England] 2644, 2651, 2667. Venezuela 1444, 1522. United States 1858, 1926, 1970, 2073, 2075, 2268, 2430, 2624, 2762 Alabama 1707 Dauphin Island 1432 Alaska 1577 Arizona 2267, 2477 Grand Canyon 1476 California 1485, 1768, 1918, 2563 Death Valley 1514 Los Angeles 2603 Los Angeles Basin 2269 Sacramento River 1604 San Diego 2641 San Joaquin River 1604 San Joaquin Valley 2356 San Jose [California] 2080 Chattahoochee River 1960, 2133 Chesapeake Bay 1431 Colorado 1704, 2124 Connecticut 1421 Delaware Bay 1431 Florida [United States] 1494, 1565 Apalachicola River 1960 Everglades 2783 Everglades National Park 2208 Georgia 2764 Green River 1419 Idaho 1963 Indiana 2766 Marion County [Indiana] 2720 Iowa 1687 Kentucky Daniel Boone National Forest 2765 Lake Tahoe 2078 Maine Androscoggin County 2100 Kennebec River 2100 Maryland 2547 Michigan 1746, 1898, 1899 Midwest 1913 Minnesota 1556, 1687 Bemidji 2196 Mississippi Basin 1902 Mississippi River 1994, 2052 Mississippi Valley 1477 New Hampshire 1836 Hubbard Brook 2104 New Jersey 2113 New York [United States] Lake George 2350 New York [New York (STT)] 1772, 2429 Oneida Lake 2151 North Carolina 2334, 2639 Durham [North Carolina] 2770 Raleigh 2770 North Dakota 1556 Ohio 1763, 1764 Ohio River 2131 Oklahoma [United States] 1434 3 Vermont 1836. Vienna 1955. Viet Nam 2594, 2796 Red River Delta 1430, 1564. Viti Levu 2303. Wanganui Basin 1670. Washington [United States] 1420, 2620. West Africa 1951. Western Australia 1401, 1424, 2274. Western Ghats 1412. Western Hemisphere Latin America 1854, 2768 North America 1415, 1930, 2463, 2791. Western Isles 1557. Whillans Ice Stream 1584. Wolong Nature Reserve 1710. Xinjiang Uygur 1995. Xishuangbanna 1907. Xizang 1459. Yangtze River 1940, 1969, 2394. Yellow River 1661, 1945. Yellow Sea 1545. Yokohama 1904. Yucca Mountain 2163. Yukon Territory 1705, 1927. Yunnan 1518. Zambezi River 1984. Zhujiang Delta 2568, 2628. AUTHOR INDEX Aarnio P. 2633. Abbott M.B. 1522. Abdalmogith S.S. 2572. Aben I. 2747. Abidi B. 2238. Abiven S. 1742. Abrantes F. 1507. Abrantes F.F. 1540. Abu A. 1829. Abu Khadra S. 2663. Aburjania G.D. 2318. Accadia C. 1886. Accinelli C. 1844, 2093. Acevedo N. 2188. Acharyya S.K. 2237. Achleitner S. 2070. Adachi A. 2333. ´ Ad´an Alvarez G.E. 1470. Adani F. 1783. Adima A. 2128. Aeschbacher J. 2250. Afonso A.M. 2632. Agee E.M. 2348. Aggett G. 1420. Agnieszka C. 2024. Agrawal A. 2453. Aguilar L. 2081. Ahlman S. 2086. Ahmed J.A. 2039. Aigner T. 1554. Ailikun B. 2327. Ainsworth C.C. 1673. Akbar M.A. 1689. Akimoto H. 1410. Akintuˇg B. 1972. Akioka M. 1729. Akiyama H. 1410. Akkanen J. 2140. Al-Khashman O.A. 1905. Al-Rifai J. 2065. Alados-Arboledas L. 2596. Alameddine I. 2678. Alastuey A. 2616. Albrecht B.A. 2751. Alcaraz Pelegrina J.M. 1478. Alef K. 1822. Alejo I. 1429. Alexander J. 1609. Aliyev S.A. 1504. Allan R. 2705. Allen M.R. 2508. Alley R.B. 2484. Allwine E. 2545. Almeida-Le˜nero L. 1523. Aloisi J.-C. 1629. Alonso C.V. 1871. Alpertunga B. 2068. Alshawabkeh A.N. 2155. Altevogt A.S. 1752. Altindaˇg A. 2135. Altman S.J. 2156. Altunkaynak A. 1994. Aluko O.O. 2044. Alvarez D.A. 2113. Alvear M. 1789. Alves J.-H.G.M. 2472, 2476. Alves O. 2380. Ambaum M.H.P. 2349. Ambus P. 1409. Am´ezquita C E. 1854. Amiaud B. 1793. Amiridis V. 2586. Amisigo B.A. 1985. Amitai E. 1888. Ammann C. 2359. Amorosi A. 1615. Amundson R. 1607. An Z. 2600. Ander E.L. 1682, 1683. Anders M.D. 1476. Andersen H.-E. 2767. Andersen H.E. 1921. Andersen O.B. 2792. Anderson B. 2771. Anderson C.J. 1996. Anderson J.B. 1599. Anderson R.F. 1541. Anderson R.S. 1485, 1577. Anderson S. 2763. Andrade M.F. 2560. Andre L. 2231. Andrieu H. 2090. Andronopoulos S. 2647. Andrus C.F.T. 1494. Aneja V.P. 2639. Angove D.E. 2541. Annable M.D. 1747. Annamalai H. 2377. Anquetin S. 1990. Anselmetti F.S. 1491. Anthony S.G. 1931. Anthony S.S. 1658. Antoine P. 1505. Antonioli F. 1530. Antronico L. 1860. Anwar S. 1566. Aouad-Rizk A. 2240. Appel K.W. 2334. Aquilina L. 2176. Arakawa O. 2507. Arampatzis G. 1719. Araujo A.G.M. 1569. Arblaster J.M. 2512. Argant J. 1562. Arhonditsis G.B. 2108. Ariztegui D. 1491. Arnau P. 1633. Arora M. 1947. Arslan H. 1845. Arvidson R.E. 1446. Aryal R.K. 2089. Asano S. 2444. Asano T. 2031. Asanuma J. 2363. Ashbaugh L.L. 2579. Ashley R.M. 1956, 2088. Ashmore M.R. 1402. Ashmore P.E. 1611. Ashyiya I.D. 2237. Aspinall R. 2717. Aspinall R.J. 2708, 2709. Asselin H. 2500. Atekwana E. 2183. Atekwana E.A. 2183. Atteia O. 2231. Atui J.P.V. 1569. Au S.K. 1460. Aubert D. 1737. Aubinet M. 2361. Audemard M. F.A. 1444. Augeard B. 1716. Ault L. 1683. Aune J. 1728. Auradou H. 2162. Avni Y. 1864. Awata Y. 1439. Ayala J.H. 2632. Ayala O. 2449. Ayars J.E. 2356. Aylward A.D. 2336. Ayoko G.A. 2077. Azad Md.A.K. 2517. Azam F. 1740. Azevedo J.C. 2247. Azimi S. 2636. Baba E. 1592. Baba Hamed K. 1991. Bac V.T. 2594. Backus S.M. 2142. Baghdadi N. 2685. Bagstad K.J. 1961. B¨ahr I.-H.H.-P. 2704. Bailey C.E. 2025. Baillie J. 2769. Baird D.C. 1418, 1423. Baird K.J. 1949. Bajer K. 2289. Baji´c A. 2368. Bajkiewicz-Grabowska E. 2050. Baker A. 2099. Baker C.B. 2492. Balakrishnan S. 1412. Balasch J.C. 2018. Balasubramanian S. 2433. Baldwin M.E. 2474. Balis D. 2586. Balmfort D.J. 1956. Balster N. 1746. Bamber J. 1580. Bamforth S.S. 1803. Banks M.K. 1838, 1842. Banner M.L. 2350. Bao Y.-X. 1680. Barbaris B. 2624. Barbero S. 1982. Barbolini M. 1587, 1591. Bard E. 1530. Bargaoui Z. 1885. Barisic D. 1679. B¨arlund I. 1730. Barmpas P. 2653. Barna M.G. 2672. Barnes G.M. 2428. Barreto L. 1535. Barrows T.T. 1532. Barsanti K.C. 2569. Bartello P. 2450. Bartelt P. 1582. Barth G.R. 2181. Barthelmie R.J. 1913. Barthlott W. 2769. Bartholmes J. 1975. Bartley J.D. 1858. Bartzis J.G. 2654. Bashkin V.N. 2059. Bashor P.G. 1884. Bastiaanssen W.G.M. 1993. Batalla R.J. 2018, 2022. Bates P.D. 1980. Bauer M. 2191. Bauer M.E. 2778. Bauer S. 1463. Baumann K. 2628. Baumgarten G. 2435. Bawiskar S.M. 2423. Bayraktar H. 1883. Bearder S.K. 2684. Beauchamp J. 1512. Beaufort D. 1656. Becht A. 1554. Becker M.W. 2791. Beeneken T. 1955. Beevers S.D. 2644. Behar A. 1578. Behera S.K. 2404. Behrens T. 2355. Beiderwieden E. 1910. Bekins B.A. 2196. Bel Hadj Ali A. 2734. Belan B.D. 2611. Belehaki A. 2311. Bell III J.F. 1446. Bell R.E. 2243. Bella P. 2221. Bellocchi G. 2291. Bellos D. 2101. Bellotti W. 2497. Belot Y. 2158. Belova E. 2401. Benabdallah S. 2248. Bendjoudi H. 1708. Benizri E. 1793. Benndorf J. 2069. Bennett S.J. 1871. Bennis S. 1992. Bens O. 1717. Bensalah M. 1991. Bentaleb I. 1536. Bera P. 1712. Berg M. 2205. Berg N.H. 2137. Berger A. 2486. Bergot T. 2475. Berj´on A. 2781. Bernab´e J.M. 2577. Berne A. 2175. Bern´e S. 1626. Berner J. 2407. Berner Z. 2116. Bernhofer C. 2529. Bernia S. 1706. Berry J.W. 2258. Bertin X. 1433. Bertran P. 1571. Bertrand-Krajewski J.-L. 2091. Berube D.K.A. 1804. Beˇsli´c I. 2659. Bessagnet B. 2573, 2619. Best A.E. 2245. Betts R.A. 2513. Beven K.J. 1978. Bezpalcova K. 2342. Bhatia A. 2546. Bhattarai K.P. 1965, 1979. Bhide U.V. 2423. Bhunya P.K. 1967. Biancardi A. 1587, 1591. Bianco L. 2752. Bidoglio G. 2248. Biegel M. 2072. Bielefeldt A.R. 1821. Bigelow P.E. 2009. Biggs B.J.F. 1928. Bildirici I.O. 2744. Bilinski H. 2127. Billi P. 2020. Bindlish R. 2782. Bingham R.G. 2242. Birkefeld A. 1688. Birks H.H. 1503. Birks H.J.B. 1503. Biswas L.N. 2436. Biswas S. 2603. Bjerg P.L. 2178. Bj¨orck S. 1490. Black R.X. 2396. Blackburn M. 2413. Blamart D. 1536. Blanchard O. 2619. Blanford W.J. 2226. Blanskby J.D. 1956. Blaschke A.P. 2212. Blixt E.M. 2310. Blodau C. 2198. Bloemendal J. 1513. Blok W.J. 1771. Blong R.J. 2460. Bl¨oschl G. 1983. Blum M.D. 1477. Blumetti A.M. 1445. Blunden J. 2639. Boardman J.W. 2709. Bockheim J. 1746. Bodvarsson G.S. 2171. Boeckx P. 1709. Boels J.F. 1630. Boenigk W. 1500. Bogard M.J. 2139. Bogatikov O.A. 2759. Bogena H. 2122. Bogenrieder K.J. 2096. 1 Boggs D.A. 1424. Boggs G.S. 1424. Bohn B. 2537. Bohrmann G. 1654. Boian C. 2518. Boissau S. 2796. Boivin A. 1831. Boldrin A. 1620. Bollh¨ofer A.F. 2676. Bonardi G. 1475. Bonetto C. 2119. Bonhomme T. 2082. Boon S. 2242. Boons F. 2061. Bora D.S. 1637. Borchi F. 2402. Borie F. 1789. Bork H.-R. 1866. Bork H.R. 1865. Bormann H. 1950. Borodulin A.I. 2611. Bosart L.F. 2429. Botelho M.F. 2702. Bouanani A. 1991. Bouchut F. 1452. Bougeault P. 2475. Boukari S.O.B. 2128. Boulay S. 1502. Boulton A.J. 2275, 2276. Bouraoui F. 2120, 2248. Bourassa M.A. 2325. Bourgeau-Chavez L.L. 2783. Bourgeois G. 2008. Bourgine B. 2685. Bowler N. 1896. Boyd W.E. 1548, 1570. Boyer J. 1625. Bracken L. 2012. Bradford S. 1622. Brandenberger S. 2671. Brandt R.E. 2299. Branfireun B.A. 2053. Braswell B. 2780. Brath A. 2249. Brauers T. 2537. Bravard J.-P. 2021. Bray H.E. 1436. Bretherton C.S. 2283. Brett M.T. 2108. Breward N. 1683. Brewer C.K. 2773. Brice˜no Valera F. 2795. Brimblecombe P. 2610. Bringfelt B. 2615. Bringi V.N. 2681. Brinkman E.P. 1794. Briones M.J.I. 1797. Brodahl M.K. 1704. Brondi S.H.G. 2064. Brook J.R. 2548. Brooks H.E. 2430. Brooks K.N. 2246. Brooks M.E. 2440. Brooks S.J. 1509. Brossard T. 2775. Brown A.E. 2244. Brown D. 1791. Brown S. 2142. Brown S.E. 1682. Brune A. 1649. Brunini C. 2693. Brunkow D. 1897. Brunzell S.M. 2783. Brusseau M.L. 2226. Brusset S. 1662. Bryan B. 2497. Brzozowski K. 2618. Buatier M.D. 1656. Buchan K. 2291. Buchberger S.G. 2257. Buchleiter G.W. 1704. Buchwitz M. 2532. Buddemeier R.W. 1858. Budillon F. 1668. Budzinski H. 2110. Buehler S.A. 2531. Bueno M. 2074. Bukaveckas P.A. 2131. Bull J.M. 1441. Burau J.R. 2029. Burger M. 1406. Burns S.P. 2788. Burt R. 1701. Burt T. 2105. Burtch R. 2743. Burton E.D. 1674. Buser O. 1582. Bussmann I. 1407. Butler A. 2153. Butler A.P. 2169. Butler D.R. 1415. Butt K.R. 1801. Buyuksalih G. 2722. Byczkowski A. 1958. Cabato Ma.E.J.A. 1638. Cachier H. 2590. Caetano E. 2538. Cai X. 2272. Cai Z. 1769. Caissie D. 2008. Cala Rivero V. 1753. Calheiros R.V. 2749. Callender E. 2133. Cameron R.J. 2220. Camorani G. 2249. Campbell J. 2698. Campbell J.W. 2790. Canals M. 1633, 1634. Cancelliere A. 2273. Canivet E. 1919. Canuto V.M. 2344. Cao S. 1879. Cappabianca F. 1587. Carcaillet C. 1506. Carey S.K. 1705. Cariolle D. 2557. Carleer A.P. 2721. Carlson D.L. 2625. Caroll M.J. 1731. Carran A. 1596. Carran W. 1596. Carranca C. 1735. Carr´e M. 1536. Carrer D. 2475. Carretero J. 2580. Carretero M.I. 2577. Carsey F. 1578. Carslaw D.C. 2644. Carslaw K.S. 2589. Carty C.L. 2583. Casado S. 1964. Casamor J.L. 1634. Casassa G. 1580. Casey F.X.M. 1686. Casta˜neda M.E. 2335. Castella J.-C. 2796. Castellarin A. 2249. Castellvi F. 2364. Castenson K.L. 1750. Catizone P. 2093. Cattaneo A. 1616. Cayan D.R. 1930. Cazet J.-P. 1527. Ceballos A. 1964. Cebri´an M.E. 2637. Centeno J.A.S. 2702. Centineo M.C. 1615. Ceretti H.M. 2106. Cerlini P.B. 2456. Cesaro P. 1849. Cescatti A. 1816. Chairi R. 1636. Chan C.K. 2574. Chan T.L. 2642. Chan Y.-C. 1455. Chandel A. 2558. Chandler R.E. 2493. Chandrasekar V. 1897. Chang C.-W. 1687. Chang Chang E.K.M. 2345, 2410, 2464. Chang K.-J. 1455. Chang P. 1754. Chang T.-S. 2523. Chang Z. 1787. Chanson H. 1456. Chao Y.Y. 2472, 2476. Chaparro M.A.E. 1678. Chaplot V. 1863, 1869. Chappell J. 1488. Chappell M.A. 1826. Chapuis R.P. 2188, 2189. Chary N.S. 2201. Chate D.M. 2570. Chau K.W. 1969. Chaudhari S. 2207. Chaudhuri A. 2161. Chaudhuri M. 2214. Chaumillon E. 1433. Chaumont C. 1716. Chebbo G. 2091. Chen C.R. 1741. Chen C.W. 1963. Chen F. 2549. Chen G. 2321. Chen H. 1694. Chen J. 1520, 1643, 1694, 1920. Chen J.-M. 2326. Chen L. 1657, 1879, 2073. Chen L.-C. 2723. Chen T.-H. 1811. Chen W. 2366. Chen X. 1600. Chen Y. 1770. Chenaf D. 2188. Cheng G. 1461, 1726. Cheng H. 1516, 1862. Cheng Y. 2344. Cheng Y.M. 1460. Cheng Z. 1995, 2206. Chenu C. 1778. Cheong D. 1648. Cheong J.-Y. 2150. Chepstow-Lusty A. 1487. Cherrier R. 1831. Cherry J.E. 1900. Cheung H.-C. 2628. Cheviron B. 1708. Chiang H.-C. 1733. Chien H.-J. 1809. Chin Y.-P. 2046. Chinn T.J. 1579. Chipade M.D. 2423. Chiu C.-Y. 1749, 1758, 1785, 1811. Chmyrev V.M. 2308. Cho C. 1839. Cho Y.-G. 1897. Chokkalingam U. 1566. Chou C.C.-K. 2614. Chow A.T. 1820. Chow F.K. 2405. Chowdhury Md.R. 1935. Christiansen B. 2284. Chronis G.Th. 1529. Chu H.Y. 1799. Chu K.H. 2201. Chuanyan Z. 2329. Chun S. 1690, 1691. Church M. 1639, 2019. Church M.J. 1557. Ciais Ph. 2515. Cigleneˇcki I. 2066. Cimini D. 2752. Cirpka O.A. 2157, 2182. Clara M. 2212. Clark P.U. 2484. Clark R.M. 2257. Clark T. 2255. Clark W. 2682. Classer N.F. 1583. Claussen M. 2486. AUTHOR INDEX Clay S.A. 1736. Clemente J.S. 2057. Clemow L. 2083. Clothiaux E.E. 2295, 2751. Cluckie I.D. 2288. Coadou Le Brozec E. 1863. Coapcioglu M.Y. 1839. Cochrane B.H.W. 1856. Cochrane T.A. 1855. Colaizzi P.D. 1714. Colalongo M.L. 1615. Colas S. 1633. Coleman D.C. 1805. Coleman L. 2304. Colin C. 1502. Colle C. 1912. Collier C.G. 1894. Collins M.B. 1610. Colmont J.-M. 2526. Colvile R.N. 2667. Comas F.M. 1988. Compagnucci R.H. 2335. Conde F.J. 2632. Condron L.M. 1741. Conforti A. 1668. Conrad R. 1404. Cook J.P. 1664. Cook P.G. 2170. Coope R. 1505. Cooper J.A. 2256. Cooper J.A.G. 1431. Cordero E.C. 2422. Cordova C.E. 1434. Correggiari A. 1616, 1617. Corripio J.G. 1595. Corsi R.L. 2551. Cortinas Jr. J.V. 2474. Coscarelli R. 1468, 1860. Cosemans G. 2652. Costas S. 1429. Cottier R. 2232. Coutterand S. 1586. Cox M.E. 2097. Craven M. 1578. Cresser M.S. 1560. Cresswell N. 2514. Crochet M. 2434. Cromley R.G. 2740. Crout N.M.J. 1795. Crow W.T. 2782. Cruz Jr. F.W. 1525. Cubizolle H. 1562. Cullen M.J.P. 2480. Cullmann J. 1986. Cunjak R.A. 2008. Curci F. 1771. Curic M. 2539. Curran J.C. 2032. Curran M.P. 1872. Curry J.A. 2457. Curtin D. 1693. Czajkowski K.P. 2763. Dadi´c V. 2368. Daebel H. 2006. Dai G. 1786. Daish S.R. 2527. Dale A.A. 2527. Dale C.J. 2527. Dale V.H. 2764. Dallaire V. 2189. Dallarosa J.B. 2631. Dalmolin Q. 2704, 2742. Dameris M. 2536. D’Angelo E.M. 1817. Daniels M.L. 1485. Darrouz`es J. 2074. Das A.K. 2794. Das H. 1528. Dash B.P. 2207. Dassi L. 2238, 2280. Daus B. 2230. Dauthieu M. 2074. Davakis E. 2647. Davidson C.I. 2563. Davidson D.A. 1560. Davies B.E. 1675. Davies F. 2651. Davies T. 2480. Davison P. 1931. Daw A. 2791. Day R. 2413. de Abreu L. 1540. De Anda J. 2040. De Ara´ujo J.C. 1602. de Beek R. 2532. De Capoa P. 1475. De Carlo E.H. 1658. de Carvalho Kokubum C.N. 2703. De Dapper M. 1647. De Deckker P. 1532. de Foy B. 2538. De Girolamo P. 2042. de Lara Santos Jr. R. 2704. De Marsily G. 2120, 2224. De Medeiros V.M. 2111. De Ruiter P.C. 1806. De Santis F. 2522. De Toffol S. 2070. De Toni S. 1590. De U.K. 2436. De Vizcaya-Ruiz A. 2637. de Wit M.J. 1665. De Wulf A. 2698. Debeir O. 2721. Debenath A. 1635. DeBusk T.A. 2054. Dechaine J. 1810. Deepthy R. 1412. Degirmendˇzi´c J. 2403. Del Jal´on D.G. 1934. DeLaune R.D. 2052. Dell T. 2137. Delmonte B. 1473. Deltour J.-L. 1919. DeMaria M. 2471, 2478. Demars B.O.L. 2118. Demeter G. 1457. Demidov K.S. 1588. Deming Z. 2394. DeMott C. 2408. Demoulin A. 2698. Denton C. 2078. Denton G.H. 2239. D´ery S.J. 1900. Deschamps P. 1646. Descroix L. 1721. Dessouki T.C.E. 2139. Dethloff K. 2419. Dettinger M.D. 1930. Devincenzi J.M. 1634. Devotta S. 2643. Dewi I.C. 1756, 2149. Dey S. 2558. Dhakate R. 2186. Dhorde A. 2483. Di Filippo P. 2660. Di Risio M. 2042. Di Staso A. 1475. Diamond M.L. 2520. Diao Y. 2367. Daz-Barrientos E. 1847. Dick A.L. 2676. Dickey D.A. 1932. Dickinson M.J. 2429. Dickson K.L. 2047. Diebel M.W. 2067. Dieckow J. 1774. Diekkr¨uger B. 1951. Diepenbrock W. 2355. Dierberg F.E. 2054. Dietrich W.E. 1607. DiFiore P.J. 1538. Dill H.G. 1645, 1666. Dilly O. 1773. Dima I.M. 2427. Dinehart R.L. 2029. Ding Q. 2379. Ding W. 1769. Dixit S. 2144. Dixson A.F. 2684. Djordjevi´c S. 1957. Dobbertin M. 2501. Dobson F.W. 2351. Dodonov A.E. 1443. Dogan A. 2172, 2173. Doˇgan U. 1465, 1466. Doi M. 1851. Dollan A. 2112. D¨ombrack A. 2418. Dominiak S. 2391. Donders T.H. 1565. Donelan M.A. 2350, 2351. Dong C. 2141. Donohue I. 2143. Doong R.-A. 1733. D¨orfliger N. 2176. Doswell III C.A. 2430. Dotterweich M. 1561. Doughty C. 2177. Dowell M.D. 2790. Doyle J.D. 2418. Dramis F. 1445. Drange H. 2506. Drazer G. 2162. Drew M. 1839. Driscoll C.T. 2073, 2104. Du J. 1439. Dual J. 1589. Duan J.G. 2034. Ducrocq V. 1990. Dudal Y. 1777. Dudt J.P. 1448. Due˜nas C. 2580. Duffek A. 2194. Dunca E. 2294. Dunham S. 2763. Dunne W.M. 1453. Dupont J.-P. 1467. Dupont L. 1777. Dupuy A. 2231. Durand Y. 1595. Duvail C. 1625. Dwivedi S. 2462. Dye J.E. 2519. Eamus D. 2170. Ebert M. 2230. Edlund O. 2158. Efimova L.K. 2494. Efimova N.A. 2496. Egger J. 2285. Eggins S.M. 1479. Egli R. 2699. Eglit M.E. 1588. Eichinger L. 2191. Einsiedl F. 2152. Eisenhauer A. 1654. Eito H. 2333. Ekeberg J. 2401. Ekmekci M. 2222. El Fadel M. 2664. El-Fadel M. 2678. Elgethun K. 2620. Eliassen A. 1464. Eliot I. 1424. Ellwood M.J. 1543. Elsass P. 2191, 2234. Eltz F.L.F. 1856. Emanuel K. 2424. Emanuel K.A. 2456. Emeis S. 2657. Enciso J.M. 1714. Ende W. 2760. Endo N. 2327. Engardt M. 1909. Engelhard C. 2070. Engesgaard P. 2178. England M.H. 2372. Erbe V. 2071. Erkan N. 1486. Erlenkeuser H. 1544. 2 Esau I.N. 2365. Espeby B. 1711. Espizua L.E. 1572. Essa K.S.M. 2663. Esteller-Alberich M.V. 1757. Esteves M. 1721, 1867. Estrany J. 2028. Etienne J.L. 1553. Ettrich N. 1954. Evangelides C. 1719. Evans J.C. 2220. Evans K.F. 2439, 2442. Even O. 2217. Eynaud F. 1489. Fabbri P. 2219. Fabre R. 1571. Fachel J. 2631. Falarz M. 2374. Falgu`eres C. 1512. Fall P.L. 1567. Fang M. 2574. Farahani H.J. 1704. Farant J.-P. 2566. Farguell J. 2017. Farooq S. 1740. Faruqui S.J. 2604. Faye S. 2280. Feczk´o T. 2602. Feddersen H. 2479. Fedorak P.M. 2057. Feng H. 2790. Feng J. 1815, 2574. Feng L.-H. 1680. Feng Q. 1787. Feng X. 1563. Fengqing J. 1995. Fenz R. 2212. Ferguson S.H. 1804. Ferm M. 2522, 2550. Fern´andez M.C. 2580. Ferraro R. 2470. Ferreira L.D.D. 2688. Ferris H. 1791. Ferziger J.H. 2405. Fey M. 1499. Feyen J. 1923. Fichefet T. 1483. Fiebig J. 1495. Fiedler J. 2435. Figueiral I. 1506. Figueiredo S. 2323. Filser J. 1843. Filzmoser P. 1659. Fine P.M. 2576. Fink D. 1526. Finke W. 1987. Finn J. 1526. Fiorini F. 1615. Fischer A.S. 2376. Fischer H. 2680. Fisher B. 2650. Fisher R.F. 2247. Fisher T.G. 1550, 1556. Flanagan D.C. 1855. Fleischer L. 2258. Fleming S.W. 1927. Flemming J. 2617. Fleury T.-J. 1624. Flora O. 1581. Flury M. 1713. Fok L. 2013. Foken T. 2358. Folland C.K. 2510. Fonstad M.A. 2763. Foppen J.W.A. 2179. Forbes M.G. 2047. Ford R.G. 2228. Fordyce F.M. 1682. Forester R.M. 1514. Forman S.L. 1435. Formoso M.L.L. 2130. Fox N.I. 1895, 2467, 2468. Franc O. 1437. Franceschi M. 2231. Franchello G. 1977. Francis R.C. 1496. Franciskovic-Bilinski S. 2127. Franc¸ois S. 2521. Frankignoul C. 2384. Franklin C.N. 2450. Franks S.W. 2390. Frechen M. 1500. Frederichs T. 1544. Frei A. 2502. Frezzotti M. 1581. Friedland A.J. 1836. Friese K. 2194. Frignani M. 1619. Fritzsche D. 2680. Froede Jr. C.R. 1432. Fr¨uhauf M. 2132. Fu B. 1439. Fu S. 1791. Fu Y. 2786. Fuchs L. 1955. Fuchs M. 1492. Fuelberg H.E. 2305. Fuentes C. 1724. Fuentes J.-P. 1713. Fujinuma R. 1746. Fujita N. 2147. Fujiyoshi R. 1755. Funkhouser G. 1486. Funning G.J. 2757. Furevik T. 2506. Furumai H. 2085, 2087, 2089. Furuta F. 1501. Fyfe J.C. 2372. Gabellani S. 1989. Gadgil A. 2483. Gadhavi H. 2606. Gage K.S. 2682. Gagliardini O. 1575. Gaki-Papanastassiou K. 1442. Gal´an E. 2577. Galarneau Jr. T.J. 2429. Galbraith E.D. 1498. Galiulin R.V. 2059. Galiulina R.A. 2059. Gallegos A. 2137. Gallimore R. 2491. Gallo K. 2774. Gan H. 1760. Ganev K. 2649. Ganguly D. 2606. Ganju A. 1594. Gao H. 1814. Gao R. 2485. Gao S. 1820. Gao W. 1879. Garca B. 2719. Garcia C. 2028. Garca S´anchez E. 1470. Garca-Garca A. 1621. Garca-Gil J.C. 1767. Garcia-Sanchez L. 2082. Garen D. 1926. Gara N.O. 1939. Gariazzo C. 2660. Garland J.L. 1792. Garnaud S. 2636. Garner S.T. 2417. Garnett M.H. 1797. Garrett T.J. 2448. Gasiewski A. 2726. Gaudin A. 1656. Gavalda D. 1727. Gavrilov N.M. 2434. Ge J. 2001. Gebhart K.A. 2672. Gehring U. 2583. Geiger A. 2697. Gelencs´er A. 2666. Gende M. 2693. Generini P. 1783. Geng L. 2272. Geng S. 2504. Gensous B. 1627. Georgoulias F. 1696. Geresdi I. 2438. AUTHOR INDEX Gerhardt S. 1649, 1650. Gerold L.A. 1899. Geron C.D. 2576. Gershenson A. 2357. Gessner T.P. 2278. Geyer R. 1690, 1691. Ghosh N.C. 1967. Ghoshal K. 2027. Gibbs M.M. 2277. Giboire G. 1869. Gibson C.A. 1960. Giertz S. 1951. Giesecke T. 1508. Gigliotti G. 1828. Gikonyo J. 2265. Gilkes R.J. 1748. Gill S. 1740. Gillet-Chaulet F. 1575. Gillett N.P. 2505. Gilli A. 1491. Giuliano G. 2273. Giustolisi O. 1938. Glasser N.F. 1597. Gnaß A. 1773. Goanta M. 2529. Gob F. 2021. Goble R.J. 1477. Godbold D.L. 1739. Godoy J.M. 2216. Godoy M.L. 2216. Goel N.K. 1947. Goemann H. 2122. Goepp S. 1474. G¨okg¨oz T. 2741. Goldstein R.A. 1963. Golitsyn G.S. 2494. G´omez E.T. 2662. G´omez M.A. 1798. Gong G. 2502. Gong Z. 1822. Gonz´alez V. 2632. Goodrich D.C. 1891, 2477. Goodsell B. 1583. Goonetilleke A. 2077. Goosse H. 1483, 2490. Goossens D. 1640. Goovaerts P. 2715. Gorantiwar S.D. 2261, 2262. G¨orner W. 1986. Gosling W.D. 1521. Goswami B.N. 2393. Goswami K. 2436. Goswami M. 1979. Goto S. 1511. Gounaris N. 2647. Gourley J.J. 1925. Gouvˆea S.P. 2138. Gouweleeuw B.T. 1977. Govers H.A.J. 1734. Gowd S.S. 2235. Graber H.C. 2351. Grabowski W.W. 2449. Gradzi´nski M. 2221. Graf W.L. 1413. Graham E.Y. 2133. Graham R.C. 1768. Grams P.E. 1419. Granat L. 1909. Gray T.E. 1609. Gray W. 1892, 1893. Greatbatch R.J. 2432. Green J.C. 2036. Greenbaum N. 2026. Greer K.A. 2251. Gregor J. 2060. Gregory J.M. 2488. Gregory R.A. 1557. Greiling D.A. 2708. Grell G.A. 2670. Grenfell T.C. 2299. Greˇskov´a A. 1422. Greuell W. 2729. Grewe V. 2536. Griffith D.A. 2711. Grismer M.E. 1918. Grizzetti B. 2120. Kathewera Grob K. 2671. Groffman P.M. 1772. Grotzinger J.P. 1446. Grozov V.P. 2316. Grum M. 1953. Gr¨un R. 1479. Gryanik V.M. 2286. Guadagnini A. 2153. Guan J. 1702. G¨uc¸er S¸. 1845. Gudera T. 2234. Guelda D.L. 2131. Gu´erin R. 1708. Guigard S.E. 1833. Guijin M. 1995. Guilderson T.P. 1472. Guillon E. 1777. Guilyardi E. 2376. Gujer W. 2006. G¨ulery¨uz G. 1845. Gundersen P. 1411. Guo F. 1820. Guo G. 2784. Guo H. 2628, 2786. Guo M. 1914. Guo S. 1946. Guodong C. 2329. Gupta S.K. 2144. Gurnell A.M. 1414. Gurung J.K. 2236. Guti´errez-Castillo M.E. 2637. Gutierrez-Miceli F. 1709. Guyomarc’h G. 1595. Haarsma R.J. 2371. Haberle S.G. 1509, 1524. Haberler-Weber M. 2756. Haberzettl T. 1499. Haeberli W. 1484. Hafner S.D. 1772. Hafner W.D. 2625. Hagedorn C. 1720. Haginoya S. 2346. Hagstr¨om M. 2582. Haigh J.D. 2413. Hajabbasi M.A. 1834. Hakim G.J. 2461. Haley B.A. 1653. Hall V.A. 1559. Hallquist M. 2626. Hally V.M. 2277. Halse S.A. 2274. Ham R.K. 1784. Hamamoto H. 1511. Haman K.E. 2289. Hambrey M.J. 1583. Hamilton J.F. 2542. Hamilton P.B. 1651. Hamm S.-Y. 2150. Hammarlund D. 1490. Han D. 2288. Han H.C. 1545. Han I. 2114. Han S. 1786. Han W. 2385. Hanafin J.A. 2753. Hancock G.R. 1941. Hancock P.J. 2276. Handorf D. 2419. Hanna S.R. 2646. Hannay C. 2442. Hansen S. 1921. Haraguchi A. 1729. Hardelauf H. 2211. Hardin P.J. 2766. Harimaya T. 2445. Harms R. 2211. Harmse J.T. 2134. Harper D.M. 2118. Harrington J.Y. 2446, 2447, 2454. Harris A.R. 2563. Harris E.M. 2693. Harrison R.M. 2572, 2673. Holland M.M. 2490. Hollenstein C. 2699. Holley T.A. 2334. Holmgren B. 1576. Hol´ubek P. 2221. Holvoet K. 2121. Hong J. 2001. Hong M.L. 1907. Hoogendoorn R.M. 1630. Hooker S.B. 2785. Hope G. 1552, 1566. Hoppus M. 2762. Hori T. 2147. Horn S.P. 1546. Horppila J. 1641. Horritt M.S. 1980. Hosen Y. 1799. Hosomi M. 1903. Hostettler F.D. 2196. Hou H. 1903. Hou P.-C.L. 1809. Houshangpour A. 2531. Howard A.M. 2344. Howard P.H. 2281. Hoyle C.R. 2452. Hu C. 1946. Hu K. 2200. Hu M.J. 1722. Hu Y. 1786, 1814. Huang C. 1761. Huang C.-Y. 1809. Huang F.T. 2400. Huang P.-M. 1785. Huang V. 2732. Huang W. 2063. Huang Y. 2200, 2585. Hubbard K.G. 2492. Hubert P. 1885. Hudson J.J. 2139. Hug S.J. 2193. Hughes D.A. 2266. Hughes E.A. 2106. Hughes M.K. 1486. Huh S. 1932. Huizenga J.M. 2134. Hulin J.P. 2162. Humphreys G.S. 1697. Hung H. 2629. Hunt B. 2184, 2185. Hunt C.O. 1568. Hunt C.W. 2100. Hunter N.M. 1978, 1980. Hunter R.G. 2260. Hunter W.J. 2159. Huntingford C. 2505. Hurburgh Jr. C.R. 1687. Hurlburt H.E. 2388. Hurni H. 1859. Hutchins M.G. 1931. Hutchison K.D. 2604. H¨uttl R.F. 1717. Huttula T. 1652. Huwe B. 2168, 2358. Huxman T.E. 1922. Huybrechts P. 2484, 2488. Hyland C. 1766. Hyman G. 2768. Hynes R.G. 2541. Hyslop N.P. 2579. Harrison S. 1597. Harrold G. 2180. Harrop Galv˜ao R.K. 2111. Hart A. 2215. Hart E.A. 1663. Hart K.A. 2473. Hart W.E. 2258. Hartman C.M. 2446, 2447. Hartmann J. 2286. Hasekamp O.P. 2747. Hashimoto A. 2445. Hassan G. 1720. Hassan M. 2019. Haszpra L. 2666. Haupt B.J. 2499. Haupt S.E. 2674. Hawker D.W. 1674. Hayakawa M. 2308. Hayakawa Y.S. 1426. Hayes K. 2787. Hays M.D. 2576. Hazeleger W. 2371, 2392, 2412. Hazelton N.W.J. 2690, 2731. He W. 1439. He X. 2366. He Y. 1481, 1738, 1759, 1842. He Z. 1761. Heald C.L. 2609. Hebel B. 2092. Heck B. 2700. Hedgecock I.M. 2540. Heikens A. 1756, 2149. Heimsath A.M. 1607. Heinesch B. 2361. Held A. 2669. Hellerich L.A. 2202. Helz G.R. 2066. Hemming D. 1409. Hendon H.H. 2380. Hendrikx J. 1596. Heninger R.L. 1872. Henner P. 1912. Herbst M. 2211. Herkelrath W.N. 2196, 2197. Herman J.R. 2404. Herngren L. 2077. Heroy D.C. 1599. Herr J.W. 1963. Herut B. 2597. Herzog M. 2103. Herzsprung P. 2194. Hewitt A.E. 1695. Heydenrych C. 1579. Heymsfield G.M. 2683. Hickel K. 2245. Hien P.D. 2594. Higaki A. 2635. Higueras P. 1493. Hildemann L.M. 2559. Hill M.C. 2181. Hill R.L. 1731. Hillaire-Marcel C. 1646. Hiltunen T. 2630. Hinderer J. 2792. Hinkelman L.M. 2439. Hirashima H. 1592. Hirschi M. 2489. Hites R.A. 2625. Hlavcova K. 1981. Hobbs W. 2143. Hock R. 1576. Hocking W.K. 2296. Hodson M.E. 1851. Hodson Y. 2735. Hodzic A. 2619. Hoek G. 2561. Hoffman R.N. 2290. Hoffmann H. 2657. Hoffmann L. 2056. Hogan R.J. 2440. Højberg A.L. 2178. Holbourn A. 1537. Iacovazzi R. 1887. Ibrahim A.N. 2136. Iffly J.F. 2056. Iga S.-I. 2399. Igawa M. 1904, 2543. Ignace D.D. 1922. Igouzal M. 2125. Ikeda M. 2382. Ikeda S. 2031. Ilani S. 2217. Illingworth A.J. 2440. Im J. 2725. Imai H. 2528. Imran J. 1622. Inbar M. 2270. 3 Innamorati M. 2789. Inoue J. 2593. Insinga D. 1632. Ioannidou A. 1911. Ipbuker C. 2744. Irvine K. 2143. Irwin J.S. 2646. Ishiga H. 2236. Ishikawa H. 2363. Islam K.R. 1731. Islebe G. 1523. Isnard O. 2638. Ivanov N.E. 2389. Ivanova N.S. 2554. Ivchenko N. 2310. Iwamoto H. 2227. Iwanami K. 1889. Iwata H. 2360. Izaurralde C. 1763. Jaboyedoff M. 1448. Jack J. 2131. J¨ackel U. 1405. Jackson D.L. 2555. Jackson L.E. 1406. Jackson T.J. 2782. Jacob D. 2293. Jacob D.J. 2609. Jacob N. 2021. Jacquez G.M. 2708, 2713. Jaffe P.R. 1752. Jago L.C.F. 1548. Jain C.K. 2107. Jain N. 2546. Jain S.K. 2003. Jakobsen F. 2004. Jakobsson C. 2055. Jamieson B. 1593. Jang M. 2525. Jang S. 2150. Janh¨all S. 2582, 2626. Janour Z. 2342. Jansson C. 1711. Jansson K.N. 1597. Jansson P.-E. 1711. Jarecki M.K. 1764. Jarvis N. 2094. Jay D.A. 1942. Jayaraman A. 2606. Jayaratne E.R. 2578. Jayasumana A. 1897. Jeannin P.-Y. 1484. Jefferson A. 2567. Jeffress G. 2730. Jeffries H.E. 2605. Jeng J.W. 1749. Jenkins K.M. 2275. Jensen H.E. 1921. Jensen J.R. 2725. Jensen R.R. 2766. Jeppesen E. 2067. Jergentz S. 2119. Jezek K.C. 1584. Jha M. 1996. Ji L. 2774. Jia B. 1788. Jiang H. 2369. Jiang J.H. 2728. Jiang T. 1940. Jiang X.-A. 2381. Jiao W. 2786. Jibao Y. 1458. Jicha M. 2341. Jim´enez Ballesta R. 1753. Jim´enez-Mu˜noz J.C. 2777. Jin C. 1882. Jin D. 1461. Jin S. 2762. Jinadasa H.K.P.K. 2087, 2089. Jo W.-K. 2668. Job J.-O. 2240. Jobb´agy E.G. 2253. Jochheim H. 1952. Johansson C. 2615. John D.E. 2203. John V.O. 2531. Johns R.H. 2306. Johnson A.C. 2079. Johnson C.C. 1683. Johnson C.E. 2104. Johnson D. 1898. Johnson D.W. 2078. Johnson G.R. 2578. Johnstone E. 1482. Jolly W.M. 2501. Joly D. 2775. Jomelli V. 1598. Jones A.L. 2225. Jones A.M. 2673. Jones D.L. 1739. Jones D.S. 1494. Jones K.B. 2075. Jones P. 2768. Jones P.D. 2511. Jord´a J.D. 1775. Jord´an M.M. 2662. Jose S.C. 2182. Jouet G. 1626. Joughin I. 2484. Joye S.B. 2095. Jrad A. 2248. Juang H.M.H. 2463. Ju´arez M. 1775. Jugsujinda A. 2052. Juli`a R. 2043. Julien P.Y. 1418, 1423. Juneng L. 2373. Jung A. 2263. Jung H.M. 1648. Jung T. 2466. Junge B. 1951. Jungner H. 2458. Jur´akov´a M. 2051. K¨aa¨ b A. 1580. Kadlec R.H. 2277, 2278. Kado N.Y. 2627. Kahle H.-G. 2697. Kajii Y. 2528. Kakouros E. 2197. Kalberer M. 2587. Kalinski V. 1852. Kamal A. 1992. Kamala C.T. 2201. Kamber B.S. 1606. Kamel S. 2238. Kamens R.M. 2525, 2605. Kamolpornwijit W. 2209. Kamp P.J.J. 1670. Kampf S.K. 1915. Kanaroglou P.S. 2707. Kane R.P. 2322. Kaneko N. 1807. Kang E. 1726. Kang I.-S. 2481. Kang J.-H. 2062. Kang S. 1517. Kant H. 2086. Kany´ar B. 1830. Kao C. 1716. Kapsimalis V. 1631, 1642. Kapustina O.V. 2319. Kara A.B. 2388. Karageorgis A.P. 1529, 1642. Karakitsios S.P. 2613. Karathanasis A.D. 1817. Karlsson T. 1824, 2323. Karol I.L. 2553. Karpf C. 2213. Karrasch B. 2103. Kasprzak S.E. 2449. Kassomenos P.A. 2613. Kaste J.M. 1836. Kastens D.L.A. 2779. Kastens J.H. 2779. Kastens T.L. 2779. Kataniwa M. 1904. Kathewera A. 1666. Kato Kato T. 2333. Kaufman M.M. 1841. Kaur S. 2667. Kaushal S.S. 2124. Kawai S. 2543. Kawamura H. 1537. Kawamura K. 2564. Kawashita K. 2621. Kay M.P. 2430. Kayhanian M. 2011. Kaysi I. 2664. Kazopoulo M. 2664. Kebe C.M.F. 2328. Keller W.C. 2787. Kelly G. 2465. Kelly M. 1543. Kenimer A.L. 1689. Kennedy I.R. 2065. Kennedy L.M. 1546. Kennouche H. 1736. Kenny A. 1692. Keqiang H. 1458. Kern M. 1582. Kersebaum K.C. 1952. Kestenare E. 2384. Kettner A.J. 1617. Keylock C.J. 1573. Khadka M.S. 2236. Khadkikar A.S. 1655. Khairoutdinov M. 2408. Khalil S. 2240. Khan E.A. 1427. Khan S.M. 1622. Khantadze A.G. 2318. Kharaka Y.K. 2197. Khegai V.V. 2320. Kheoruenromne I. 1748. Khim B.-K. 1648. Khishigsuren S. 1645. Khlystov A. 2561. Khresat S.A. 1698. Kidder S.Q. 2469. Kieronczyk M. 2550. Killeen T.J. 1521. Kim E.J. 2726. Kim H. 1747, 1765. Kim H.C. 2114. Kim J. 2567. Kim J.-K. 1551. Kim K.-M. 1887. Kim K.-W. 1754, 1846. Kim S.-J. 1943. Kim S.-O. 1846. Kim S.-Y. 1754. Kim W.-S. 1846. Kim Y.H. 2114. Kimura F. 2330. Kingumbi A. 1885. Kinney K.A. 2551. Kinoshita M. 1755. Kinter S.M. 2375. Kiose S.I. 2041. Kirchhoff V.W.J.H. 2518. Kirchner K. 1447. Kirkby M. 2012. Kirkwood S. 2401. Kirmizi S. 1845. Kirtman B.P. 2375. Kishore A. 2303. Kiteme B. 2265. Kitoh A. 2507. Klai´c Z.B. 2659. Klawuun P. 2142. Klein M. 1966. Kleinhans M.G. 1669. Klemedtsson L. 1411. Klementov´a E. 2051. Klemm O. 1910, 2669. Klinkhammer G.P. 1653. Kloppmann W. 2232. Klose M. 1404. Klotz S. 1867. Klyagina L.P. 2553. Knaff J.A. 2469, 2478. Knicker H. 1774. AUTHOR INDEX Knight D.W. 1602. Knight J. 1613. Knight J.R. 2510. Knott B. 1424. Knyazikhin Y. 2451. Kobayashi O. 1501. K¨ober R. 2230. Kobold M. 1974. Kocak G. 2722. Koc¸ak M. 2597, 2601. Koch J. 2607. Koch M. 2498. Koch S. 2132. Kohnova S. 1981. Kohonen T. 1652. Kollias P. 2751. Komilis D.P. 1784, 1848. Kondo F. 2062. Kong G.S. 1545. Kongola M.J.M. 2760. Kono H. 2656. Konosavsky P. 2190. Koplik J. 2162. Kopperud R. 2559. Korfali S.I. 1675. Korsunova L.P. 2320. Korup O. 1440. Kosaka Y. 2414. Koshikawa M.K. 1903, 2147. Kostic B. 1554. Kostopoulou S.K. 1700. Kosugi N. 2528. Kosugi Y. 2362. Kothawale D.R. 2509. Kotlarz W. 2618. Kouba J. 2755. Kouchi A. 2648. Koutsourakis N. 2654. Kovoor G.M. 1917. Kozlovsky A. 2309. Krajewski P. 1830. Krajewski W.F. 1902. Krajny E. 2530. Kr¨amer S. 1953. Kraucunas I. 2427. Krause S. 1987. Krauss M. 1823. Krebs P. 2072, 2213. Kremer R.J. 1800. Krishna Murthy B.V. 2297. Krishna P. 1837. Krishnamurthy R.V. 2183. Kroll J.H. 2608. Kronberg L. 2098. Kronfeld J. 2217. Kroonenberg S.B. 1630. Kruchenitskii G.M. 2554. Krznari´c D. 2066. Kubes R. 1981. Kubilay N. 2597. Kucera P. 2682. Kucera V. 2544. Kucharski R. 1818. Kudryavtsev I.V. 2458. Kuhn T. 2603. Kuhnt W. 1537. Kukkonen J.V.K. 2140. Kuloglu E. 2584. Kulshrestha U.C. 1909. Kumabe R. 2425. Kumagai K. 2031. Kumar P. 2679. Kumar R. 2643. Kumar S. 1699, 2303. Kumaran K.P.N. 1547. Kummerow C.D. 2750. Kunzru S. 2214. Kuo S.-L. 2326. Kupsch H. 2223. Kurgansky M.V. 2419. Kusche J. 2694. Kusselson S.J. 2469. Kusunoki K. 2656. Kuzmicky P.A. 2627. Kvamstø N.G. 2506. Leupin O.X. 2193. Leuzzi G. 2343. Lewin J. 1482. Lewis A.C. 2542. Lewis D.A. 1431. Lewis Jr. W.M. 2124. Leygraf C. 2544. Lezine A.-M. 1527. Li C. 1880, 2000, 2568. Li D. 2718. Li F.M. 1722. Li H. 2200. Li J.-L. 2728. Li L. 2683. Li P. 1663, 1822. Li S. 1744. Li T. 2381. Li W. 1835. Li X.-X. 2353. Li Y. 1694, 1808, 1861, 1877, 2011. Li Y.-C. 2565. Li Y.C. 2208. Li Y.S. 1969. Li Z. 1564. Liakakou E. 2601. Liang F. 2332. Liang L. 2209. Liao L. 1888. Liebethal C. 2358. Liedl R. 1463. Lillo J. 1493. Lim S.-Y. 2030. Lima M.A. 2749. Limbrunner J.F. 1970. Lin B. 1744. Lin C.-Y. 2614. Lin J.-L. 2409. Lin W. 2370. Lin X. 2492. Lin Y. 2000, 2001, 2370. Lindqvist N. 2098. Lingua G. 1849. Liniger H. 2250, 2265. Linker R. 1692. Liou K.N. 2301. Liousse C. 2573. Lippold H. 2223. Lipsky E.M. 2640. Liquete C. 1633. Lirio J.M. 1678. Liski J. 1780, 1781. Littke R. 2210. Liu C. 2002, 2733. Liu C.-H. 2353. Liu G. 1944. Liu H. 2272. Liu H.H. 2171. Liu H.T. 1460. Liu J. 1657, 1999. Liu K.-B. 1428. Liu L. 1520. Liu M. 1725. Liu Q. 2301. Liu S. 1710, 2000. Liu S.C. 2614. Liu W. 1563. Liu W.Z. 1722. Liu X. 1515, 2581. Liu Y. 1786. Liu Z. 1736, 1976, 2491. Livingston J.M. 2533. Lizarazo L.M. 1775. Ljungstr¨om E. 1840. Llort X. 1888. Loder III T. 2100. Loeb N.G. 2592. Lombardi A.T. 2138. Lonneman W.A. 2639. Loope W.L. 1550. Lopes M. 2645. L´opez-Lozano R. 2781. Lorang M.S. 1420. Lorenson T. 1621. Lorenz P. 2293. Lorenzo L.F. 2229. Louis R. 2206. Labadie P. 2110. Labana S. 1827. Labaune C. 1626, 1627. Labiouse V. 1448. Labraga J.C. 2487. Lacina J. 1447. Lack S.A. 1895. Ladouche B. 2176. Laffan M.D. 1695. Laffly D. 2775. Lafuerza S. 1634. Lageard J.G.A. 2514. Lagomarsino A. 1802. Lagona F. 2712. Laio F. 1971. Laird D.A. 1687, 1826. Lal R. 1763, 1764. Lam B. 2520. Lamarche G. 1670. Lambert F.H. 2505. Lamontagne S. 2170. Lanc¸as F.M. 2064. Lanchester B.S. 2310. Lane P.N.J. 2245. Lane T.P. 2418. Lang U. 2234. Langer E. 2102. Langhammer J. 2148. Langone L. 1618, 1619, 1620. Lanzante J.R. 2282. LaPenta K.D. 2429. Lapetite J.M. 1721. Lapointe M. 2007. Larjavaara M. 2307. Larsen E. 1503. Larsen H. 1892, 1893. Larsen M.L. 2451. Lasier P.J. 2096. Latif M.T. 2610. Lattanzio A. 2302. Lau S.-L. 2011. Laucelli D. 1938. Lauener G. 2241. Lax K. 1684. Lazzarotto D.R. 2742. Le Blansch K. 2061. Le Heron D.P. 1553. Le Roux G. 1737. Le Roux J.P. 1644. Le Strat P. 1625. Leben R.R. 2433. Lebreiro S. 1507. Ledgard N. 1873. Ledru M.-P. 1525. Lee B.-C. 2562. Lee H.C. 2038. Lee J. 1686, 1690, 1691. Lee J.-H. 2668. Lee L.S. 1732, 1825. Lee S. 2398, 2525. Lee W.-C. 2426. Leeder M.R. 1609. Leeming R. 2083. Leenders J.K. 1612. Leenhouts J.M. 1961. Legall F.D. 2183. Leharne S.A. 2180. Lehmann B.E. 2359. Lehning M. 1592. Lehotsk´y M. 1422. Leidner S.M. 2290. Leigh R.J. 2460. Leitinger R. 2312. Leitl B. 2339. Lejju B.J. 1558. Leksin A.B. 2759. Lemeshko N.A. 2496. Lennartz B. 2049. Lentfer C.J. 1570. Lepper K. 1434. Lerner D.N. 2180. Leung D.Y.C. 2353. Leung Y. 2732. Leungsakul S. 2605. 4 Lovrencic I. 1679. Lowe J.A. 2488. Lowell K. 2705. Lowenstein T.K. 1514. Lu D. 2720. Lu F.-C. 2326. Lu H. 1603. Lu H.-C. 2523. Lu H.-Y. 1428. Lu X.X. 2252. Luce H. 2434. Ludlow-Wiechers B. 1523. Ludwig R.-R. 1666. Ludwig W. 1629. Luetscher M. 1484. Luettinger J. 2255. Lugo-De La Fuente J. 1757. Luhar A.K. 2338. Luhn W.M. 2765. Lundquist E.J. 1406. Luo B.P. 2452. Luo F. 1469. Luo Q. 2497. Luo T. 1520. Luria M. 2641. Lvov S.I. 2317. Lyamani H. 2596. Lykousis V. 1529. Lyman R.E. 2428. Lyons W.B. 2133. Ma B.-L. 1702. Mabuchi Y. 2136. MacBroom J.G. 1421. Macgregor K.R. 1577. Machado R. 2749. Machn J. 1751. Macke A. 2441. Macklin M.G. 1482. Madani A. 1712. Maddock III T. 1949. Maddox R.A. 1891, 2477. Madoz-Escande C. 2082. Madrid L. 1847. Madsen M. 2004. Magalh˜aes C.M. 2095. Maga˜na V. 2538. Maggio C. 2304. Maggos Th. 2634. Magilligan F.J. 2005. Mahieu N. 1741. Mahrt L. 2352. Maillet K.A. 2753. Mainelli M. 2471. Maingi J.K. 2765. Makarenko S.F. 2314. Makaya M. 1487. Maki M. 1889. Makshtas A.P. 2382. ˇ 1957. Maksimovi´c C. Malanson G.P. 1415. Malcolm A.J. 2480. Malhi Y. 2360. Malm A. 2086. Malm W.C. 2672. Malone T. 1962. Maloo S. 2612. Maloszewski P. 2152. Manalo-Smith N. 2592. Maneta M. 2015. Mangeney-Castelnau A. 1452. Mania J. 1991. Manju G. 2395. Manross K.L. 2431. Mantilla E. 2552. Mantua N.J. 1496. Mapes B. 2409. Maraun M. 1813. Marchand P. 1869. Marcinkowski T. 2550. Marcotte D. 2189. Marcus W.A. 2708, 2709, 2716. Mardones M. 1948. Marenco A. 2402. Mariani S. 1886. Marn L. 1435. Marinari S. 1802. Marion A. 2010. Marklund G.T. 2323. Markovi´c D. 2498. Markovitch O. 1770. Markowski P.M. 2454. Maroukian H. 1442. Marˇsa´ lek B. 2060. Marsh K.L. 1743. Marshak A. 2451. Marshall D.P. 2349. Marshall T. 2304. Marston R.A. 1416. Marsz A.A. 2374. Martn F. 2340. Martin J.F. 2037. Martin M. 2622. Martina M.L.V. 1976. Martinez G.A. 2020. Martnez-Aguirre A. 1478. Martnez-Cob A. 2364. Martnez-Fern´andez J. 1964. Martins-Dos Santos S. 2588. Marton A. 2602. Martonchik J.V. 2302. Maruca S.L. 2713. Marx S.K. 1606. Marzano F.S. 2752. Maselli F. 2789. Maslouhi A. 2125. Mason I.G. 1782. Mason S.A. 2264. Massaferro J. 1509. Massart S. 2557. Massei N. 1467. Massenbauer T. 2274. Massi L. 2789. Massoli P. 2535. Masson D.G. 1601. Masuda H. 1677. Masuda K. 2346. Masunaga H. 2750. Mata-Gonzalez R. 2260. Mathias S.A. 2169. Mathimaran N. 1812. Mathys N. 1721, 1867. Matishov G.G. 1555. Matschullat J. 2599. Matsuda T. 2562. Matsuda Y. 2399, 2414. Matsueda M. 2415, 2416. Matsui S. 2562. Matsukura Y. 1426. Matsumoto E. 1564. Matsumoto J. 1438, 2528. Matsumoto K. 2543. Matthews K.B. 2291. Maturilli M. 2535. Matyac S. 1918. Mauldon M. 1453. Mauquoy D. 1559. Mayer M. 2700. Mayle F.E. 1521. Maynard D.G. 1872. Mayr C. 1499. Mayr H.G. 2400. Mazumder B.S. 2027. Mazzeo N.A. 2655, 2658. McAlister J.J. 1676. McAneney K.J. 2460. McCann K. 1806. McClung D.M. 1454. McConnell L.L. 1765. McCreary J.P. 2377. McCuen R.H. 1936. McCulloch M.T. 1479. McDade C.E. 2579. McDaniel B.A. 2396. McDaniel P.A. 1701. AUTHOR INDEX McDonald R.I. 2770. McDow S.R. 2598. McGaughey R.J. 2767. McGinness H.M. 1417. McGowan H. 1873. McGowan H.A. 1606. McIntosh J.C. 2165. McIntosh P.D. 1695. McIntyre N. 2169. McLandress C. 2397. Mcllhatton T.D. 2088. McMahon T.A. 2244. McMurtrie S. 1929. McNeil V.H. 2097. McSaveney M.J. 1440. McSherry L. 2267. Meador M.R. 1932. Mechoso C.R. 1939. Medvedev A.V. 2316. Meehl G.A. 2512. Mees F. 1647. Meissner K.J. 1498. Melcher F. 1645. Melillo C. 2789. Mellini M. 2199. Mencuccini M. 1408. Meneghini R. 1888. Meng L. 1769. Mensink C. 2652. M´erindol L. 1595. Merz R. 1983. Meshcheryakova V.B. 2759. Mesquita M.E. 1735. Messina M.G. 2247. M´esz´aros T. 2666. Metzl R. 1707. Metzler J. 2762. Metzler J.W. 2772. Meyer J.L. 1960. Meylan W.M. 2281. Meyssonnier J. 1575. Michel C. 2573. Middleton D.R. 2651. Mielniczuk J. 1774. Mieth A. 1866. Migliavacca D. 2661. Mikhailov Yu.M. 2319. Mikhailova G.A. 2319. Miles M. 2025. Milia A. 1632. Mill´an M.M. 2552. Millar R.G. 2025. Miller E.K. 1836. Miller P.L. 2046. Miller R.N. 2727. Miller S. 2336. Miller W.W. 2078. Millner P. 1765. Millo C. 1544. Mills H.H. 1663. Mills J.D. 1416. Milne D. 2623. Minervino I. 1468. Minnett P.J. 2753. Minobe S. 2387. Minshull T.A. 1441. Minster T. 2217. Miranda A.I. 2645. Miranda R.M. 2560. Mirlean N. 2621. Miserocchi S. 1620. Mishra S.K. 1967. Miskovsky J.-C. 1635. Misson L. 2357. Misumi R. 1889. Mitchell C.P.J. 2053. Mitchell G. 2623. Mitchell N.C. 1441. Mittal A.K. 2462. Mix A.C. 1653. Miyakoshi A. 2516. Miyamoto T. 1807. Mizumura K. 1968. Mo J. 2370. Mo K.C. 2463. Mocanu V. 2695. Moeng C.-H. 2406, 2455. Rauch Mohamed Y.A. 1993. Mohan G. 2793. Mohan R. 1534. Mohr M. 2671. Mojtahid M. 1489. Mokhov I.I. 2494. Moline G.R. 2209. Moln´ar A. 2602. Monaco A. 1629. Montagna P. 1530. Monteiro A. 2645. Monti P. 2343. Moore G.W.K. 2347. Moore J.C. 1806. Moore T.S. 2790. Moran C.J. 1603. Morawska L. 2578. Moreau M. 2775. Moreira R.M. 2095. Morello M. 1912, 2082. Morena F. 2090. Moreno Rodriguez M.J. 1753. Moreno T. 2616. Morgan K.S. 2758. Morgan M.L. 2758. Morgenstern V. 2583. Morin E. 1891, 2477. Moro M. 2761. Morrison H. 2457. Moscatelli M.C. 1802. Motavalli P.P. 1800. Motyka J. 2221. Motz L.H. 2172, 2173. Mouchel J.M. 2125. Mourad M. 2091. Moureaux C. 2361. Mouser P.J. 2204. Moussiopoulos N. 2653. Moustakas N.K. 1696. Mpounza M. 2331. Mubarak F. 2663. Mueller S.E. 2108. Mugni H. 2119. Muhammetoglu A. 2109. Muhammetoglu H. 2109. Mukherjee S. 2794. Mullayarov V.A. 2317. Mullen S.L. 2474. M¨uller J. 2355. Muller J.-P. 2295. M¨uller N. 2223. M¨uller-Wodarg I.C.F. 2336. Multer W.L. 1714. Mulvaney R.L. 1743. Mungai N.W. 1800. Mu˜noz-Carpena R. 2208. Munyikwa K. 1510. Murakami M. 2085, 2087, 2136. Murase H. 1715. Murphy E.M. 1557. Murphy S.M. 2608. Murray A.T. 2706. Murray J.W. 1539. Murray K.S. 1841. Murthy D.S.N. 1451. Murtugudde R. 2377. Mutvei H. 2294. Muys B. 1923. Mwenelupembe J. 1666. Nakashima S. 2123. Namdeo A. 2623. Nanba K. 2227. Nandagiri L. 1917. Nandalal K.D.W. 2271. Narcisi B. 1473. Nash D. 2083. Natale L. 1591. Nathan T.R. 2422. Naud C.M. 2295. Naumburg E. 2260. Navarro B.C. 2448. Navas A. 1751. Naveau P. 1598. Neal B.R. 2139. Neelin J.D. 2386. Negley T.L. 2151. Neil H. 1543. Nelson B.R. 1902. Nelson B.W. 1617. Nelson K.A. 1800. Neofytou P. 2654. Nestmann F. 1973. Neto J.B. 1676. Neuber R. 2535. Neukom H.P. 2671. Neumann K. 2133. Neves W.A. 1569. Ng N.L. 2608. Ngomanda A. 1487. Ni W. 1461. Niachou K. 2341. Nic Lughadha E. 2769. Nickovic S. 2624. Nicoud G. 1586. Niedoroda A.Wm. 1528. Nielsen A.B. 1549. Niemi J.V. 2591. Nieminen M.A. 1801. Nienow P.W. 2242. Nieuwenhuijsen M.J. 2667. Niftah S. 1635. Nigam R. 1535. Niino H. 2425. Nikolaidis N.P. 2202. Nilsson H. 2309. Nilsson K.A. 2257. Nimmo M. 2597. Nimptsch J. 2112. Ning L. 1710. Ning Y. 1563. Ning Z. 2642. Nishimura K. 1592. Nisimura S. 2425. Niska H. 2630. Nislow K.H. 2005. Nittrouer C.A. 1618. Niu F. 1461. Nodder S. 1670. Nodder S.D. 1543. Nohno M. 2635. Noilhan J. 2475. Nolan D.S. 2287. Nombela M.A. 1429. Norra S. 2116. Northcross A. 2598. Norton L.D. 1856. Nosetto M.D. 2253. Notaro M. 2491. Notz D. 1585. Nowack B. 1688. Nowak W. 2182. Nu˜nez H. 1678. Nurminen L. 1641. Nzeukou A. 2328. Nagpal V. 1833. Nagy Zs. 2263. Nahm W.-H. 1551. Naik P.K. 1942. Naik S.S. 1534. Nair K.M. 1547. Nakahara H. 2145. Nakajima F. 2085, 2089. Nakamura R. 2352. Nakanowatari T. 2387. Obbard J.P. 2665. O’Brien J.J. 2325. O’Connor H.M. 1965. O’Connor K.M. 1979. Oda M. 2517. Odhiambo L.O. 1916. Oerlemans J. 2729. Ogawa K. 1920. Ogawa T. 2324. Ogermann P. 2092. O’Grady A. 2170. Oguchi T. 1438. Ogura Y. 2425. Oh S.-W. 1768. Ohira S.-I. 2517. Ohyama K. 1715. Oikonomou E. 2402. Oikonomou K. 2590. Okabayashi K. 2648. Okai M. 1677. Okamoto R.A. 2627. O’Kelly M.E. 2706. Okochi H. 1904. Oktas S. 2109. Okubo Y. 2516. Okuda S. 2146. Olesen K.W. 2004. Oliver R. 1742. Olivier F. 2686. Olivieri K. 2080. Olivos-Ortiz M. 2637. Olley J.M. 2014. Olmo F.J. 2596. Olofsson M. 1840. Olsen L.M. 2764. Omar A.H. 2571. Omstedt G. 2615. Onofri A. 1828. Onoma F. 2324. Onton D.J. 2473. Or D. 1723. Orang M. 1918. Orange D. 1621. Orescanin V. 1679. Ortiz C.A. 1915. Oruc M. 2722. Orvis K.H. 1546. Osborne B.J. 2753. Osborne P.D. 1605. Osrodka L. 2530. Ossanli I. 2653. Ostfeld A. 2058. Otsuka Y. 2324. Otto A. 1776. Ou S.C. 2301. Outridge P.M. 1651. Owen A.G. 1739. Owens I. 1596. Oyarzun R. 1493. ¨ Ozden S. 2068. ¨ Ozel S. 1465. ¨ Ozger M. 1994. ¨ Ozhan G. 2068. Ozkeresteci I. 2267. Oztekin B. 2798. Padhy P.K. 2259. Pagano T. 1926. Pagliardi M. 1591. Pai C.-W. 1758. Paklar G.B. 2368. Palinkas C.M. 1618. Palm M. 2745. Palmer S.M. 2104. Palosuo T. 1780, 1781. Pan C. 1998. Pancras P.J. 2640. Pandey G. 1827. Pandey J.S. 2643. Pandey Y. 2237. Panickera S. 2267. Panigrahy B.K. 2129. Panizzo A. 2042. Pankow J.F. 2569. Pannacci E. 1828. Papanastassiou D. 1442. Papastefanou C. 1911. Papayannis A. 2586. Paphitis D. 1610. Pappenberger F. 1978. Parajka J. 1983. Parinet B. 2128. Park H.-D. 1459. Park R.J. 2609. Park S.-C. 1545. Park S.-K. 1821. Parkash B. 1699. Parker E.J. 1513. Parodi A. 1989. 5 Parr J. 1570. Parsons B. 2757. Parsons J.R. 1734. Paruelo J.M. 2253. Paterne M. 1532. Pathak H. 2546. Patnaik S.K. 1837. Patra P.K. 2404. Patton E.G. 2406. Pattyn G.J. 2758. Pauc H. 1628. Paul C.J. 2228. Paul D. 1827. Paul S. 2436. Pavlakis P. 1631. Pavlov A.V. 2314. Pavlova N.M. 2314. Pavlovˇciˇc Preˇseren P. 2687. Payette S. 2500. Peart M.R. 2013. Peckham S.E. 2670. Pedersen C.A. 2298. Pederson J.L. 1476. Pegion K. 2375. Pegram G. 1890. Pegram G.G.S. 1901. Pei T. 1882, 1999, 2167, 2367. Pelkmans L. 2652. Pellegrino P. 2470. Pelletier J.D. 1664. Pelliccioni A. 2660. Peltoniemi M. 1780. Peng D. 1946. Peng L. 1760. Pennanen J. 2307. Peplinski W.J. 2156. Perez-Pedini C. 1970. Pernes M. 1778. Perraud V. 2521. Perrin A. 2526. Perrin D. 2361. Persson J. 2048. Persson P. 1824. Peter T. 2452. Peters M. 2768. Petersen S.O. 1843. Peterson T.C. 2511. Petit F. 2021. Petit J.R. 1473. Petoukhov V. 2486. Petts G.E. 1414. Petty J.D. 2113. Peuch V.-H. 2557. Pezzi F. 1703. Pfeifer N. 2689. Pfeiffer E.-M. 1773. Pfeiffer M. 1495. Pflieger M. 2521. Pflugmacher S. 2112. Phillips I.R. 1674. Pickering K.E. 2519. Piearce T.G. 1797. Pierce C. 1896. Pierson J. 1435. Pietrzak S. 2550. Pilidis G.A. 2613. Pilkey O.H. 1431. Pil´o L.B. 1569. Pilon P. 1937. Pimley E.R. 2684. Pincus R. 2442. Pinto J.O. 2457. Pinty B. 2302. Pires M. 2631. Pirjola L. 2633. Pirog O.M. 2315. Pirrone N. 2540. Plant R. 1791. Plant W.J. 2787. Plante A.F. 1778. Plaza C. 1767. Plessow K. 2599. Plougonven R. 2421. Po N.C. 1749. Poch R.M. 2018. Poellot M.R. 2437. Poesen J. 1861, 1865, 1870. Poff N.L. 1960. Polekh N.M. 2315. Polissar P.J. 1522. Polo A. 1767. Ponater M. 2536. Ponce-Mendoza A. 1709. Ponel P. 1505. Pons-Branchu E. 1646. Pope G.A. 2220. Popova V.V. 2495. Porter J.C. 1434. Pospisil J. 2341. Potemra J. 2377. Poulos S.E. 1631, 1642. Pourchet M. 1581. Prabhakara C. 1887. Pradel D. 1450. Prasad S. 1427. Prasher S.O. 1712. Prebble M. 1526. Preciso E. 2020. Preda M. 2097. Pressley S. 2545. Pringle K.J. 2589. Prodanovi´c D. 1957. Prosser I.P. 2014. Proust J.-N. 1670. Provansal M. 2016. Pryor S.C. 1913. Pu L. 1962. Puget P. 1763. Puranik P.V. 2423. P¨usp¨oki Z. 1457. Putaud J.-P. 2575, 2588. Puzzarini C. 2526. Pyrce R.S. 1611. Qi S.Z. 1469. Qiang Z. 2394. Qin D. 1515. Qin F. 1876. Qin J. 1516. Qin Y. 1853. Qin Y.-C. 1533. Qu M. 1877. Quadrelli R. 2283. Qudah E.A. 1698. Qu´elo D. 2638. Querol X. 2616. Quesada L´opez J.M. 1470. Quideau S.A. 1768. Quilb´e R. 2076. Quitmyer I.R. 1494. Raad G. 1450. Raasch S. 2286. Rabatel A. 1598. Rabemanana V. 2224. Rabenhorst M.C. 1750. Rabuffetti D. 1982. Raccasi G. 1624. Racette P.E. 2683. Radoli´c V. 2195. Raes F. 2588. Rahbar N. 2155. R¨ahle W. 1480. Rahman Md.A. 2182. Rajasekaram V. 2271. Ramachandran V. 2303. Ramaprasad J. 2620. Ramaswamy V. 2555. Ramrez Chasco F. 2719. Ramirez Jr. P. 2045. Ramli N.A. 2610. Ramsay J.A. 1832. Randall D. 2408. Rantam¨aki M. 2630. Rantitsch G. 2127. Rao P.S.C. 1747. Rao W. 1520. Rasmussen P.F. 1972. Rasmussen R. 2438. Ratovskii K.G. 2316. Raturi S. 1731. Rau J.-Y. 2723. Rauch W. 2070. Rautiainen Rautiainen M. 2776. Ravaioli M. 1619. Ravi Shankar M.N. 2793. Ravindran S. 2395. Ray J. 2598. Raymahashay B.C. 2129. Read A.M. 2014. Reaves R.P. 2278. Reber C.A. 2400. Recous S. 1742. Redder A. 1953. Reddy M.S. 1837. Redmond R.L. 2773. Reed B. 2774. Reed C.W. 1528. Reeves C.E. 2534. Reguzzoni M. 2696. Rehbinder G. 2154. Reichardt J. 2441. Reichert J.M. 1856. Reichstein M. 2501, 2515. Reimann C. 1681. Reimer K.J. 1819. Reinosdotter K. 1906. Reinoso R. 1847. Reiss M.L.L. 2703. Rember R. 1614. Reneau Jr. R.B. 1720. Renfrew I.A. 2347. Renker C. 1813. Renno N.O. 2607. Renssen H. 1483. Renwick W.H. 1858. Reuss M. 2268. Reutebuch S.E. 2767. Revel J.C. 1727. Reviejo M.M. 2542. Revil A. 2190. Reyes V. 1742. Ribes E. 2016. Riccobono F. 2199. Richard G.A. 1418, 1423. Richman J.G. 2727. Richman L. 2117. Rico-Ramirez M.A. 2288. Ridente D. 1623. Ridley B.A. 2519. Ridley J.K. 2488. Ridolfi L. 1971. Riedel M.S. 2246. Rieger M. 2312. Riethm¨uller A. 2102. Rigby J.R. 2115. Riihimaki C.A. 1577. Riis T. 1928. Riitters K.H. 2075. Riordan A.J. 2334. Risk M.J. 1472. Ristovski Z.D. 2578. Rittenour T.M. 1476, 1477. Ritter A. 2208. Rius J. 2662. Rivera A. 1580, 1597. Rivera L. 1608. Rivers M.L. 2156. Rivington M. 2291. Rizzo D.M. 2204. Robbins G.L. 1894. Roberts D.L. 2513. Roberts M.S. 1792. Roberts S. 2622. Robertshaw P. 1558. Robertson K. 1832. Robinson B.A. 2166. Robinson D. 2621. Robinson R.S. 1538. Rocher V. 2636. Roddaz M. 1662. Rodeghiero M. 1816. Rodgers P. 1881. Rodhe H. 1909. Rodier X. 2738. Rodolfo K.S. 1638. AUTHOR INDEX Rodrigues dos Santos D. 2704. Rodrigues M.L. 1449. Rodrigues M.L.K. 2130. Rodrigues T. 1507. Rodriguez F. 2090. Rodrguez S. 2575. Rodwell M.J. 2466. Rogers D.T. 1841. Rogerson M. 1539. Rogerson P.A. 2714. Rohling E.J. 1539. Rohrer F. 2537. R¨oling W.F.M. 2204. Romashkina K.I. 2553. Romero R. 2325. Rommens T. 1870. Rosa B. 2289. Rosas A. 1789. Rose E.P.F. 2736. Rose J.B. 2203. Rosenbloom N.A. 1779. R¨osler W. 1852. Rosman K.J.R. 2676. Rossi G. 2273. Rossow W.B. 2443. Rothe R. 1954. Rouanet J.L. 1789. Rousseau D.-D. 1525. Rousseau L. 1512. Roussiez V. 1629. Rovira A. 2023. Roy P.D. 1660. R´ozsa Sz. 2700. Ruan H. 1808, 1810. Ruh R. 1812. Ruhl K.E. 1932. Ruiz-Cort´es E. 1847. Rukieh M. 1443. Rull V. 1522. Rundgren M. 1490. Rupa Kumar K. 2509. Ruse M.E. 2013. Rushworth G. 1568. Russell P.B. 2533. Russo S. 1405. Ryder D.S. 2275. Sacchi M. 1632. Sader S. 2762. Sader S.A. 2772. Saenko O.A. 2372. Saf B. 1997. Saito Y. 1564. Sakamoto K. 2595. Sala M. 2017. Salda˜na M.D.A. 1833. Saleh F. 2047. Salinger M.J. 1579. Salomons S. 2058. Saluta M. 1720. Salve R. 2163. Salvia-Castellv M. 2056. Samba G. 2331. Samburova V. 2587. Samie F. 2544. Sampson C.R. 2478. S´anchez-Andreu J. 1775. Sanchez-Bayo F. 2065. S´anchez-Camazano M. 2229. Sanchez-De Leon Y. 1810. S´anchez-Hern´andez J.C. 1493. S´anchez-Martn M.J. 2229. Sandberg M. 2337. Sanderson E.G. 2566. Sanfeliu T. 2662. Sanfilippo F. 1919. Sano M. 1501. Sans´o F. 2696. Santamouris M. 2341. Santiago J.L. 2340. Sanz D.B. 1934. Saphatov A.S. 2611. Sapozhnikova Y. 1672. Saraga D. 2634. Saraswat R. 1535. Sari A. 1504. Sarma A.K. 2039. Sarnthein M. 1544. Sarwar G. 2551. Sas-Nowosielska A. 1818. Sasaki K. 2595. Sassman S.A. 1732, 1825. Satheesan K. 2297. Sato S. 1766. Sattler K. 2479. Sau J. 1919. Saucedo H. 1724. Sauerwein M. 2132. Saul A.J. 1956. Saunders S.M. 2541. Sauter M. 1463. Sauvageot H. 2328. Savenije H.H.G. 1993, 2164. Savigny C.V. 2745. Sawamura S. 1755. Sawford B.L. 2338. Sawidis T. 2101. S¨awstr¨om C. 1795. Scafetta N. 2754. Scaife A.A. 2510. Scarborough J. 2547. Scarponi L. 2084. Schaber K. 1519. Schaefer M. 1843. Sch¨afer K. 2657. Schanze J. 2072. Sch¨ar C. 2489. Schatzmann M. 2339. Scheffler C. 1984. Scheiner J.D. 1727. Schemm J.-K. 2463. Schiavon M. 1831. Schichtel B.A. 2672. Schijven J.F. 2179. Schindler H.-J. 1589. Schink B. 1649, 1650. Schlather M. 2168. Schlatter A. 2697. Schlenk D. 1672. Schlichting A. 2049. Schlimme I. 2441. Schlunegger F. 1425. Schmid B. 2533. Schmidt J. 1440. Schmidt J.C. 1419. Schmitz G.H. 1986. Schmitz R. 2670. Schnabel S. 2015. Schneider D. 2697. Schneider K. 1813. Schneider L.E. 1936. Schneider R.L. 2151. Schnell S. 1405. Schoellhamer D.H. 1604. Sch¨one B.R. 1495, 2294. Schouten S. 1542. Schrama E.J.O. 2694. Schroeder T.A. 2428. Schr¨oter M. 2286. Schulin R. 1688. Schultz D.M. 2306. Schultz K.E. 1838. Schultz M. 2339. Schulz R. 2119. Schumann G. 2241. Schuster S.S. 2460. Sch¨utze M. 2071. Schwab A.P. 1842. Schwartz D. 1474. Schwarzbauer J. 2210. Schweizer J. 1589. Sciare J. 2590. Scinocca J.F. 2397. Scipal K. 1984. Scott D.B. 1472. Scotton P. 1590. Screpanti C. 1844, 2093. Searcy S.W. 1689. Seco Meneses A. 2719. Sedenkova H. 2342. Seed A. 1893, 1896, 1962. ˇ Sega K. 2659. Seidov D. 2499. Sekhar M. 2161. Selinus O. 1684. Sempf M. 2419. S¸en Z. 1994. Senesi N. 1767. Seneviratne S.I. 2792. Sergienko T. 2309. Serra T. 2043. Serreau C. 2076. Seuntjens P. 2121. S´evenier G. 1777. Severijns C.A. 2412. Shackleton N.J. 1540. Shah B.A. 2237. Shalamyanskii A.M. 2553. Shamseldin A.Y. 1979. Shan X.-Q. 1835. Shang Y. 1459. Shangguan Z. 1685, 1998. Shao X. 1515. Shao Y. 2354. Shapiro A. 2459. Shaporenko S.I. 2041. Shareatmadari H. 1834. Sharif Hossain Khan Md. 1699. Sharma M. 2612. Sharma M.K. 2107. Sharp M.J. 2242. Shaviv A. 1692. Shay L.K. 2471. Sheahan T. 2155. Shear H. 2040. Sheldon F. 2126. Shelley J.M.G. 1488. Shen J. 1518. Sherif M.M. 2003. Sherwood O.A. 1472. Shi H. 1710. Shi X. 1657. Shi Z. 1787. Shiau J.T. 2038. Shields Jr. F.D. 2115. Shih C.-F. 2326. Shimada S. 1729. Shimizu Y. 2562. Shindikar M. 1547. Shinoda T. 2385. Shivaramaiah H.M. 2065. Shmulevich I. 1692. Shoutilin S.V. 2382. Shrestha R.R. 1973. Shtober-Zisu N. 2270. Shu D. 1944. Shukla U.K. 1637. Shulman M.L. 2559. Shupe M.D. 2457. Sidorchuk A. 1868. Sieber A. 1933. Siegrist R.L. 2160. Siev¨anen R. 1780. Sifakis N.I. 2707. Sigman D.M. 1538. Sigrist C. 1589. Sihabut T. 2598. Sijing W. 1458. Silenzi S. 1530. Silva C.J. 2256. Silva Le´on G. 1959. Silveira F.H. 2313. Silvera N. 1863. Sim R. 1526. Simon E. 2359. Simpson A.J. 2520. Simpson G. 1425. 6 Simpson J.K. 1676. Simpson M.J. 1776. Sims G.K. 1743. Sinclair S. 1890, 1901. Singh A. 1594. Singh D.K. 1790. Singh J. 1790. Singh P. 1947. Singh R.D. 1947. Singh V.P. 2003, 2035. Singh V.S. 2186. Singhal D.C. 2107. Sinha R. 1660. Sinninghe Damst´e J.S. 1542. Sioutas C. 2603. Sir´en T. 1801. Siringan F.P. 1638. Sirocko F. 1519. ˇ sovi´c A. 2659. Siˇ Sitaula B. 1728. Sivakumar Babu G.L. 1451. Sivapalan M. 1603. Skote M. 2337. Skowronek J. 2530. Skyllberg U. 1824. Slaymaker O. 1403. Slingerland S. 2061. Sluter C.R. 2742. Small R.J. 2383. Smart P.L. 2225. ˇ Smit G. 2195. Smith B.J. 1676. Smith C.G.A. 2336. Smith J.A. 1902. Smith J.R. 2305. Smith K.B. 2783. Smith P.M. 1450. Smith S. 1829, 2604. Smith S.R. 2325. Smith S.V. 1858. Smout I.K. 2261, 2262. Smykatz-Kloss W. 1660. Snyder C. 2421, 2461. Snyder R.L. 1918. Sobrino J.A. 2777. Soden B.J. 2555. Soler M. 2043. Solhi M. 1834. Soller J. 2080. Solomon D. 1766. Somers K. 2117. Sommar J. 1840. Song K. 1726. Song L.-J. 2691. Sorbjan Z. 2348. Sorokin V.M. 2308. Sorooshian S. 2477. Sorriso-Valvo M. 1468. Sorteberg A. 2506. Soto J. 1751. Soulakellis N.A. 2707. Soulsby C. 1881. Southwell M. 1417. Sova J. 1819. Spakman W. 2695. Sparks E.J. 1817. Spencer J.L. 1702. Spencer R.J. 1514. Spindler G. 2599. Spiridonov V. 2539. Spiteri C. 1852. Spitz Y.H. 2727. Spooner M.I. 1532. Sportisse B. 2638. Spracklen D.V. 2589. Sprovieri F. 2540. Sridhar M.K.C. 2044. Srinivasan K. 1594. St-Hilaire A. 2008. Stackelberg P.E. 2113. Stahr K. 1854. Stammes P. 2746, 2748. Stankiewicz J. 1665. Stapleton L.M. 1795. Starr G.C. 1857. Stauffer F. 2153. Stearns L.A. 1584. Steele B.M. 2724. Steenburgh W.J. 2473. Stefani M. 1667. Stein A.F. 2552. Steiner F. 2267. Steiner K. 1954. Stenstrom M.K. 2011. Stephenson J. 2080. Sterk G. 1612. Sterl A. 2392. Stern G.A. 1651. Stern R. 2617. Stevens B. 2439, 2455. Stevenson J. 1552. Stewart I.T. 1930. Stewart J.P. 1450. Stewart T.L. 2037. Stieglitz M. 1900. Stille P. 1737. Stokes S. 1436. Stone D.A. 2505, 2508. Stopar B. 2687. Stouffer R.J. 2499. Stow J.P. 1819. Stramondo S. 2761. Street R.L. 2405. Strock T.J. 1825. Strokina L.A. 2496. Strom A. 1496. Str¨om L. 1739. Stromberg J.C. 1949, 1961. Str¨omqvist J. 2094. St¨uben D. 2116. Studinger M. 2243. Stumpf G.J. 2431. Sturges W.T. 2534. Sturrock G.A. 2534. Su B. 1940. Su C. 2228. Su H. 2386. Su J. 2192. Su Y. 1787. Suddhiprakarn A. 1748. Sugawara Y. 1807. Sugden D.E. 2239. Sugimoto D. 1904. Sugita S. 1549. Sugiyama M. 2147. Sullivan P.P. 2406, 2455. Sum C.L. 2629. Sumners D.N. 1663. Sumpter J.P. 2079. Sun D. 2485. Sun G. 1874. Sun J. 1517, 2788. Sun Y. 2600. Sung K. 1839. Suo A. 2001. Suren A.M. 1928, 1929. Surge D. 1497. Suˇselj K. 1974. Suzuki R. 2346. Suzuki T. 2799. Svane M. 2582. Sweda T. 1501. Sweeck L. 1830, 2677. Syvitski J. 1622. Syvitski J.P.M. 1617. Szab´o S. 1457. Szarek-Gwiazda E. 1671. Szentes G. 2602. Szoplik T. 2289. Szyndel M.D.E. 2465. Ta W. 2549. Tabbagh A. 1708. Taboada A. 1455. Tait S.J. 2088. Takagi T. 1438. Takahashi M. 2635. Takamatsu T. 1903. Takanashi S. 2362. Takano Y. 2301. Takeuchi M. 2227. Takle E.S. 1996. AUTHOR INDEX Talbot M.R. 1464. Tamagawa I. 2363. Tamea S. 1971. Tamoh K. 2125. Tan B. 2771. Tan S.-K. 2030. Tanaka H. 2362. Tanaka H.L. 2415, 2416. Tang C. 1738. Tang J. 2357. Tangang F.T. 2373. Taniguchi M. 2516. Tanimoto T. 1608. Tanimoto Y. 2378. Tanner C.C. 2277. Tanner R.L. 2641. Tao S. 2675. Taramasso A.C. 1989. Tarasov G.A. 1555. Tarchitzky J. 1770. Tartaglione N. 1886. Tate N.J. 1521. Tato K. 1859. Tattari S. 1730. Tayfur G. 2035. Taylor A.R. 1796. Taylor D. 1558. Tazaki K. 2146. Te Kloeze A.-M. 1734. Tebaldi C. 2512. Tedesco M. 2726. Teichert B.M.A. 1654. Teixeira E.C. 2631, 2661. Teixeira N.N. 2688. Ten Brink H. 2561. Teo T.-A. 2723. Terranova O. 1860. Terray P. 2376, 2391. Teruggi L.B. 2020. Tervahattu H. 2591. Tesauro M. 2699. Tesson M. 1627. Tetzlaff D. 1881. Thaler R. 1736. Thamban M. 1534. Theobald S. 1973. Th´epaut J.N. 2465. Thibodeaux L.J. 2081. Thielen J. 1977. Thierfelder C. 1854. Thinh N.T.H. 2594. Thinon M. 1474. Thomas C.S. 2785. Thomas M. 1954. Thompson M.L. 1826. Thoms M.C. 1417. Thordsen J.J. 2197. Thornton P.E. 1779. Thun T. 1471. Thurai M. 2681. Thurston J. 2739. Tian G. 1811, 1944. Tian L. 2683. Tibljaˇs D. 2127. Tidblad J. 2544. Tidwell V.C. 2256. Tie X. 2568. Tiemeyer B. 2049. Tikku A.A. 2243. Tilstra L.G. 2746, 2748. Timms B.V. 1401. Titov K. 2190. Titus B.D. 1781. Tiwari S. 2144. Toda K. 2517. Toda Y. 2031. Todini E. 1975, 1976, 2456. Tokay A. 1884. Tokinaga H. 2378. Tolman H.L. 2472, 2476. Tolomei C. 2761. Tomlinson M.S. 1658. Tomlinson R.W. 1762. Tommaselli A.M.G. 2703. Zavala Tompkins A.M. 2466. Tong J. 2394. Tong X. 2733. Topal T. 2798. Torbert H.A. 1689. Torres M.E. 1654. Touchan R. 1486. Toyota T. 2593. Trakoonyingcharoen P. 1748. Trang P.T.K. 2205. Trapp R.J. 2431. Treble P.C. 1488. Trefry C.M. 1898. Trefry J. 1614. Tremblay L.B. 1900. Trentesaux A. 1502. Trevisani S. 2219. Trifonov V.G. 1443. ˇ Triglav Cekada M. 2701. Trigo I.F. 1449. Trigo R.M. 1449. Trincardi F. 1616, 1623. Tripathi S.N. 2558. Troch P.A. 2175. Troelstra S.R. 1794. Trofymow J.A. 1781. Troncone A. 1462. Trunfio G.A. 2540. Trung T.N. 2796. Tsai M.-Y. 2620. Tsang C.-F. 2177. Tsegaye T.D. 1707. Tuhkanen T. 2098. Tuikka A. 2140. Tulema B. 1728. Tuller M. 1723. Tuncel G. 2584. Tuomi T.J. 2307. Turalioglu F.S. 1883. Turk M. 2470. Turner B.L. 1741. Tuˇzinsk´y L. 1718. Twohy C.H. 2437, 2448. Tyler S.W. 1915. Tzimopoulos C. 1719. Ubbiali C. 1783. ´ Ubeda X. 1706. Uemura T. 2516. Ugulino Ara´ujo M.C. 2111. Uhlenbrook S. 1933. Uijlenhoet R. 2175. Ul´en B. 2055. Uliana M.M. 2233. Urban B. 1492. Urban D.L. 2770. Urynowicz M.A. 2160. Vaca-Pauln R. 1757. Vadeboncoeur Y. 2067. Vaillancourt P.A. 2450. V¨ais¨anen R.K. 1792. Valdes D. 1467. Valdes J.B. 1943. Valente R.J. 2641. Valentin C. 1861, 1863, 1869. Vallis G.K. 2510. Van Ast J.A. 2061. van Boxel J.H. 1612. Van Breukelen B.M. 2204. van de Giesen N.C. 1985. van den Broeke M.S. 2306. van den Heuvel C. 2737. van den Hurk B. 2489. van den Hurk B.J.J.M. 1993. van der Hoeven A.G.A. 2695. Van Der Putten W.H. 1794. Vose R.S. 2511. Vrabec M. 2687. Vrekoussis M. 2601. Vrugt J.A. 2166. Vuille M. 1908. Vukovi´c B. 2195. Vukovich F.M. 2547. Vullioud P. 1812. Vullo D.L. 2106. Vuorinen I. 1652. Van Der Veen C.J. 1584. van Diedenhoven B. 2747. Van Dingenen R. 2575, 2588. Van Espen P. 2581. Van Gaans P.F.M. 1659. Van Geen A. 2206. Van Gorsel E. 2529. van Griensven A. 2121. Van Helvoort P.-J. 1659. van Herwijnen A. 1593. Van Heukelem L. 2785. Van Maren D.S. 1430. Van Roon A. 1734. van Soest G. 2748. Vandemark D. 2788. Vander Borght P. 2056. Vander Zanden M.J. 2067. Vandewater C.J. 1453. VanLoon G. 1832. Vanmarcke H. 2677. Vanrolleghem P.A. 2121. Vanwalleghem T. 1865. Vargas G. 1644. Vargas J. 1948. Vargin P.N. 2420. Varotsos C. 2522. Varshney C.K. 2259. Vassilakos Ch. 2634. Vauclin M. 1716. Veeken A.H.M. 1771. Vegelin K. 2049. Vehkam¨aki H. 2591. Velasco E. 2545. Velicogna I. 1574. Vella C. 1624. Venegas L.E. 2655, 2658. Venetsanos A.G. 2654. Venuti G. 2696. Verdon D.C. 2390. Vereecken H. 2218. Verhoef W. 2777. Vericat D. 2018, 2022. Verry E.S. 2246. Verstraeten G. 1870. Verstraeten W.W. 1923. Verworn H.-R. 1953. Veselovsky A.V. 2759. Vesselinov V.V. 2166. Vet R. 2548. Vianello M. 2084. Vicari A. 1844, 2093. Vieira A.A.H. 2138. Viers J. 1662. Viet P.H. 2205. Vieux B.E. 1925. Viklander M. 1906. Vila-Concejo A. 1429. Villard P.V. 1639. Vilotte J.P. 1452. Vincenzi S. 1667. Vinzelberg G. 2210. Violante C. 1668. Violette S. 2224. Viovy N. 2515. Virginia R.A. 1803. Virtasalo J.J. 1652. Visacro S. 2313. Vischetti C. 2084. Visscher H. 1565. Viswanathan K.S. 2395. Viterbo P. 2792. ´ 2411. Vi´udez A. Vogel R.M. 1970. Vogt E. 2669. Volante A. 1849. V¨olker C. 1498. Von Arnold K. 1411. von Cossart G. 2435. Von Randow C. 2360. Voroney R.P. 1693. V¨or¨osmarty C. 2100. Wade T.G. 2075. Wafer C. 2151. Wagner F. 1565. Wagner W. 1984. Wagnon K. 1673. Wahl N.A. 1717. Wahr J. 1574. Wakeham S.G. 1542. Waldron S. 1881. Waliser D.E. 2728. Walker H.J. 2800. Walker K.J. 1497. Walker N.D. 2433. Wall D.H. 1803. Wallace J.M. 2283, 2427. Wallace T.R. 2737. Wallcraft A.J. 2388. Walski T. 2254. Walter L.M. 2165. Wan G. 1643. Wandishin M.S. 2474. Wang A. 1999. Wang B. 2379, 2504. Wang D. 2485, 2778. Wang F. 1788, 1880. Wang G. 1661, 1880, 2564. Wang H. 2369, 2370. Wang J. 2443, 2482. Wang L.-P. 2449. Wang M.-K. 1785. Wang M.K. 1749. Wang S. 1814, 1874. Wang T. 2585, 2628. Wang X. 1707. Wang X.S. 1853. Wang Y. 1788, 1914, 1924, 2383, 2600. Wang Z. 1880. Wang Z.-Y. 1661. Wania F. 2629. Ware R. 2752. Warneck P. 2524. Warneke T. 2532, 2745. Warren G. 1851. Warren S.G. 2299. Warrick A.W. 2174. Washington-Allen R.A. 2764. Watkins B.M. 2158. Watkins Jr. D.W. 1898, 1899. Watson A.I. 2305. Weaver P.P.E. 1539. Webb P.J. 2542. Wegehenkel M. 1952. Wei C. 2549. Wei J. 1878. Wei W.B. 1460. Wei Z. 2786. Weiler K. 2680. Weingartner R. 2250. Weisshaidinger R. 2092. Weitkamp E.A. 2640. Wellington B.I. 2104. Wen G. 1693. Wen J.L. 1907. Wen X. 2192. Wendland F. 2122. Weng H.-X. 1533. Weng J.-K. 1533. Weng Q. 2720. Werner M. 1908. Weslien P. 1411. West B.J. 2754. West J.L. 2052. 7 West O.R. 2209. Westerberg U. 2337. Wettlaufer J.S. 1585. Wheatcroft R.A. 1618. Wheater H.S. 2169. White D.C. 1690. White M.D. 2251. White W.H. 2579. Whitford M. 2292. Whitlock C. 1485. Whitman W.B. 1805. Wicherek S. 2076. Wickham J.D. 2075. Widianarko B. 1756, 2149. Wiegand F. 2661. Wiesmann U. 2265. Wikle C.K. 2468. Wilcke W. 1823. Wilcock P.R. 2032. Wildman L.A.S. 1421. Wilke B.-M. 1822. Wilkin R.T. 2228. Wilkinson M.T. 1697. Wilkinson S.N. 2014. Williams C.R. 2682. Williams J.R. 2247. Williams L.E. 2356. Williams M. 2497. Wilson C.A. 1560. Wilson D.B. 2514. Wilson J.W. 2467. Wilson M.A. 1701. Wilson M.L. 2710. Winckler G. 1541. Winger P.V. 2096. Winne J.C. 2773. Winther J.-G. 2298. Winton M. 2300. Wirsing G. 2234. Wittenberg L. 2026. Wolff E. 2721. Wolff K.R. 1884. W¨ollecke B. 1717. Wolters V. 1796. Won J.-G. 2571. Woo M.-K. 1705. Woodroffe C.D. 1531. Woodward S. 2513. Worby A.P. 2299. Worrall F. 2105. Worster M.G. 1585. Wotherspoon S.J. 2686. Wrazien D.R. 1416. Wright S.A. 1604. Wright T.J. 2757. Wright W.C. 1916. Wrzesinsky T. 1910. Wu B. 1661. Wu C.-M. 2187. Wu C.L. 1969. Wu D. 2369, 2568. Wu J. 1694, 2778. Wu L. 2504. Wu S. 1875. Wu S.-P. 2675. Wu Y. 1738, 1862, 2192. Wu Z.Y. 2254. Wuchter C. 1542. Wuertz D. 2511. Wunderlin D.A. 2112. Wurl O. 2665. Wurman J. 2426. Xavier P.K. 2393. Xia J. 2002. Xia X.A. 2332. Xiang W. 1759. Xiao B. 1940. Xiao D. 1878. Xiao H.L. 1469. Xiao X. 2780. Xie G. 2784. Xie S.-P. 2378, 2383. Xie X. 2116. Xie Y. 1876. Xiong L. 1946. Xiong W. 1924. Xu H. 2383. Xu J. 1738, 1945, 2346. Xu S. 1643. Xu T.-H. 2691. Xu W. 2321, 2366. Xu X. 2797. Xue D. 1761. Xue L. 1759, 1877. Xue M. 2405. Xue Y.-Q. 2279. Yadav R.S. 2462. Yagi K. 1410, 1799. Yakir D. 1409. Yamada Y. 2123. Yamaguchi Y. 1920. Yamamoto Y. 2145. Yamano M. 1511. Yamartino R.J. 2617. Yamatani Y. 1677. Yan S. 1814. Yan X. 1410. Yan Y. 1517. Yang D.-Y. 1551. Yang H. 1999, 2167. Yang J. 1459. Yang K.-L. 1758. Yang L. 1518. Yang M. 2141, 2692. Yang S.-Q. 2030, 2033. Yang X. 1518, 2485. Yang Y. 2354, 2482. Yang Y.-X. 2691. Yang Z. 1459. Yao H. 1761. Yaschenko A.K. 2308. Yasunari T. 2327. Yates E. 1990. Yau M.K. 2450. Yazbeck C. 2232. Ye S.-J. 2279. Yeh T.-C.J. 2187. Yeh T.C.J. 2226. Yepez E.A. 1922. Yi P.Z. 1907. Yiˇgit S. 2135. Yijin W. 2394. Yin D. 2624. Yin J.H. 2503. Yli-Halla M. 1730. Yli-Tuomi T. 2633. Yoder R.E. 1916. Yokoi S. 1715. Yokoyama S. 1426. Yoo C. 1943. Yoo J.-M. 1887. Yoo J.H. 2481. Yoo K. 1607. Yoon S.-C. 2567, 2571. Yordanov D. 2649. Yoshida S. 1754. Yoshida Y. 2444. Yoshikado H. 2648. Yoshikane T. 2330. Yoshikawa S. 2146. Yoshizaki M. 2333. You W. 1725. Young I.R. 2350. Yu B. 1962. Yu J.Z. 2565. Yu L.E. 2559. Yu M.J. 2114. Yu P. 1914, 1924. Yu W. 1745. Yu X. 1875, 1876. Yu Y. 1850. Yu Z. 2063. Yuan D. 1516. Yue S. 1937. Zabaloy M.C. 1798. Zachara J.M. 1673. Zaiki M. 1438. Zander A. 1500. Zanin G. 2084. Zapata F. 1728. Zaragosi S. 1489. Zaramella M. 2010. Zarco-Tejada P.J. 2781. Zavala J.L. 2040. Zavala Zavala M. 1724. Zavaleta-Mancera H.A. 1757. Zeevaert Th. 2677. Zeilinger G. 1425. Zeleke G. 1859. Zeng D. 1725. Zeng Z. 2141. Zenobi R. 2587. Zerva A. 1408. Zˆezere J.L. 1449. Zhadin E.A. 2420. AUTHOR INDEX Zhai X. 2432. Zhang G.P. 2164. Zhang J. 1815, 2718. Zhang L. 1745, 2244, 2245, 2548. Zhang M. 1876, 2409. Zhang P. 2771. Zhang Q. 2780. Zhang R. 2171, 2556. Zhang S. 1835, 2002. Zhang W. 1920. Zhang X. 1875. Zhang X.C. 1722. Zhang Y. 2279, 2443. Zhang Z. 1874. Zhang Z.-H. 2675. Zhao J. 1481, 2432. Zhao S. 1745. Zherebtsov G.A. 2315. Zhiltsova E.L. 2496. Zhong A. 2380. Zhong H. 2272. Zhong L. 2220. Zhong Y. 1882. Zhongren N. 2329. Zhou G. 1788. Zhou H. 1710. Zhou J. 2585. Zhou L. 2797. Zhou Q. 1850. Zhou S. 1481, 2556. Zhou W. 1744. Zhou X. 2797. Zhou Y. 2252. Zhou Z. 1685. Zhu D. 1940. 8 Zhu J. 2187, 2581. Zhu Y.M. 2252. Zhuang G. 2600. Zielonka U. 1818. Zilitinkevich S.S. 2365. Zimmermann A.E. 2007. Zimmermann F. 2599. Zimmermann N.E. 2501. Zmora-Nahum S. 1770. Zotos A. 1700. Zou X. 1808, 1809, 1810. Zouari K. 2238, 2280. Zubcov E. 1672. Zubcov N. 1672. Zurita-Gotor P. 2410. Zurn-Birkhimer S.M. 2348. Zvyagintsev A.M. 2554. Zykina V. 1500.