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Key Elements Elements of o f the th e Research Research Proposal Propo sal
These are the key elements of a research proposal. Click on each to learn more about each element. Title Page | Introduction | Procedure or Methodology | References | A Append ppendices ices
The The title page provides provides the first im pression for your audience audience of your proposal. Your title mus t be complet e and it should provide provide the focus of your investigation. investigation. Be sure that t he title gives a glimpse of the nature of the proposed investigation and includes the key ideas. 1.
Your title should serv serve as a mini-abstract mini-abstract of your investigation investigation and and should put put the most important words words first. For example: Title No. No. 1 "Left-handness "Left-handness in students st udents and its relationship to learning preferences" preferences" implies that t he focus will be on "left-handness." Title No. No. 2 "Learning prefe preferences rences in students and the connection to left-handness" left-handness" implies that the focus will be on "learning preferences." preferences."
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Word choice and syntax are so precise in a research proposal title that some researchers create the titles for their projects last in the proposal writing writing process. They They do this so that they can be as precise as possible in their wording and sentence structure in order to best represent their investigation. The following list contains example of research proposal titles in a variety of fields of investigation. investigation. Review Review each to see the phrasing and terms that are commonly used on title pages. A linguist linguis tic analysis of slang slang used in Eminem album Eminem album song lyrics A study s tudy of the role of cultural mat erials in c ontemporary graphic design Changing factors for team support in English football: How geographic determinants play a role in determining match attendance ‘You Looks Like Youse Yo’ Own Daughter’: Figuring (in)fertility and maternity in Their Eyes Were Watching God The effects of estrogen, alcohol, and age on the astrocytes in female rats following an inflammatory stimulus
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When a title page page is created created,, it often often is arra arranged nged in this format: format: Example of title page.pdf
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This website website provides provides formatting tips to assist you in the general layout and design of a research proposal title page. It also contains general guidelines and further further descriptions for the parts parts of a research proposal. proposal.
REFLEC REFLECTION: TION: In your Reflection Journal, Journal, ex plain plai n why the title is so so important to a resea resea rch propos proposal. al. You may include information from above or from your own ide as and e xperience xpe riences s. Your respons response e should be 2-3 paragraphs in length.
Your introduction is very very important, actually t he most important part of your proposal. proposal. If your introduction gets your '
, . meaningfulness meaningfulness of the st udy with presentation of problem or issue. It also serves serves as an argument advocating advocating the need of study for your chosen object and gives a clear insight into your intentions. Thus the introduction presents a background and statement of context for your investigation.
Clear Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Definitions
The The rest of your proposal supports this section. secti on. It doesn’t need to be overly overly long, a few paragraphs paragraphs should be enough, but but it is the most critic al as it establishes the nature, context, and scope of your project. project. Key parts of the Introduction often become a part of a research abstract that may be used when you present your completed investigation investigation and conclusions t o an audience. audience. Although these aspects of an introduction are described separately, some parts may, in reality, be combined together when the actual proposal is written. A.
All introductions int roductions inc lude these it ems in s ome form in the introduction.
Significance of the Investigation
Clear Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Definitions Significance of t he Investigation Investigation Literature Review Questions or Hypothesis
Literature Review Questions or Hypothesis
B.. The way that Introductions Introductions are crafted is as individualized individualized as the proposal that follows. follows. You will see actual introductions later when you begin to review Research Proposals for specific disciplines, but here are some "How To" To" procedures from from research courses that explain t he constructi on of the Introduction Introduction paragraph. As you read the samples below, compare and contrast the requirements of each instructor in order to determine the common features of Introductions. 1.
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Begin with something interesting, e.g., a quote or story, to capture the reader's interest. Introduce your question or curiosity. What is it that you want to know or understand? How did you get interested in the topic? If your question has evolved since you have begun, describe the process. Tell why there's a need for the study. Cite relevant literature that calls for the need for the research in this area, or demonstrates the lack of attention to the topic. In your own words, describe how you think this study will be useful. Describe the intended audience for your research (e.g., the public, family therapists). Describe your research product. What form will the report take (e.g., scholarly manuscript, magazine article for the public, script for a documentary video)? Conclude the introduction with an overview of your proposal. Introduction (2 pages)
\What is the topic of your research? What area of sociology is concerned with questions related to your research interest? Formulate your research question(s) or the problem you want to address as clearly as possible. What is research goal, for example descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, evaluation? Explain how you came to this question/problem based on your previous interests (research you might have have been involv involved ed in, other courses you have have taken, your work experience, discussions, etc.). Explain the assumptions you are making in researching your question. Explain the concepts you are using; what indicators/variables will you need to measure these? What is your hypothesis and your independent/ dependent variables? Or what are you trying to explain? Share tentative thesis (argument) (your best answer to the research question based on your work to date) What is the significance of this research question? Explain why this research is worth pursuing. Why is answering this research question important?
. This section sets the context for your proposed project and must capture the reader's interest. Explain the background of your study starting from a broad picture narrowing in on your research question. Review what is known about your research topic as far as it is relevant to your thesis Cite relevant references. The introduction should be at a level that makes it easy to understand for readers with a general science background, for example your classmates.
REFLECTION: Based on the three ex amples, wha t are the characteristics that most introductions see m to have in common? Wha t are key differences that you noticed among the three? Why do you think that these differences exi st? Answe r these questions as an e ntry in your Reflection Journal,
Back to Introduction Clear Statement of the Problem
The most important aspect of a research proposal is the clarity of the research problem. For a short statement, it certainly has a lot of power. The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It should state what you will be studying, whether you will do it through experimental or non-experimental investigation, and what the purpose of your findings will be. As a part of the Introduction, effective problem statements answer the question “Why does this research need to be conducted?” It is just one sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration). In it, you are looking for something wrong, something that needs close attention, or something where existing methods no longer seem to be working. Example of a problem statement: "The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity in middle management workers." In your wording, be succinct and on target. Give a short summary of the research problem that you have identified. A research proposal may not be considered acceptable or credible if you fail to clearly identify the problem. Your biggest difficulty might be narrowing the topic since the topic is s till relatively unfamiliar to you. Your Literature Review should be a helpful source. While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always accompanied in the larger Introduction by several paragraphs that help to elaborate and that may include other elements of the research proposal. You might present persuasive arguments as to why the problem is important enough to study or include the opinions of others (politicians, futurists, other professionals). Explain how the problem relates to business, social or political trends by presenting a bit of evidence from your Literature Review that demonstrates t he scope and depth of the problem. Try to give dramatic and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing the Introduction, however, make sure you can still easily identify the single sentence that is the problem statement. Use this tutorial to help you to understand the components of a problem statement. REFLECTION: Can you clearly ide ntify the stateme nt of problem in a study? In your Refle ction Journal briefly describe two studies that you read about when comple ting your review of the literature. Identify the stateme nt of problem in e ach. Evaluate the statement for ea ch based on the characteristics expla ined above in a paragraph or two in your journal. Return to Introduction
Purpose of the Study
This describes the goals and objectives that are the targets and desired outcomes of work done by you to find answers to the problem or issue under investigation.
The purpose often starts with a single goal statement that explains what the study intends to accomplish. A few typical st atements are: The goal of this study is to... ... overcome the difficulty with ... ... discover what ... ... understand the causes or effects of ... ... refine our current understanding of ... ... provide a new interpretation of ... ... understand what makes ___ successful or unsuccessful It is then followed by a paragraph which describes the objectives that support the goal of the research investigation. The words goal and objective are often confused with each other. They both describe things that a person may want to achieve or attain; however, each is different in its scope. Goals are more global in nature, affecting larger populations over longer time frames. They are the big vision and are more general in wording. Objectives are more specific and defined in nature. They are time-related to achieve a certain task, and are the measurable outcomes of activities undertaken to achieve goals; they are described as achieved or not ac hieved. Objectives s hould align with a study’s goals. The following chart can help you in determine whether a statement that you have written is a goal or an objective. Goal
Objective
The purpose toward which an investigation is directed.
Something that one's efforts or actions are intended to attain or accomplish; purpose; target
What is the time frame of the statement?
Long term
Short term
How would you measure the action described in the statement?
Cannot be measured
Can be measured
What is the type of outcome of the action described in the statement?
Intangible
Tangible
What kind of action is described in the statement?
Generic action
Specific action
What overall plan is the statement describing?
Broad plan
Narrow plan
What is the meaning of the statement?
Statement example
The after-school program will help children read better.
The after-school remedial education program will assist 50 children in improving their reading scores by one grade level as demonstrated on standardized reading tests administered after participating in the program for six months.
: c o you t n a re e as e r to cra t, goa s or o e ct ve s y x p a n your a nsw er in 2-3 paragraphs in your Refle ction Journal. Be sure to include specific ide as from the content above and your own ideas and experiences. Return to Introduction
Definitions
Be sure that your proposal is understandable to a general reader who does not know much about your field of investigation. This section gives the definition of important terms and concepts that are usually st ated in the objectives, hypothesis, and research questions. Define subject-specific and technical terms. If you are using words that are different in meaning in the context of your experiment from traditionally accepted meanings, define the terms. Be sure to refer to authoritative sources in your definitions. Explain any operational definitions, the definitions that you have created just for your study. An example of an operational definition is: "For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as posttest score minus pretest score". The clearest way to arrange your definitions page is to arrange terms in alphabetical order, with definitions stated in complete sentences. The following is an example of a definition section from a proposal entitled "Self-directed learning readiness and life satisfaction among older adults."
Definition of Key Terms Life Satisfaction – a self reported assessment of one’s overall psychosocial well-being. It is a combination of (a) personality factors such as mood and self-concept, (b) more socially-related factors such as the nature of one’s social interactions, (c) perceived health, and (d) financial security. Older Adult – for the proposed study, older adult is defined as any person who is at least 65 years of age. Self-Directed Learning – a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. Self-Directed Learning Readiness – the degree to which one perceives oneself to possess the attitudes and skills needed to be an effective self-directed learner. It is measured in the proposed study through the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS), developed by Guglielmino (1977).
Explore the following excellent sources for defining terms: ThinkMap Visual Thesaurus Your Dictionary REFLECTION: Write one paragraph for each of the sources linked a bove in your Reflection Journal, describing what is there and how you might be able to use it. Significance of the Investigation
An explanation of the significance of a study may include the meaning of the research work to y ou personally and should include how your research benefits or impacts others in part or whole. Discuss what people or groups of people might benefit from reading your research. Show how this project is significant to developing a body of knowledge. If your investigation will c ontribute to a portion of a larger investigation, describe that larger investigation as well. Continue with more indepth exploration of this section.
REFLECTION: Can you clea rly identify the significance of the investigation for studies you have re ad in your review of the literature? Select three studies from your litera ture review re adings. Briefly describe ea ch, and ex plai n the significance of ea ch of those investigations. Write one pa ragraph for each study in your Reflection Journal. Return to Introduction
Literature Review
Your literature review is already c ompleted (Step 3) and can be included here. The literature review develops broad ideas of what is already known in a field, and what questions are still unanswered. This process will assist you in furthering narrowing the problem for investigation, and will highlight any theories that may exist to support developing hypotheses. You must show that you have looked through the literature and have found the latest updates in your field of study in order for a proposal to be convincing to an audience. This process also helps you to be sure that your investigation is not just “reinventing the wheel.” A discussion of the present understanding and/or state of knowledge concerning the problem or issue sets the context for your investigation. Return to Introduction
Questions or Hypothesis
Questions and hypotheses are testable explanations that are proposed before the methodology of a project is conducted, but after the researcher has had an opportunity to develop background knowledge (much like the literature review that you just finished). Although research questions and hypotheses are different in their sentence structure and purpose, both seek to predict relationships. Deciding whether to use questions or hypothesis depends on facts such as the purpose of the study, the approach and design of the methodology, and the expected audience for the research proposal. A research question proposes a relationship between two or more variables. Just as the title stat es, it is structured in form of a question. There are three types of research questions:
A descriptive research question seeks to identify and describe some phenomenon. An example: What is the ethnic break down of patients s een in the emergency room for non- emergency conditions.
A differences research question asks if there are differences between groups on some phenomenon. For example: Do patients who receive massage experience more relief from sore muscle pain than patients who take a hot bath?
A relationship question asks if two or more phenomena are related in some systematic manner. For example: If one increases his level of physical exercise does muscl e mass also increase?
A hypothesis represents a declarative statement, a sentence instead of a question, of the cause-effect relationship between two or more variables. Make a clear and careful distinc tion between the dependent and independent variables and be certain they are clear to the reader. Be very consistent in your use of terms. If appropriate, use the same pattern of wording and word order in all hypotheses. While hypotheses come from the scientific method, to see how political scientists use hypotheses, imagine how you might use a hypothesis to develop a thesis for this paper: Suppose that we asked "How are presidential elections affected by economic conditions?" We could formulate this question into the following hypothesis: "When the national unemployment rate is greater than 7 percent at the time of the election, presidential incumbents are not reelected." Hypotheses can be created as four kinds of statements.
1. Literary null —a “no difference” form in terms of theoretical constructs. For example, “There is no relationship between support services and academic persistence of nontraditionalaged college women.” Or, “There is no difference in school achievement for high and low self-regulated students.” 2. Operational null —a “no difference” form in terms of the operation required to test the hypothesis. For example, “There is no relationship between the number of hours nontraditional-aged college women us e the student union and their persistence at the college after their freshman year.” Or, “There is no difference between the mean grade point averages achieved by students in the upper and lower quartiles of the distribution of the S elf-regulated Inventory.” The operational null is the most used form for hypothesis-writing. 3. Literary alternative —a form that states the hypothesis you will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected, stated in terms of theoretical constructs. In other words, this is usually what you hope the results will show. For example, “The more that nontraditional-aged women use support services, the more they will persist academically.” Or, “High self-regulated students will achieve more in their classes than low self-regulated students.” 4. Operational alternative —Similar to the literary alternative except that the operations are specified. For example, “The more that nontraditional-aged college women use the student union, the more they will persist at the college after their freshman year.” Or, “Students in the upper quartile of the Self-regulated Inventory distribution achieve significantly higher grade point averages than do students in the lower quartile.” Regardless of which is selected, questions or hypotheses, this element of the research proposal needs to be as specific as possible in whatever field of study y ou are investigating. It should be realistic and feasible, and be formulated with time and resource constraints in mind. REFLECTION: Ide ntify some of the Que stions or Hypothesis wi thin studies you have re ad in your Literature Revie w. How do you think that the resea rchers we re able to determine these were sound propositions to make? Are there things that you disagreed with in the questions or hypothesis, or that you would do differently? What did you learn from review ing your litera ture review that might be helpful when you write your own paper? Record your response in your Reflective Journal. Return to Introduction
Do you know that the key element of your research proposal will be its methodology section?
Des ign Approach Type of Design Us ed Role of the Researcher Data Collection and Analysis Ethics Reliability and Validity of Methods and Res ults Timetable Res ources and Materials
Imagine this: You are competing with several other organizations for grant money to conduct an investigation into a new treatment for cancer. You will need to convince the grant foundation that their money will be well spent, and that you will manage this investigation well. How can they believe that you will produce results if you do not tell them about the methods you intend to use in order to assess and study your research and data? Will you conduct experiments, or will you study exis ting groups of individuals? Will you collec t numerical data or anecdotes? How will you know that you have tested the correct populations of people or that your reasoning was sound? Based on your research proposal's methodology , the grant foundation will either approve or disapprove your investigation, and will determine the amount of your grant. It is time to examine and study research proposal methodology. A research proposal's methodology outlines the strategy for conducting an investigation in order to answer a research question. As a part of an overall research project proposal, the researcher will need to plan out and share the procedures that will be used in the investigation. In this section you will review different approaches, designs, procedures, and methods for investigating your area of research. Specific tools will be desc ribed and evaluated so that you can determine which ones will help you to meet your research goals. Design Approach
Budget Limitations Delimitations Final Product
The overall design of a research project consist s of its methods and procedures. Research design can be described as Qualitative or Quantitative in approach. It is also poss ible to have a mixture of the two approaches, both in overall design and in the specific methods used in the investigation. All researchers, including you, need to understand the full nature of both quantitative and qualitative approaches to research and evaluation methodologies in order to appropriately select the overall design that best fits your investigation. While described as distinct terms, qualitative and quantitative approaches to research methods and design are complementary and can overlap often. Qualitative?
Quantitative?
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Type of Design Used What are the main types of qualitative approaches to research?
While there are many different investigations that can be done, a study with a qualitative approach generally can be described with the characteristics of one of the following three types: Historical research describes past events, problems, issues and facts. Data are gathered from written or oral descriptions of past events, artifacts, etc . It describes “what was” in an attempt to recreate the past. It is different from a report in that it involves interpretation of events and its influence on the present. It answers the question: “What was the situation?” Examples of Historical Resea rch
A study of the factors leading to the historical development and growth of cooperative learning A study of the effects of the hist orical decisions of the United States Supreme Court on American prisons A study of the evolution of print journalism in the United States through a st udy of collections of newspapers A study of the historical trends in public laws by looking recorded at a local courthouse Ethnographic research develops in-depth analytical descriptions of current systems, processes, and phenomena and/or understandings of the shared beliefs and practices of a particular group or culture. This type of design collects extensive narrative data (non-numerical data) based on many variables over an extended period of time in a natural setting within a specific context. The background, development, current conditions, and environmental interaction of one or more individuals, groups, communities, businesses or institutions is observed, recorded, and analyzed for patterns in relation to internal and external influences. It is a complete descript ion of present phenomena.
One specific form of ethnographic research is called a case study. It is a detailed examination of a single group, individual, situation, or site. A meta-analysis is another specific form. It is a statis tical method which accumulates experimental and correlational results across independent studies. It is an analysis of analyses. Examples of Ethnographic Research:
A case st udy of parental involvement at a specific magnet school A multi-case s tudy of children of drug addicts who exc el despite early childhoods in poor environments The study of the nature of problems teachers encounter when they begin to use a constructivist approach to instruction after having taught us ing a very traditional approach for ten years A psy chological case st udy with ext ensive notes based on observations of and interviews with immigrant workers A study of primate behavior in the wild measuring the amount of time an animal engaged in a specific
Narrative research focuses on studying a single person and gathering data through the collection of stories that are used to construct a narrative about the individual’s experience and the meanings he/she attributes to them. Examples of Narrative Research:
A study of the experiences of an autistic student who has moved from a self-contained program to an inclusion setting A study of the experiences of a high school t rack star who has been moved on to a championship-winning university track team REFLECTION: In your Reflective Journal freew rite for one minute, l isting as many terms and concepts associated w ith qualita tive methodology that you can reca ll. Use those terms to jog your memory as you write a one paragraph summary of what you understand the qualitative approach to research design to be. Do NOT look back at the information on this we bsite, a nd do NOT try to write a dictionary definition. Just your own words and ideas. Return to Procedure or Methodology
Role of the Researcher
Determine what your role will be in the collection of the research material. In this section describe your major tasks in your research procedure. Explain whether you will be an unobtrusive observer, a participant observer, or a collaborator. Evaluate how your own bias may affect the methodology, outcomes, and analysis of findings. Many times this element of the research Proposal will be affected by Ethics. In addition, this section is often interwoven in a narrative design explanation with other elements of the proposal. Review the excerpt below from a research proposal. See if you can identify how the researcher has defined his or her role in the investigation from the narrative explanation that is provided. Research Design and Procedures
Following these lines of thinking, a qualitative study of the social world of full-time adult undergraduates is proposed, using semi-structured interviews as the primary research approach. It is proposed to begin the interviewing process in the fall of 1996. They will begin with unstructured questions such as the following: "What has it been like to be a full-time student at Central College?" Often, with only an occasional question from me for clarification, it is anticipated that the adults will talk about a wide variety of topics throughout an extended interview. It is anticipated that up to 30 interviews and any necessary follow-up interviews will be conducted during that academic year. In addition, follow-up clarifying interviews will be conducted with at least a dozen of these students during the second academic year after I have completed some data analysis and obtained a beginning understanding of the findings. All interviews will be tape-recorded and, based on four pilot interviews already conducted, are expected t o vary in length from 45 minutes to one hour and 45 minutes. The interviews will be informal and open-ended, and carried out in a conversational style. I will write field notes in conjunction with the interviews, follow-up interviews, observations, and cas ual encounters with subjects. Memoranda also will be written while listening to taped interviews, typing transcripts, and reflecting upon a particular interview. In addition to the interviews and follow-up interviews, I expect t o obtain other data throughout the study, such as comments from administrative and teaching colleagues, papers or other materials subjects care to give to me, and ongoing lit erature review. REFLECTION: In your Reflection Journal a nswe r the following in a 2-3 paragraph response. How does the researcher characterize his or her role in the research process, both directly and indirectly, in the proposal?
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures: Sampling and Instrumentation
Design and describe a specific methodology consistent with your academic discipline, your purpose, your mode of investigation, and your type. This section of your proposal should explain the details of the proposed plan. You should discuss how you will go about exploring your problem or issue and what specific tools and methods that you would use. If you are not the only person working on the project, y ou need to explain who else is involved. There are many devices that you can use to collect your data. Click to see a larger version of the chart.
Each section links to a separate page which would includes: Pros/Cons, Guide, Resources, Examples and Tools. Interviews Observation
Focus Groups
Case Studies
Questionnaires/ Surveys
Document Reviews
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Guide
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Resources
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Return to Procedure or Methodology
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Ethics must be considered in all phases of a research project, from brainstorming ideas, to fundraising grants, to designing studies, to conducting interviews, and right through to final publication of final results. The National Institute of Environmental Heath Science and the National Institutes of Health have a thorough consideration of all aspects of research ethics for all types of research designs in the article, “What is Ethics in Research & Why is It Important?” by David B. Resnik, J.D., Ph.D. As you read the article, generate a list of all of the various ways in which ethics impacts the research process. Read "What is Ethics in Research & Why is It Important?" REFLECTION: Which one of all of the concerns rela ted to research e thics is the most important to reme mber? Why? Defend your choice in an informal essay of at lea st five paragraphs in your Reflection Journal. Although you are only de fending one concern, you should also refer others in your essay as well.
Now use tutorials, case studies, and other resources to allow you to clarify your understanding of ethical concerns in research. REFLECTION: Go through one of the tutorials linked above. Which one did you sele ct? Why? Wha t did you lea rn that might prepare you to consider e thics for your own resea rch investigation? Describe your thoughts in 2-3 paragraphs in your Refle ction Journal. Return to Procedure or Methodology
Reliability and Validity of Methods and Results
You need to convince your reader that your methods and results are both reliable and valid. The moreresults prove consistent over time and reflect accurate representations of the total populations under study, the more scientifically reliable they are. If the results of a study can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research methods are considered to be reliable. Validity determines whether the research truly measures what it was intended to measure, or how truthful the research results are. In other words, does the research instrument allow you to hit "the bull’s eye" of your research objectives? Researchers generally determine validity by asking a series of questions, and will often look for the answers in the research of others. Each ty pe of research design has its own standards for reliability and validity. Quantitative Qualitative
Researchers argue that maintaining the trustworthiness of qualitative research depends on the same issues of quantitative studies known as validity and reliability. While it is difficult in qualitative research to prove validity and reliability through reproducing the same results over and over, like a researcher can do in quantitative research, some qualitative researchers believe that the c oncept of dependability and consistency in results can develop a sense of validity for qualitative research.
Consistency of data is achieved when the steps of the research are verified through examination of such items as raw data, data reduction products, and
Quantitative methodology frames its concerns about validity and reliability using the terms internal and external . 1. Internal validity concerns the soundness of an investigation. In particular, studies of cause and effect need to be internally valid. Causal studies include clinical trials, experiments or quasi-experiments. To demonstrate causality, three conditions should be met: a. The cause must precede the effect b. The size of the effect varies with the size of the causal factor c. Other causes for the effect can be ruled out.
process notes. Because it is more difficult to define reliability and validity in qualitative terms, many researchers have developed their own concepts of validity and have often generated or adopted what they consider to be more appropriate terms, such as, quality, rigor and trustworthiness. The idea of discovering truth through measures of reliability and validity is replaced by the idea of trustworthiness, which is “defensible”and establishing confidence in the findings.
Example:
Triangulation is one test for improving the validity and reliability of research or evaluation of findings. As the name implies, triangulation is a strategy that controls bias and helps to establish valid conclusions because it uses at least three (thus, the "tri-" prefix) different types of methods or tools to collect data from which conclusions are made. Many researchers argue that triangulation strengthens a study by combining methods. This can mean using several kinds of methods or data, including using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. By using at
c. Finally, other alternative explanations must be ruled out, such as distention or other non-bacterial diseases.
least three different methods, the researcher is about to obtain multiple, diverse perceptions of a single concept.
2. External validity refers to the extent to which the results of an investigation can be generalized to other samples or situations. There are two types of external validity:
Many research tools and models have their own tests for reliability and validity built in to their basic procedures and methodologies. As you explore and apply these methods to your own research investigation, always question if you are implementing them in a way that makes the process and the results reliable and fair.
More resources on this topic: Qualitative Validity Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research Enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis. Research Methods Tutorials
REFLECTION: In your Refle ction Journal, sketch a visual representation of what triangulation mea ns in a gene ral sense. You may use a drawi ng program or import a clip art. By creating or selecting a visual definition of a term, you will have provided yourself another way to remember the meanin of the term.
a. Food poisoning may be the cause of stomach pain if eating the food preceded the pain. If the pain was present before eating the suspected food then the food could not be the viewed as a possible cause. b. The second condition for establishing causality would be fulfilled if the degree of pain experienced varies with the amount of the food consumed, i.e. the greater the amount of food consumed, the worse the pain experienced.
Thus a causal study is internally valid or has good internal validity if the effects observed can be correctly attributed to the treatments administered or to the independent variable. This implies that variables have been controlled, and any possible error or bias due to those variables have been removed or reduced.
a. Population validity b. Ecological validity a. Population validity concerns generalizing from the sample, a part of an identified group from which you want to make a conclusion, to the population, the group about whom you want to make the conclusion. Limits to population validity may arise when the population one wishes to generalize to is not the same population from which the sample was taken. Example :
A study on controlling hypertension draws a random sample of 50 male patients from a population attending the general practice X. Its findings can be really only be generalized to the population of male patients attending that surgery and NOT to ALL male patients with hypertension attending different surgeries or in different parts of a country. b. Ecological validity refers to generalizing findings to other situations, settings or conditions. Examples:
Drug A may relieve acute pain due to injury but not the t e of ain induced b laborator means.
